Chapter 6

Four Key Factors in Observational Learning

1. Attention: need to watch 2. Retention: need to carefully note and remember 3. Reproduction: need to imitate the model 4. Reinforcement: need to repeat the model and we are more likely to do so if we are reinforced for the behavior

Pavlov's Dog

A neutral stimulus ( a tone ) was repeatedly sounded when the meat powder (Unconditioned stimulus) was presented to the dog which in turn produced salivation in the dog ( unconditioned response )

Prejudice and classical conditioning AFTER CONDITIONING: The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus (CS). This CS now produces a conditioned response (CR) that is usually similar to the unconditioned response (UCR).

AFTER CONDITIONING: CS: Member of a disliked group > CR: Child is upset and fearful

Six Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimintation Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Higher Order Conditioning

Similarities in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Acquisition: Classical Conditioning: New behaviors are acquired trough paired associations of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with a conditioned stimulus (CS). Operant Conditioning: New behaviors are acquired through reinforcement and shaping.

Positive Punishment Defined

Adds a stimulus and weakens behavior Example: You must run four extra laps in your gym class because you were late. Example: A parent adds extra chores following a child's misbehavior Example: Your boss complains about your performance.

Principle #1 ACQUISITION AND CONTINUING SEQUENCES

BACKWARD CONDITIONING (LEAST EFFECTIVE) UCS presented before the NS Food presented before the tone

Prejudice and classical conditioning BEFORE CONDITIONING: The neutral stimulus produces not relevant response. The unconditioned stimulus elicits the unconditional response.

BEFORE CONDITIONING : NS: > No relevant response Member of a disliked group UCS: > UCR: Parents negative Child is upset and fearful reaction

Consequences are the key to________

Behavior

Primary Reinforcers satisfy__________________.

Biological Needs

Psychology in Everyday Life: Operant Conditioning Biofeedback

Can we learn to control involuntary body responses? In biofeedback training: 1) internal bodily processes (like blood pressure or muscle tension) are electrically recorded 2) information is amplified and reported back to the patient through headphones, signal lights, and other means 3) this information helps the person learn to control bodily processes not normally under voluntary control

Stimulus Discrimination

Certain stimuli similar to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) do not elicit the Conditioned Response (CR)

Comparing Classical Conditioning with Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning is involuntary learning where the subject is passive (something happens to you) and you learn a response (CR) due to the pairing of the UCS with the CS. Operant Conditioning is voluntary leaning where the subject is active; You do something "you operate on the environment" then your behavioral tendencies increase or decrease as a result of consequences--either reinforcement or punishment

Conditioned Emotional Response

Classically conditioned emotional response to a previous neutral stimulus (NS)

Psychology in Everyday Life Classical Conditioning (cockroach phobia)

Cockroach Phobia: If just looking at this phobia leads to unreasonable irrational fears, you may have learned to associate the NS (cockroach) with a UCS (perhaps hearing a parent scream at the sight of a cockroach) until a CR (fear at the sight of a cockroach) was conditioned.

Evolution and Learning Biological Constraints

Conditioned responses shift (drift) back toward innate responses Example: Instinctive Drift Conditioned responses shift (drift) back toward innate responses

You have a cat that always comes running when she hears the electric can opener.

Conditioned stimulus (CS) electric can opener sound Conditioned response (CR) cat comes running

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement and Partial Reinforcement

Principle #1 ACQUISITION AND CONTINUING SEQUENCES

DELAYED CONDITIONING (THE MOST EFFECTIVE) NS presented before UCS and remains until the UCR begins. Tone presented before food.

Prejudice and classical conditioning DURING CONDITIONING: The neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, which produces the unconditioned response.

DURING CONDITIONING: NS: Member of a disliked group UCS: > UCR: Parents negative Child is upset and fearful reaction

What does punishment do?

Decreases the likelihood of a response.

Fixed Ratio

Defined: Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses; the ratio (number or amount) is fixed. Response Rate: It produces a high rate of response, but a brief drop-off just after reinforcement. Example: Car was employee receives $10 for every 3 cars washed. Example: In a lab a rat receives a food pellet every time it presses the bar 7 times.

