Chem Midterm 2

Hemicellulose

25-30% short cellulose good for toilet paper because it dissolves in water.

how much water is needed to produce an industrial ream of paper?

3 gallons per sheet 1 ream = 1500 gallons of water

Cellulose

35-45% want this! cellulose is a huge and major part of wood, which is responsible for making it as strong as it is C6H10O5 it is made of repeated units of the monomer glucose

If A and B are in equilibrium, and B and C are in equilibrium, then...

A and C are in equilibrium

Acid

A substance that can release protons (H+) a chemical substance that neutralizes alkalis, dissolves some metals, and turns litmus red; typically, a corrosive or sour-tasting liquid of this kind.

Base

A substance that takes up protons

Entropy

A thermodynamic property that is the measurement of a systems thermal energy per unit of temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work. Measures randomness, chaos.

Endothermic

Absorbs heat from surrounding A + B + energy -> C

A substance with a pH < 7 is a(n)

Acid

Biosphere

All living things on earth (biotic/abiotic)

A substance with a pH > 7 is a(n)

Base/alkaline ph of blood is 7.35

Why is algea overgrowth an issue?

Because the algea consumes more O2 than it produces, thereby depleting the fish of oxygen and the lake of O2 in general. Algea overgrowth also blocks sunlight from the bottom of lakes so plants cant grow and go through photosynthesis.

chemical formula of cellulose

C6H10O5 Oxygen is a linker it is made of repeated units of the monomer glucose

Methane

CH4 fracking, us becomes natural gas exporter they discovered that methane was leaking into the groundwater, it became toxic strong natural bond. contributes to about 10% of greenhouse effect. Traps IR light.

first law of thermodynamics

Conservation of energy energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system Any change in the energy of a system must result in a corresponding change in the energy of the surrounding outside the system

equation for energy of photon

E= h x v h= planks constant = 6.63 x 1034 J/s = energy of photons v= frequency

Phosphorus Cycle

Endogenic, no common stable form of phosphorus In geosphere, phosphorus is held mostly in poorly soluble minerals. Soluble phosphates from minerals and from fertilizers are taken up by plants and incorporated into nucleic acids that make up the genetic material of organisms. Mineralization of biomass by microbial decay returns the phosphorus to the salt solution from which it may precipitate as mineral matter Anthrosphere is a reservoir of phosphorus, extracted for fertilizers, food additives, and other chemicals.

Troposphere

First layer about 11 km high. heat decreases with height increase, temp drops 1-degree Celcius per 100-meter increase in altitude.

Plant Photosynthesis

Fxes solar energy (hv) and carbon from atmospheric CO2 Carbon dioxide + water + solar energy -> Glucose and oxygen

what is infrastructure?

Infrastructure consists of the utilities, facilities, and systems, both physical and instructional, used in common by members of a society and upon which the society depends for its normal function. (Roads, bridges, pipelines, laws, regulations)

How paper is made now

Kraft pulping method Harvest wood (deforestation, convert into wood chips) Convert wood chips into pulp screening, pressing, drying

What are some of the parts of the anthrosphere that may be sevearly contaminated by human activities?

Landfills Under highways Radioactive waste Topsoil Phosphate waster Airports Pavement

In what sense is public transportation considered infrastructure whereas cars are not?

Modern rail and subway transportation are important parts of urban infrastructure because they efficiently, cheaply, and conveniently move people from point A to point B. These are considered infrastructure, where a car is not because they are owned by and used by individuals. The loss of one car does not affect the ability of society to function properly.

Oxygen cycle

O2 has a large reservoir in the air and is dissolved in water. humans and animals use o2 to respire and return it to the air as carbon and water The CO2 is then taken in by plants and algae and through photosynthesis releases a by-product of o2 which is then released back into the atmosphere. Oxygen combines with UV radiation to create ozone

Endogenic Cycles

Occur only in soil, sediments, rock, magma, etc. no phosphorus in the atmosphere

Nitrogen Cycle

Occurs in all spheres of the environment Atmosphere is 78% elemental nitrogen Nitrogen is essential to life because it is an essential component of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen is extremely stable in the atmosphere, it is broken down by high energy processes such as lightening discharges which produce nitrogen oxides. fertilizers have increased the availability of nitrogen: pollutant in general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps: Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-) Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-) Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues) Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3) Denitrification(NO3- to N2)

Ideal Gas Law

PV=N(mole)R(gas constant)T(temp K) PV=NRT ideal gas law helps explain stratification. dependent on temperature as pressure goes down so does volume

Phosphorus

Rich element cannot exist in a gas form phosphorus cycle is endogenic earth sensitive to changes in phosphorus levels

examples of pollution

Runoff from fertilizers contains an excess amount of nitrogen to be put into the hydrosphere which then causes nitrification and eutrophication of standing bodies of water. This also causes acid rain, the acidification of the ocean, ect. A plethora of other chemical wastes and garbage is dumped into the hydrosphere from factories which pollutes the ocean. Photochemical smog ozone layer destruction from CO2 emmissions, toxicants, phosphates, and many more.

is ocean water acidic or basic?

