Chapter 19 Terms

Algeria

Using Napoleon's 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, 34,000 French soldiers landed twenty-seven kilometers west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch, on June 12, 1830. - To face the French, a Muslim-based resistance movement of 7,000 janissaries, 19,000 troops from the beys of Constantine and Oran, and about 17,000 Kabyles were sent. - The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. - Algiers was captured after a three-week campaign, and Hussein Dey fled into exile.

Treaty of Nanjing

(1842): China agreed to pay a $21 million indemnity, China ceded Hong Kong, five ports were opened to trade, tariffs fixed at a low rate , and foreigners received the right to live in China under their own laws.

Sino-Japanese War

(1894-1895) Japan's imperialistic war against China to gain control of natural resources and markets for their goods. It ended with the Treaty of Portsmouth which granted Japan Chinese port city trading rights, control of Manchuria, the annexation of the island of Sakhalin, and Korea became its protectorate.

China (as of 1911)

- Had felt that they did not need to learn from the West. - Avoided direct colonial rule, but were diminished. - Followed by a vast revolution. - Attempted "defensive modernization." - Suffered a split in society between modernists and those holding traditional values. - Creation of a Communist regime by 1949, within the same territory.

Ottoman Empire/ "the sick man of Europe"

1750: the Ottoman Empire was still strong, at center of the Islamic world; by 1900, was known as "the sick man of Europe." - Region by region, Islamic world fell under Christian rule, and the Ottomans couldn't prevent it. Lost territory to Russia, Britain, Austria, and France. - Napoleon's 1798 invasion of Egypt was especially devastating. - Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania attained independence. - Central Ottoman state had weakened. Provincial authorities and local warlords gained more power and limited the government's ability to raise money. - The Janissaries had become militarily ineffective. - Europeans achieved direct access to Asia. Economy was hit hard by Western developments. - Cheap European manufactured goods harmed Ottoman artisans. - Foreign merchants won immunity from Ottoman laws and taxes. - Foreign consuls granted the same privileges to hundreds of thousands of Ottoman citizens (especially Jews, Greeks, and Armenians). - Government came to rely on foreign loans to finance economic development efforts. - By 1882, much of the Ottoman revenue system was controlled by foreigners. - British occupied Egypt. - Had reached a state of dependency on Europe. - Ottomans attempted ambitious reforms, going considerably further than the Chinese. - Didn't have an internal crisis on the scale of China. Did not have to deal with explosive population growth. - Rulers were Turkic and Muslim, not like foreign Qing. - Late eighteenth century: Selim III tried to establish new military and administrative structures. - Sent ambassadors to study European methods. Imported European advisers, and established technical schools. - After 1839: more far-reaching measures (Tanzimat, or "reorganization") emerged. - Beginning of an extensive process of industrialization and modernization. - Acceptance of the principle that all citizens are equal before the law. - Challenged the Islamic character of the state. More Christians attained high office. - Tide of secular legislation and secular schools. - Identity: Selim III's modest reforms stirred up so much hostility among the ulama and Janissaries that he was deposed in 1807. - Movements of Islamic renewal outside of the Ottoman Empire presented another model for dealing with Europe. - Sumatra: Islamic renewal became a war of resistance against the Dutch (early nineteenth century). - Muslim leaders in Chechnya and Dagestan organized jihads against Russian intrusion. - Muslim-based resistance movement against the French invasion of Algeria (1830). - Such movements had little impact within the Ottoman Empire. Supporters of reform saw the Ottoman Empire as a secular state. - Reform created a new class of writers, etc.—the "Young Ottomans." Urged creation of a constitutional regime. - Islamic modernism: accepted Western technology and science but not its materialism. - Sultan Abd al-Hamid II (r. 1876-1909) accepted a new constitution in 1876 that limited the sultan's authority. Almost immediately suspended it. - Turned to decisive autocracy in the face of a Russian invasion. - Continued many educational, economic, and technical reforms. - Reactivated claim that the Ottoman sultans were also caliphs and spoke for the whole Islamic world. - Restored the prestige of the ulama. - Reintroduced distinction between Muslim and non-Muslim subjects. - Opposition coalesced around the "Young Turks" (military and civilian elites). Advocated a militantly secular public life. Shift to thinking in terms of a Turkish national state. - After 1900, growing efforts to define a Turkish national character. - Military coup (1908) gave the Young Turks real power. Antagonized non-Turkic peoples in the Ottoman Empire. Stimulated Arab and other nationalisms. - Ottoman Empire completely disintegrated after World War I. - A new, much smaller nation-state was created in the Turkish heartland.