Fixed Interval

Defined: Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed. Response Rate: Responses tend to increase as the time for the next reinforcer is near, but drop off after reinforcement and during interval. Example: You receive a monthly paycheck. Example: In a lab, a rat's behavior is reinforced with a food pellet when (or if) it presses a bar after 20 seconds have elapsed.

Variable Interval

Defined: Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies Response Rate: Relatively low, but steady, response rates because respondents cannot predict when reward will come. Example: Rat's behavior is reinforced with food pellet after a response and a variable, unpredictable interval of time has elapsed. Example: In a class with pop quizzes, you study at a slow, but steady, rate because you can't anticipate the next quiz.

Variable Ratio

Defined: Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies. Response Rate: High response rates, no pause after reinforcement, and very resistant to extinction. Example: Slot machines are designed to pay out after an average number of responses (maybe every 10 times) but any one machine may pay out on the first response, then seventh, then the twentieth.

PRINCIPLES 4 & 5

EXTINCTION: Gradual disappearance of a conditioned response (CR); occurs when unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is withheld whenever the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: Sudden, temporary reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR)

Cognitive Social Learning

Emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior

Continuous Reinforcement

Every Correct Response if Reinforced Example: Coke Machine

Accidental Reinforcement and Superstitions

Example Behavior: Knocking on Wood: Why do some people knock on wood when they're speaking of good fortune or making predictions? Superstition: Down through the ages, people have believed that trees were homes of gods, who were kid and generous if approached in the right way. a person who wanted to ask a favor of the tree god would touch the bark. After the favor was granted, the person would return to knock on the tree as a sign of thanks.

Accidental Reinforcement and Superstitions

Example Behavior: Spilling Salt: Why do some people throw a pinch of salt over their left shoulder? Superstition: Years ago, people believed good spirits lived on the right side of the body and bad spirits on the left. When a man spilled salt, he believed his guardian spirit had caused the accident to warn him of evil nearby. At the time, salt was scarce and precious. Therefore, to bribe the spirits who were planning to harm him, he would quickly throw a pinch of salt over this left shoulder.

Accidental Reinforcement and Superstitions

Example Behavior: Wedding Plans: Why do brides were something old and something new? Superstition: The something old is usually clothing that belongs to an older woman who is happily married. Thus the bride will supposedly transfer that good fortune to herself. Something borrowed is often a relative's jewelry. this item should be golden, because gold represents the sun, which was once thought to be the source of life.

Negative Reinforcement takes away (-) and strengthens the behavior

Example: After high sales your boss says you won't have to work on weekends anymore. Example: You are allowed to skip the final exam because you did so well on the unit exams.

Positive Reinforcement adds Stimulus (+) and strengthens the Behavior.

Example: You hug your baby and he smiles at you. The "addition" of his smile strengthens the likelihood that you will hug him again. Example: You do a favor for your friend and he buys you lunch in return.

Positive Reinforcement adds Stimulus (+) and strengthens the Behavior.

Example: You increase profits and receive a $200.00 bonus. Example: You study hard and receive a good grade on your psychology exam.

Negative Reinforcement takes away (-) and strengthens the behavior

Example: Your baby is crying and you hug him and he stops crying. The "removal" of crying strengthens the likelihood that you will hug him again when he cries. Example: You take an aspirin for your headache and it takes away the pain increases the likelihood that you will take an aspirin the next time you have a headache.

Similarities in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Extinction: In both Classical and Operant Conditioning, extinction occurs when the original source of the learning is withheld or removed.

Four Partial (Intermittent) Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI)

Similarities in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Generalization and Discrimination: Classical Conditioning: A small child may acquire a classically conditioned fear of a small dog, then begin to fear all small dogs (generalization) and later learn not to fear large dogs (discrimination). Operant Conditioning: A small child who was bitten after petting a small dog may learn to avoid all small dogs (generalization) because of punishing consequences, and later learn to approach larger dogs (discrimination) if the large dog happily licked h is face after petting.

Behavior > Consequence leads to________ (Studying) (Grade)

Good Grade > Increase in Studying Example of Reinforcement Bad Grade> Decrease in Studying Example of Punishment

Principle 6

HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING: When you pair a NS with a previously learned CS *You pair a flashing light (NS) with the tone (CS) to get the salivation (CR). After repeated pairings the flashing light becomes a conditioned stimulus and will elicit salivation (CR). So the dog will salivate to either a tone or a flashing light.

