Chapter 7 MEMORY AP Psych
visual imagery (encoding)
mental imagery that involves the sense of having "pictures" in the mind to represent words to be remembered
retrieval cues
stimuli that help gain access to memories, such as hints, related information, or partial recollections, context clues
conceptual hierarchy
a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items -dramatically improves recall
semantic network model
a representation of the organizational structure of long-term memory in terms of a network of associated concepts
Nodes representing concepts joined together by pathways that link related concepts is referred to as
a semantic network
Wilder Penfield
Canadian neurosurgeon in 1960s who used electrodes and electrical stimulation techniques to "map" out different parts of the brain during surgery -the patients underwent surgery for epilepsy -created maps of sensory and motor cortices (coordination of body movements) -electrical stimulation of the temporal lobe sometimes elicited vivid descriptions of events long past (turned out to be hallucinations, dreams, or loose reconstructs)
A relearning measure requires subjects to
memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved
reconstructive memory
memory that has been simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual's experiences and attitudes -may include things that did NOT happen
A parallel distributed processing system consists of a large network of interconnected computing units, or nodes, that operate like
neurons
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information -how we remember experiences, info, and skills
Context Cues (Retrieval)
Retrieval cues that specify aspects of the conditions under which a desired target was encoded, such as the certain LOCATION and time of the event.
Connectionist/PDP models
assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks -(connectionist network) piece of knowledge is represented by particular pattern of activation across the entire network -information lies in the strength of the connections
Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events defines
attention
Which theory suggests that memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes?
dual-coding theory
observational learning
learning by watching others -parents, family, friends, coaches, peers, social media, society -behavioralism
elaboration (encoding)
linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
When an individual's memory for an event is altered by the later introduction of inaccurate or misleading information, its referred to as the
misinformation effect
Schema
organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event -people are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schema -people sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schema expectaions
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the LAST(recency effect) and FIRST items (primacy effect) in a list
Von Restorff effect
tendency to remember distinctive stimuli better than less distinctive stimuli -occurs when recall is better for a distinctive item, even if it occurs in the middle of a list (random unassociated words)
infantile amnesia
the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories (memories of situations or events) before the age of two to four years. It may also refer to the scarcity of memories recollected from early childhood
explicit memory (declarative memory)
the memory of facts and experiences that one must consciously think about and can "declare" -episodic (personal events/info) -semantic (general knowledge)
Storage
the process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time
rehearsal
the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information -reliance on recitation depends on phonemic encoding
The deepest level of processing information in memory, emphasizing the meaning of the information being processed, is
the semantic level of encoding
tip of the tongue phenomenon
the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's out of reach -increases with age
Clustering
the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
eidetic imagery (photographic memory)
the very rare ability to retain large amounts of visual stimuli with great accuracy for long periods of time
Behavior Learning Theory
theory of behavioral development that states children repeat behaviors that are rewarded
flashbulb memory
unusually vivid and detailed recollections of the circumstances in which people learned about momentous, newsworthy events
chunk
a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit -people draw info out of LTM banks to evaluate STM
short-term memory
a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 10 to 20 seconds
long-term memory
an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
retrograde amnesia
involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia r-remember
mnemonic memory
techniques of memorizing information by forming vivid associations or images, which facilitate recall and decrease forgetting
Humanism
a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth
psychodynamic theory
all the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud that emphasize internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious mental forces
Walter Mischel
Believes human behavior is largely determined by the situation rather than traits -recognized that traits are not necessarily consistent across various situations, but often vary depending upon the circumstances
The first person to conduct scientific studies of forgetting was
Hermann Ebbinghaus
positives of forgetting
-can reduce competition among memories that would otherwise cause confusion -natural part of memory
Baddeley's model of working (STM) memory
1. Phonological loop -use recitation to temporarily hold onto phone # 2. Visuospatial sketchpad -permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images -mentally rearrange the furniture in a room 3. central executive -controls deployment of attention, switching focus of attention, and divided attention as needed -coordinates actions of other modules 4. episodic buffer -temporary, limited capacity store that allows various components of STM to integrate info -interface between STM and LTM
How long is information retained in short-term memory?
10-20 seconds
How long can short term memory hold information?
10-20 seconds -to increase time, do repetition rehearsal by verbalizing or thinking about the info
Consolidation
A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory.
elaborative rehearsal
A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.
maintenance rehearsal
A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it
Abraham Maslow
Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" pyramid (beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active with self actualization at the top) -the concept of "self-actualization" (state of oneness with the universe)
Carl Rogers
Humanistic psychologist who founded person-centered therapy, humanism theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth -unconditional positive regard and fully functioning person has a self-concept that is both positive and congruent with reality
How much information can be held in short term memory?
Miller proposed 7 + or - 2 pieces of information (currently moving smaller) -to increase amount, use chunking (combining bits of info into meaningful units)
Alfred Adler
Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order -born inferior -individual psychology (striving for perfection to compensate for feelings of inferiority) -he believed childhood experiences affect us as adults -inferiority complex: A feeling of inferiority that is largely unconscious, with its roots in childhood. (goal is to attain superiority and NOT be inferior) (bragging) -strict and lenient parenting lead to inferiority complex
dual coding theory
Paivio's theory that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall.
Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm
Participants are given a list of words and remember a related target word that fits the category but wasn't there. (i.e. bed, rest, awake, tired, dream. Add in sleep) False memories arise from the same constructive process that produces true memories.
misinformation effect (Loftus)
Participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information. -"hit" vs "smash" car experiment -immediate recall increased misinformation
context dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
A multilevel classification system based on common properties among items is called
a conceptual hierarchy
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds (last longer than iconic images)
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
a retrieval cue is
a stimulus associated with a memory that is used to locate that memory
Clive Wearing Case Study
after an infection his brain damaged his hippocampus it disabled his episodic and autobiographical memory(episodes recollected from his life); he suffered total anterograde amnesia and near total retrograde amnesia -he can only retain new information for an average of around 7-30 seconds -still knows how to play piano from muscle memory /procedural memory/implicit memory
B.F. Skinner
behavioral psychologist who created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box -operant conditioning -repeat responses followed by favorable consequences -voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences
episodic memory
chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personally experienced events that occurred at a specific time and place -endel tulving
divided attention
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time leads to DETERIORATED performance (memory)
semantic network
consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts -spreading activation -strength decreases as it travels outwards -specific nodes represent specific concepts
Carl Jung
created the concept of "collective unconscious" (storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from ancestors) and wrote books on dream interpretation -archetypes -Neo-Freudianism
self-referent encoding
deciding how or whether information is personally relevant -increasing motivation to remember at time of encoding facilitates future recall
reality monitoring (Johnson)
deciding whether memories are based on external sources (ones perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (ones thoughts and imaginations) -more likely to infer that event happened when easier retrieval, more sensory and contextual info
Remembering who we told what is known as
destination memory
semantic encoding
emphasizes the meaning of verbal input; involves thinking about the objects and actions the words represent ex: how to fit it into a sentence
phonemic encoding
emphasizes what a word sounds like -naming or saying words (can be silently)
Pseudoforgetting is information loss due to ineffective
encoding only
What are the three stages of memory?
encoding, storage, retrieval
organic amnesia
extensive memory loss due to head injury
late selection model
filtering occurs after the processing of meaning (easy tasks)
Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events are called
flashbulb memories
attention
focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events -filter that screens out most potential stimulus while allowing a select few to pass through consciousness
semantic memory
general knowledge and facts that is not tied to time when the info was learned -endel tulving
Decay theory suggests that forgetting is due to
impermanent storage.
early selection model
input is filtered before meaning is processed (hard tasks)
Nodes
interconnected computing units that operate like neurons -inactive or send excitatory/inhibitory signals to units based on weighted balance of signals -specific nodes represent specific concepts (semantic network)
Encoding
involves forming a memory code -how it looks, sounds, what it means -requires attention
Retrieval
involves recovering information from memory stores
retrospective memory (task)
involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information
anterograde amnesia
involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia a-after
Albert Bandura: Social cognitive Theory
personality develops from imitating behavioral tendencies we observe in others. -reciprocal determinism (people can make choices and alter their environments) -self-efficacy (confidence in our ability to do things through reinforcement) influences our behaviors -Learning occurs through observation and imitation of models; as children become older, they become more selective in the behaviors they imitate. -observational learning: an organisms responding is influenced by observing models -behavioralist
sensory memory
preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second -visual pattern, sound, touch linger for a brief moment -afterimage -more like echo than memory
Why do we forget?
pseudoforgetting (lack of attention), ineffective encoding, decay, interference, retrieval failure, motivated forgetting
The process of deciding on whether a memory is based on an external source or an internal source is referred to as
reality monitoring
The measure of memory that requires subjects to reproduce information on their own, without any cues, is
recall
working memory capacity
refers to one's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention -high-level cognitive abilities such as reading comprehension, complex reasoning, intelligence -can be temporarily reduced by situational factors pressure to perform or excessive worry example of WMC: reading music while playing instrument
structural encoding
relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus -registers how things are printed (upper vs lower case) -length of words
prospective memory (task)
remembering to perform actions in the future
empirical research
research that operates from the ideological position that questions about human behavior can be answered only through controlled, systematic observations in the real world
implicit memory (procedural/nondeclarative memory)
retention of learned skills/habits or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection -do NOT require conscious thoughts
____ occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information
retroactive interference
Which stage, according to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, is the first stage of memory processing?
sensory memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of memory storage
sensory, short term, long term memory 1. sensory (sensory input, attention) 2. STM (attention, rehearsal, storage, retrieval) 3. LTM (storage, retrieval)
parallel distributed processing (PDP)
simultaneous processing of the same info that is spread across networks of neurons -assumes cognitive process depends on patterns in interconnected networks -specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in networks
The process of making attributions about the origins of memories is referred to as
source monitoring
The shallowest level of processing of verbal information is
structural encoding