Self-strengthening Movement

1800-1914 : Chinas program of internal reform in the 1860s and 1870s, based on vigorous application of Confucian principles and limited borrowing from the west

Tanzimat reforms

1800-1914 :Important reform measures undertaken in the Ottoman Empire beginning in 1839; the term "Tanzimat" means "reorganization" -beginning of an extensive process of industrialization and modernization -acceptance of the principle that all citizens are equal before the law - challenged the Islamic character of the state -more Christians attained high office -tide of secular legislation and secular schools -resulted in creation of new constitution in 1876

Young Turks

A Turkish revolutionary nationalist reform party, officially known as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), whose leaders led a rebellion against the Ottoman sultan and effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1908 until shortly before World War I. Called for universal suffrage, equality before law, freedom of religion, free public education, sep of church and state, emancipation of women. Established Mehmed V Rashid as puppet sultan

Suez Canal

A ship canal in northeastern Egypt linking the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea

Westernization/ Modernization

Adoption of western European ideas, technology, and culture.

Capitulations

Agreements with European powers that gave European bankers and merchants unfair advantages in the Empire

Egypt

An economic and political crisis between 1875-1882 led to the sudden British conquest of Egypt. - After binging on debt driven modernization projects, Egypt went bankrupt in 1875. - By 1882, much of the Ottoman revenue system was controlled by foreigners. The British invaded and conquered Egypt to put down a revolt of Egyptian army officers. - As the terms of the bankruptcy settlement, European bankers then took control of Egypt financially. Two thirds of the yearly revenue—mostly taxes collected from peasant farmers—would now go to paying European banks for past Egyptian debts. - During British occupation and later control, Egypt developed into a regional commercial and trading destination.

Social Darwinism

Applied Darwin's theory of natural selection and "survival of the fittest" to human society -- the poor are poor because they are not as fit to survive. Used as an argument against social reforms to help the poor.

"Sphere of influence"

Areas in which countries have some political and economic control but do not govern directly

Charles Darwin

Bioligist who developed theory of evolution of species (1859); argued that all living species evolved into their present form through the abiltiy to adapt in a struggle for survival

Battle of Omdurman

British victory over the Mahdi in the Sudan in 1898. General Kitchener led a mixed force of British and Egyptian troops armed with rapid-firing rifles and machine guns.

Taiping Rebellion

Broke out in south China in the 1850s and early 1860s; led by Hong Xiuquan, a semi-Christianized prophet; sought to overthrow Qing dynasty and Confucian basis of scholar-gentry

1750-1900 Qing (Manchu) China

China was, to a large degree, the victim of its own success. - Population had grown from about 100 million in 1685 to some 430 million in 1853. - But China didn't have an accompanying Industrial Revolution. -Growing pressure on the land, impoverishment, and starvation. - Chinese bureaucracy did not keep pace with growing population. - By 1800, county magistrates had to deal with four times as many people as in 1400. - Central state gradually lost control of provincial officials and gentry. - Corruption became endemic. Harsh treatment of peasants. - Bandit gangs and peasant rebellions became common. - Charismatic figures preached a millenarian message. - Culmination of China's internal crisis leads to the Taiping Uprising. - Affected much of China 1850-1864. - Leader Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864) proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus, sent to establish a "heavenly kingdom of great peace." - Called for radical equality. Even planned to industrialize China. -Taiping forces established their capital at Nanjing (1853). - Rebellion was crushed by 1864. Was not suppressed by imperial military forces but by provincial landowners who mobilized their own armies. - Resolution of the Taiping rebellion consolidated the power of the provincial gentry even more. - Intense conservatism, so China's problems weren't resolved. - The massive civil war had seriously weakened the Chinese economy. - 20 million-30 million people died in the rebellion. - Opium Wars show the transformation of China's relationship with Europe. - Opium had been used on a small scale in China for centuries. - British began to sell large quantities of Indian opium in China. - Chinese authorities recognized the dangers of opium addiction, tried to stop the trade. - European merchants bribed officials to smuggle opium in. - China suffered a specie drain from large quantities of silver spent on opium. - 1836: the emperor decided to suppress the trade. - Commissioner Lin Zexu campaigned against opium use. Seized and destroyed over three million pounds of opium from Western traders, expelled them from China. - The British responded with the first Opium War (1839-1842). Forced Chinese to accept free trade and "proper" relations among countries. - Treaty of Nanjing (1842): China agreed to pay a $21 million indemnity. Ceded Hong Kong . Five ports were opened to trade and tariffs were fixed at a low rate. Foreigners received the right to live in China under their own laws. - Second Opium War (1856-1858): Europeans vandalized the imperial Summer Palace. More treaty ports were opened to foreigners. China was opened to foreign missionaries. Western powers were given the right to patrol some of China's interior waterways. - China was also defeated by the French (1885) and Japanese (1895). - Qing dynasty was deeply weakened at a time when China needed a strong government to deal with modernization. - "Unequal treaties" inhibited China's industrialization. - The Failure of Conservative Modernization: Chinese government tried to act against problems. - Had policy of "self-strengthening" in 1860s and 1870s. - Application of traditional Confucian principles, along with very limited borrowing from the West. - Efforts to improve examination system. - Restoration of rural social and economic order - Establishment of some modern arsenals and shipyards, some study of other languages and sciences. - Foundation of a few industrial factories - Conservative leaders feared that development would harm the landlord class. - Boxer Rebellion (1900): militia organizations killed many Europeans and Chinese Christians, besieged foreign embassies in Beijing. - Western powers and Japan occupied Beijing to crush the revolt. Imposed massive reparation payments on China. - Growing number of educated Chinese became disillusioned with the Qing dynasty. - Organizations examined the situation and propose reforms. - Growing drive for a truly unified nation in which more people took part in public life. - Chinese nationalism was against both foreign imperialists and the foreign Qing dynasty. - The government agreed to some reforms in the early twentieth century, but not enough—the imperial order collapsed in 1911.