Latent Learning (form of cognitive learning)

Hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs

Similarities in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Higher-Oder Conditioning: Classical Conditioning: the pairing of the McDonald's golden arches sign (NS) with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS) (The McDonald's restaurant) led to a conditioned response (CR) (salivation) at the mere sight of the golden arches. Operant Conditioning: a rat will learn to only bar press when a light is flashing if that is the only time food is presented. In this case the flashing light has become a discriminative stimulus which signals whether or not an operant response will pay off.

Psychology in Everyday Life: Operant Conditioning

How is being prejudiced reinforcing? Gain attention and approval from others Increase one's self‐esteem at the expense of the victim People generalize from one negative experience with a specific group member to ALL members of the group Racist behavior is reinforced on an intermittent schedule and is highly resistant to extinction

Avoidance (as a result of Punishment)

If every time you come home a parent or spouse yells at you you may delay or avoid going home.

Evolution and Learning Biological Preparedness

Innate readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses Example: Taste Aversion Classically conditioned negative reaction to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness

Difference between Ratio and Interval Based Reinforcement

Interval Reinforcement is time-based. Ratio Reinforcement is response-based.

Differences in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Involuntary versus Voluntary Responses: In classical conditioning the subjects are Passive. Something involuntary happens to them, In operant conditioning, the subjects are Active, they voluntarily do something and then learn from the consequences

Secondary Reinforcers satisfy_____________

Learned Needs

Conditioned Response

Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus

Neuroscience and Learning

Learning creates new synaptic connections in the cortex and wide network of brain structures!

Observational Learning

Learning new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others (also know as social learning or modeling)

Classical Conditioning

Learning through involuntary paired associations; it occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)

Operant Conditioning : Voluntary

Learning through voluntary behavior and its subsequent consequences; reinforcement increases behavioral tendencies, whereas punishment decreases them

Cognitive Maps

Mental Image of a threedimensional space that an organism has navigated

While listening to a song on his car radio, a man accidentally bumped into a red car in front of him. Thereafter, whenever he saw red cars, he experienced a severe anxiety attack.

NS ( neutral stimulus) red car UCS (unconditioned stimulus) car accident UCR (unconditioned response) anxiety CS (conditioned stimulus) red car CR (conditioned response) anxiety attack

Acquisition

NS (neutral stimulus) and an UCS (unconditioned stimulus) are paired: the neutral stimulus (NS) then becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) eliciting a conditioned response (CR).

A researcher sounds a tone, then places a piece of meat into a dog's mouth, causing it to salivate. Eventually, the sound of the tone alone causes the dog to salivate

NS (neutral stimulus) the tone UCS (unconditioned stimulus) meat UCR (unconditioned response) salivation CS (conditioned stimulus ) the tone CR (conditioned response) salivation

Skinner box: Lever pressed and food removed

Negative Punishment

Skinner box Lever pressed and shock removed

Negative Reinforcement

A pregnant woman, experiencing morning sickness, vomited while eating at Burger King. Thereafter, she felt sick every time she drove by a Burger King.

Neutral Stimulus (NS) Burger King Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) morning sickness at BK Unconditioned Response (UCR)vomits when eating at BK Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Seeing a BK Conditioned Response (CR) feels sick

Higher Order Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS) becomes a Conditioned Stimulus(CS) thorough repeated pairings with a previously Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Differences in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Order of Effects: For the fastest and most efficient learning during classical conditioning the neutral stimulus (NS) comes before the UCS> In contrast, under operant conditioning, the consequences (reinforcement and punishment) come after the behavior.

Differences in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Paired Associations versus Consequences: In classical conditioning, learning occurs when an organism pairs and associates the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with the neutral stimulus (NS) to create a conditioned stimulus (CS). In operant conditioning, learning results from the consequences ( behavior followed by reinforcement increases, whereas behavior followed by punishment decreases)

Side Effects of Punishment:

Passive aggressiveness Avoidance Inappropriate modeling Temporary suppression versus elimination Learned helplessness Increased aggression

Skinner box: Lever pressed and shock delivered

Positive Punishment

Skinner box: Level pressed and food is delivered

Positive Reinforcement

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously neutral stimulus that through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus now elicits a conditioned response.