Sea water/oceans are slightly basic because of the naturally basic high concentration of salt. Rapid increase of CO2 in water is turning it slightly more acidic! the acidification of the ocean is not good for marine life and this is exemplified by the bleaching of the coral reefs.

Geosphere

Solid earth, including soil, iron rich core, molten outer core, mantle, and crust

What are the three major stages in the evolution of industry with respect to how it relates to the environment?

Stage one: industries would ignore pollution and dump waste into oceans or anywhere. Stage two: Industries would control pollutants and wastes after they were produced Stage three: Industries close the loop and integrate with the total environment.

Sulfur Cycle

Steps of the sulfur cycle: Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms such as hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals. Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, and sulfide minerals to sulfate Reduction of sulfate to sulfide by plants and other microorganisms Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds. Sulfur dioxide is a pollutant, it has a tendency to oxidize in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid: Acid rain!

Compare nuclear energy to fossil fuel energy sources and defend or refute the statement, "Nuclear energy, with modern, safe, and efficient reactors, is gaining increasing attention as a reliable, environmentally friendly energy source."

The burning of coal and other fossil fuels produces large amounts of CO2. There have been almost no major nuclear power plant accidents since 1986 and nuclear energy causes no production of CO2. A reduction in the amount of CO2 emitted by humans would immediately impact our environment by slowing down the process of global warming. nuclear power plants can operate continuously for 18 months without having to be briefly shut down for a fuel supply. properly used with nuclear fuel reprocessing can take on a greater share of energy production REFUTE assumptions that do not yet exist in nuclear energy production nuclear waste treatment, no way to clean up the waste hiroshima high energy intensity inefficient

third law of thermodynamics

The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.

Although energy is not destroyed, why is it true that the flow of useful energy through an environmental system is essentially a one-way process?

The flow of useful energy is essentially a one-way process because the incoming solar energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is able to cause a lot of reactions to occur. Take for example photosynthesis, once the high-grade solar energy is put into the process of photosynthesis, most of the energy is converted into low-grade heat that is unable to cause a lot of reactions and is eventually reradiated away from the earth by infrared radiation.

What was the greatest threat to farmland in the U.S. during the 1930s, and what was done to alleviate that threat? What is currently the greatest threat, and what can be done to alleviate it?

The greatest threat to farmland in the 1930s was the rapid conversion of forests and grassland to cropland. This resulted in water and wind erosion of the soil and soil deterioration. This caused the period often referred to in American history as the dust bowl, which added to the devastation of the great depression. They alleviate this issue with intensive soil conversion efforts starting around 1900. The current threats to farmland in the US is the threat posed by the urbanization of rural areas. Due to urban sprawl, prime agricultural land is being paved over or built on. Enforcement of zoning requirements that redevelop already built upon land and encourage people not to build upon agricultural land could help alleviate this issue.

Suggest one or two examples of how technology, properly applied, can be environmentally friendly.

The new communication technology such as computers, phones, and the internet have all created a telecommuter society which subtly helps to reduce the CO2 production associated with automobiles. sewage treatment processors, solar panels. Lowering the Co2 production would have an lowering effect on atmospheric CO2 concentrations which would slow down the process of global warming because CO2 is a major greenhouse gas. Another example of environmentally friendly technology are the insulating windows and walls which reduces electrical energy consumption. Similarly, modern heating and cooling systems within buildings are very efficient

Rayleigh Scattering

The scattering of light by particles (atoms or molecules) much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation blue is the shortest wavelength so it is scattered more strongly than the longer red wavelengths which are the reason for the blue color of the sky.

Describe some ways in which use of energy has "resulted in many of the environmental problems now facing humankind."

The use of commercial energy such as fossil fuel petroleum, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy has resulted in many of the environmental problems now facing humankind. These types of energy are nonrenewable and cause a large amount of pollution including, but not limited to, the production of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. increased carbon dioxide causes global warming, raising of average global temp. Arctic ice caps diminishing to an unprecedented level. Natural resources becoming stressed and depleted. the productivity of agriculture land is diminishing bc of water and soil erosion, desertification, deforestation, contamination, and urbanization. AND SO MUCH MORE

GIBBS FREE ENERGY EQUATION

Total change of G Free energy= sum of free energy of reactants- sum of free energy of products ∆G=ΣG Products-ΣG Reactants Stable Elementals Are G=0 (if the info isn't given, use zero) Example, given: Gf H20= -237.14 Kj/Mol H2 + O2 -> H2O Step one: Balance chemical reaction -> 2H2 + O2 -> 2H20 Step two: plug in Gf into equation, remember to consider coefficients of balanced equation. ∆G=ΣG Products-ΣG Reactants ∆G= (2 x -237.14) - (2 x 0 + 0) ∆G= -474.28 kJ/mol ∆G < 0 =spontaneous reaction

Although synthetic materials require relatively more energy and non renewable sources for their fabrication, how may it be argued that they are often the best choice from an environmental viewpoint for the construction of buildings?