Lin Zexu

Commissioner that campaigned against opium use ordered blockade of European trading areas in Canton and confiscation of opium; sent into exile following the Opium War

Janisarries

Conscripted youths from conquered regions who were trained as Ottoman infantry divisions; became an important political influence after the 15th century. -the Janissaries had become militarily ineffective

British

Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. - Opium Wars arose from China's attempts to suppress the opium trade. The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there. - In March 1839 the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium—some 1,400 tons of the drug—that were warehoused at Canton (Guangzhou) by British merchants. - Antagonism between the two sides increased. Subsequent British campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against the inferior Qing forces. - Peace negotiations proceeded quickly, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. - By its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British, and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to five. - Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to foreigners there marked the beginning of the city's transformation into one of China's major commercial entrepôts.

Opium Wars

Fought between the British and Qing China beginning in 1839; fought to protect British trade in opium; resulted in resounding British victory, opening of Hong Kong as British port of trade

Preindustrial

Found in societies without sophisticated machine technology, where human and animal labor form the basis for economic production -First stage of demographic transition

Mahdi(Muhammad Ahmad)

Head of Sudanic Sufi brotherhood; claimed descent from prophet Muhammad; proclaimed both Egyptians and British infidels; launched revolt to purge Islam of impurities; took Khartoum in 1883

Boxers (Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists)

In the Northern part of China there was a secret society called the Fists of Righteous Harmony. The foreigners called these people in the group "Boxers" because they were boxers in real life. -Largely made up of poor and unemployed young Chinese men. - The society was labeled 'The Boxers' by Western newspapers in reference to the military exercises they practiced. -Focused their anger on anything foreign, particularly Christian missionaries and foreign or Western technology. -The Boxers used guerrilla tactics to kill many Christian missionaries and Western diplomats, all in an effort to rid China of foreign interference. -Likewise, railroads, Christian churches, embassies, and other foreign property became targeted for destruction. -Combined spirituality and religion with militarism and martial arts, relied upon rigorous physical and military training as well as spiritual and religious practices.

French

In the mid-1850s, while the Qing government was embroiled in trying to quell the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64), the British seek to extend their trading rights in China and found an excuse to renew hostilities. - The French decided to join the British military expedition, using as their excuse the murder of a French missionary in the interior of China in early 1856. - Began military operations in late 1857. Quickly captured Canton, deposed the city's intransigent governor, and installed a more-compliant official.

Tokugawa Japan

Japan was forced to open up to more "normal" relations with the world by U.S. commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. -1853-1900: radical transformation of Japanese society - Japan became powerful, modern, united, industrialized. Created its own East Asian empire. - Tokugawa shoguns had ruled since about 1600. Main task was preventing civil war among rival feudal lords(the daimyo). - Japan enjoyed internal peace from 1600 to 1850. Daimyo were strictly regulated but retained considerable autonomy. - Japan wasn't unified by a single law, currency, or central authority that reached to the local level. - Hierarchical society: samurai at the top, then peasants, artisans, and merchants at the bottom. - Considerable change in Japan in the Tokugawa period: samurai evolved into a bureaucratic/administrative class. - Great economic growth, commercialization, and urban development. By 1750, Japan was perhaps the most urbanized country. - 10 percent of population lived in cities or towns. Edo (Tokyo) had a million residents. High literacy rates (40 percent of males, 15 percent of females). - Change made it impossible for the shogunate to freeze society. Some samurai turned to commerce, many merchants prospered, and many peasants moved to cities, despite edicts. - Corruption was widespread. Many uprisings of the poor, both rural and urban.

zaibatsu

Large family-controlled banking and industrial groups that owned many companies in Japan before World War II

Muhammad Ali

Leader of Egyptian modernization in the early nineteenth century. He ruled Egypt as an Ottoman governor, but had imperial ambitions. His descendants ruled Egypt until overthrown in 1952.