Conditioning

Process of learning associations between stimuli and environmental responses

Using Psychology at Work to increase performance

Provide clear directions and feedback Use appropriate timing Be consistent Follow correct order of presentation Combine key learning principles

Learning

Relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes due to experience

Principle #1 ACQUISITION AND CONTINUING SEQUENCES

SIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONING NS presented at the same time as UCS. Tone and food presented simultaneously

PRINCIPLES 2 & 3

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION: Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS) elicit a conditioned response (CR) STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION: Only the conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits the conditioned response (CR)

Prejudice and classical conditioning SUMMARY: An originally neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response that it did not previously elicit. Keep in mind that although we are calling the parents negative reaction a UCS for the child, it is also a learned response (CR) in the parent.

SUMMARY: CS: Member of a disliked group > CR: Child is upset and fearful UCS: UCR Parent's negative reaction

Uses of Parital Reinforcement: SHAPING

Shaping is reinforcement delivered for successive approximations of the desired response.

Passive Aggressiveness (as a result of Punishment)

Showing up late or forgetting to complete chores

B.F. Skinner

Skinner emphasized that reinforcement (which increases the likelihood of a response) and punishment ( which decreases it) are always defined AFTER THE FACT.

Partial Reinforcement

Some but not all Responses are Reinforced Example: Slot Machine

Similarities in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Spontaneous Recovery: Following extinction in classical or operant conditioning the fear of rats or the bar pressing may spontaneously occur.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that before conditioning does not bring about the response of interest

Unconditioned Stimulus (USC)

Stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning

Reinforcement

Strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur

Spontaneous Recovery

Sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR)

Insight Learning—aha!! (form of cognitive learning)

Sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution

Principle #1 ACQUISITION AND CONTINUING SEQUENCES

TRACE CONDITIONING NS presented and then taken away before UCS presented. Tone sounds but food presented only after the tone stops.

Negative Punishment Defined

Takes away a stimulus and weakens behavior Example: You're excluded from gym class because you were late. Example: A parent takes away a teen's cell phone following a poor report card. Example: Your boss reduces your expense account after a poor performance.

Stimulus Generalization

The Conditioned Response (CR) is not only elicited by the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) but also by stimuli similar to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Extinction

The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is presented alone without the Unconditioned Stimulus UCS). Eventually the Conditioned Stimulus does not elicit the Conditioned Response (CR)

Pavlov's Dog After Conditioning

The neutral stimulus ( a tone ) becomes a conditioned (learned ) stimulus; the Conditioned stimulus (the meat) produces a conditioned (learned) response which is usually similar to the previously unconditioned ( unlearned) response. Which is salivating.

Pavlov's Dog During Conditioning

The neutral stimulus ( a tone ) was repeatedly paired with the unconditional (unlearned) stimulus of meat powder to produce the unconditional (unlearned )response of salivating.

Pavlov's dog after conditioning

The original neutral stimulus ( the tone) becomes a conditioned ( learned) stimulus which elicits a conditioned (learned ) response. So the dog begins to salivate at the sound of the tone.

Example of "Higher Order Conditioning" as a principle of classical conditioning

The signs outside your dentist's office, an originally Neutral Stimulus (NS) becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) associated with the previous Conditioned Stimulus (CS) of the dentist's office, and you experience fear whenever you just see the sign.

UnConditioned Response (UCR)

The unlearned response to the unlearned stimulus

UnConditioned Stimulus (UCS)

The unlearned stimulus that produces the unlearned response

Living in enriched environments . . .results in_____

Thicker cortex Increased nerve growth factor More developed synapses More dendritic branching Improved test performance . . . In rats

Situation 2: When a mother strokes her infant's skin, the stroking creates pleasure responses in the baby. After this goes on for many days, the baby begins to show pleasure responses simply at the sight of the mother (before even being touched).

This is an example of classical conditioning. Stroking skin: CS Pleasured response: CR Sight of mother: CS Pleasured Response: CER

Situation 4: Johnny has developed a habit of yelling "Bye, Mom" and then slamming the door very loudly in his hurry to leave for school in the morning. The door slam causes his mother to flinch. After several days of the procedure, Johnny's mother begins to flinch at the sound of her son's words, "Bye, Mom."

This is an example of classical conditioning: "Bye Mom"NS Slamming Door UCS Flinching UCR Bye Mom CS Flinching CR

Situation 1: A very bright (mildly painful) light is turned on a rat. The rat has learned that he can turn off the light by pressing a lever on the other side of his cage. As soon as the light comes on, the rat runs across the room and presses the lever.

This is an example of operant conditioning. Very bright (mildly painful) light = undesirable target Pressing the lever = Negative reinforcement as it removes the undesirable target

Situation 5: Mr. and Mrs. Jones are having a heated argument that both are finding very unpleasant. Mrs. Jones gets up and leaves the room, closing the door behind her. This has the effect of terminating the argument. From then on, every time Mr. Jones raises his voice, Mrs. Jones leaves the room. Mr. Jones stops raising his voice.

This is an example of operant conditioning: Mr Jones raises his voice: Undesirable target behavior Mrs Jones leaves room: positive punishment (Positive punishments work to decrease the likelihood of a undesirable behavior reoccurring by adding an unfavorable consequence.)

Situation 3: A patient in a mental hospital is very disruptive at mealtimes. She grabs food from the plates of those sitting near her and tries to cram the food into her mouth. Because this behavior of stealing food is very undesirable, a plan is developed whereby every time the patient steals food from other plates, she is immediately taken to a room without food.

This is an example of operant conditioning: Stealing food: undesirable target behavior Taking patient to room without food: Negative Punishment (Negative punishments work to decrease the likelihood of a undesirable behavior reoccurring by taking something favorable away)

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Thorndike's rule is that the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when it is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence.

Psychology in Everyday Life Medical Treatment for Addiction

UCS: UCR: Drug > Nausea CS: + UCS: UCR: Alcohol Drug > Nausea CS: CR: Alcohol > Nausea

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus without previous conditioning

Premack Principle is____

Using a naturally occurring high frequency response to reinforce and increase low frequency responses. Example: You make yourself study for one hour then afterwards you can watch a movie.

Increased Aggression and Punishment

Vicious cycle where by the punisher and punished are both reinforced for inappropriate behavior. the punisher for punishing and the recipient for being fearful and submissive

Watson's Study

Watson took a baby and introduced a white rat to the child. When the child reached for the rat ( which is a neutral stimulus) he paired an (Unconditioned Stimulus) a loud banging noise which usually causes fear in babies ( and Unconditioned Response). After seven times the baby would be fearful when shown the white rat. This became known as a Conditioned Emotional Response

Psychology in Everyday Life Classical Conditioning

We have conditioned emotional responses to things that we see. Example: Picture of politician kissing a baby

Punishment

Weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur

Learned Helplessness and Punishment

When an abused person gives up and no longer attempts to leave the abuser or escape the abuse.

Example of "Spontaneous Recovery" as a principle of classical conditioning

While watching a movie depicting oral surgery your fear (CR) suddenly and temporarily returns.

Example of "Extinction" as a principle of classical conditioning

You continue to return to your dentist's office for routine checkups without tooth extraction, and your fear (CR) gradually disappears.

Example of "Stimulus Discrimination" as a principle of classical conditioning

You learn that your physician's office is not associated with a painful tooth extraction (UCS)

Example of "Acquisition" as a principle of classical conditioning

You learn to fear (CR) the dentist's office (CS) by associating is with a refluxive response to a painful tooth extraction (UCS).

Example of "Stimulus Generalization" as a principle of classical conditioning

You learn to fear most dentist's offices and other places that smell like them

Inappropriate modeling and Punishment

a parent spanks or hits a child for hitting another child

Pavlov's conditioning became known as _______

classical conditioning.

Negative Reinforcement is NOT______________

punishment. It is the removal of an aversive stimulus!

Temporary suppression versus elimination and Punishment

the behavior is suppressed only around the punisher. People slow down when they see a police car but speed back up later