Young Ottamans

Movement of young intellectuals to institute liberal reforms and build a feeling of national identity in the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the nineteenth century. Opposed Tanzimat and wanted: local autonomy, political decentralization, and individual freedom. Constiutional government

ulama

Muslim religious scholars -Selim III's modest reforms stirred up so much hostility among the ulama and Janissaries that he was deposed in 1807

Boxer Rebellion

Popular outburst in 1898 aimed at expelling foreigners from China; failed because of intervention of armies of Western powers in China; defeat of Chinese enhanced control by Europeans and the power of provincial officials

shogun

The supreme military commander of Japan -Tokugawa shoguns had ruled since about 1600 -change made it impossible for the shogunate to freeze society -the shogun gave in to Perry's demands -the shogun's spinelessness triggered a civil war

unequal treaties

Treaties between China and the Western powers after the Opium War that vastly favored the Western powers -"unequal treaties" inhibited China's industrialization

Meiji Japan

U.S. sent Commodore Perry in 1853 to demand better treatment for castaways, right to refuel and buy provisions, and the opening of trade ports. - The shogun gave in to Perry's demands. His spinelessness triggered a civil war. - In 1868, a group of young samurai from the south took over. They claimed to be restoring the 15-year-old emperor Meiji to power. - Aimed to save Japan from the foreigners by transformation of Japanese society rather than by resistance. - The West wasn't as interested in Japan as it was in China. - Modernization Japanese Style: First task was creating national unity. Attacked power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai. Dismantled the Confucian-based social order. Almost all Japanese became legally equal. - Widespread interest in many aspects of the West, from science to hairstyles. Official missions were sent to the West, hundreds of students studied abroad, many translations of Western books into Japanese, eventually settled down to more selective borrowing from the West, and combined foreign and Japanese elements, e.g., in the 1889 constitution. - Feminism and Christianity made little progress. Shinto was raised to the level of a state cult. - State-guided industrialization program: established model factories, opened mines, built railroads, created postal, telegraph, and banking systems. - Many state enterprises were then sold to private investors. Accomplished modernization without acquiring foreign debt. - Society paid a heavy price. Many peasant families were impoverished. Countryside suffered infanticide, sale of daughters, and famine. Early urban workers received harsh treatment. - Efforts to organize unions were repressed. Nascent labor movement was crushed by end of 1901. - Authorities emphasized theme of service to the state and ideas of the enterprise as a family. - By the early twentieth century, Western powers readjusted treaties in Japan's favor. Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 recognized Japan as an equal. - Japanese empire building: wars against China (1894-1895) and Russia (1904-1905). Gained colonial control of Taiwan and Korea, and won a foothold in Manchuria. Japan's rise was widely admired and their colonial policies were at least as brutal as European ones.

Cixi

Ultraconservative dowager empress who dominated the last decades of the Qing dynasty; supported the Boxer Rebellion in 1898 as a means of driving out Westerner

Technological stagnation

The halt of technological advancements; the failure to develop new technological advancements. -Internal and external factors resulting in the collapse of empires such as Ottoman , Russian, and Qing.

Imperialism

The policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies.

Meiji Restoration

The political program that followed the destruction of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, in which a collection of young leaders set Japan on the path of centralization, industrialization, and imperialism.

Russo - Japanese War

War between Japan and Russia (1904-1905) over territory in Manchuria; Japan defeated the Russians, largely because of its naval power; Japan annexed Korea in 1910 as a result of military dominance.

Greece

Won independence from the Ottoman Empire after a long and bloody war. - Rebellion originated in the activities of the Philikí Etaireía ("Friendly Brotherhood"), a patriotic conspiracy founded in Odessa (now in Ukraine) in 1814. - By that time the desire for some form of independence was common among Greeks of all classes, whose Hellenism (sense of Greek nationality) had long been fostered by the Greek Orthodox Church, the survival of the Greek language, and by the administrative arrangements of the Ottoman Empire. - European powers favored the formation of an autonomous Greek state , thus they offered to mediate between the Turks and the Greeks. - With the aid of the Great Powers, independence was finally granted by the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. - The Greeks were the first of the Ottoman Empire's subject peoples to secure recognition as an independent sovereign power.

Mutsuhito/Meiji

Young emperor of Japan who took control of the nation's government from the shogun in 1867. He led a reform and modernization movement in Japan that resulted in it being a world power.The Meiji Era began under this Emperor

Commodore Matthew Perry

a navy commander who, on July 8, 1853, became the first foreigner to break through the barriers that had kept Japan isolated from the rest of the world for 250 years. He delivered a letter from the US president, demanding that Japan open its ports to foreign trade. A year later, he returned for their reply, bringing some Western technology.