Using synthetic materials helps to reduce energy consumption, reduce waste, and minimize humans environmental footprint. Although synthetic materials such as glass, metals, and concrete take more energy to make and are less renewable, they are still more environmentally efficient because they can last much longer that materials like wood that would degrade over a relatively short period of time and weather conditions. Moreover, technological advancements using synthetic materials have made it possible to reduce energy consumptions in the long run. For example, insulating wall or window materials and energy efficient heating and cooling systems.

The media/ medium of energy flow

Water falling compressed air liquid N2 Batteries gasoline diesel Methane

Turnover of paper making

White liquor -> black liquor -> green liquor -> not as high quality but reusable white liquor. they try to recycle the black liquor bc the chemicals used in it are expensive. Recovery of black liquor, Burn it! BL+ heat= GL

Define Pollution

a deviation from the normal, healthy state. negative impact on the environment Oversaturation; concentration higher than natural occurence

Ideal Gas

a gas that obeys the ideal gas law each gas molecule is infinitesimally small (no volume) there is no attraction or repulsion among gas molecules (the only interaction they have is a physical collision.) The energy of the system is only dependent on temperature (but not V or P) Ideal gas law developed from avogadros principle, charles and boyles law.

Heating effect

absorption of solar radiation absorption of surface radiation chemical reactions water

Spontaneous processes

also called natural processes, are processes that proceed when left to themselves. Exergonic: Reaction that releases energy to its surroundings ex. smell diffusing in a room, iron rusting, diamonds turning into graphite, salt dissolving in water, etc. NEGATIVE DELTA G

Harber Bosch Process

an artificial nitrogen fixation process and is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia today. Requires high temp and high pressure, very energy intense. 3-6% of carbon dioxide emission comes from this process Ammonia used in fertilizer, fertilizer helps grow crops and feed growing populations of people.

advantages of industrial paper

cheap papermaking process more uniform and efficient more books produced cheaply = increase in education and literacy

there is no ________of phosphorus

common stable gaseous form

Hydrosphere

contains the earth's water

Old process of paper making

developed 2000 years ago harvest fiber rich plants boiling and smashing plants to a pulp screening, pressing, drying.

electrotoxicity

element in small concentration isn't dangerous, high concentration is dangerous Ex phosphorous, co2

Exogenic Cycles

elements spend part of the cycle in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere but also occur on earths surface Ex. o2 n2 and co2

Nonspontaneous Reaction

endergonic reaction chemical reaction in which the standard free energy is POSITIVE and energy is absorbed (Change in gibbs standard free energy) Delta G > 0

The source of energy flow

fossil fuels wind water direct solar energy tidal geothermal

Exothermic

gives off heat to surroundings (A+B->C + Energy )

global warming

global average temperature increase due to increase of CO2 in the atmosphere.

anthropocene

hypothesized new era in which that nature of the earth's environment is largely determined by human activities in the anthrosphere.

natural gas

ideal, clean-burning fossil fuel that produces the least amount of CO2 per unit of energy generated found in shale fracking

why is 50% recycled paper 2x more expensive than original paper

it's expensive to remove the ink fibers are shorter and less durable

what are the three components of wood?

lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose

Lignin

makes up 20-30% of wood environmentally friendly Don't want in paper, rigid and hard. Chemically resistant. Lignin makes tree trunks hard and able to grow tall

what is the major hydrocarbn compound in natural gas?

methane

n

n

List in order from least to greatest in terms of co2 production: Coal, natural gas, Petroleum/gasoline

natural gas, petroleum, coal

POSITIVE DELTA G

non-spontaneous reaction

Ozone

oxygen, when illuminated by UV light it reacts and creates O3-> Ozone Self replenishing process bc the presence of o2 creates/nourishes ozone layer UV light dangerous to humans because it is highly energetic, very short wavelength. The wavelength is so small that it can break carbon-carbon bonds very easily. Uv light used for cleaning and sterilization bc it breaks up bacteria

Anthrosphere

part of the environment that is made or modified by humans or used in human activities and human habitat

how is elemental 02 returned to atmosphere?

photosynthesis by plants

Environmental effect of papermaking

produces a lot of gaseous emmissions which causes air land and water pollution. increases solid contaminant waste, lots of paper=lots of waste in landfills lots of water and energy needed for the process deforestation which leads to degradation of soil and desertification co2 produced during production Acid rain chemicals that are toxic to plant/animal life in the bleaching water which is improperly cleaned before being put back into the environment. Paper mill built near the water source for efficiency but chemically filled runoff goes right into the nearby water source and surface around it.

Solar powered hydrological and wind cycle that turns solar energy into electrical energy

solar energy radiates onto earth's surface. Absorption of solar energy causes evaporation which leads to the distribution and precipitation of water. The water then precipitates and runs downhill to be compounded then used to spin water turbines which then mechanically power generators for electrical energy. Uneven heat distribution caused by solar radiation, evaporation, and precipitation, wind follows the ideal gas law, expands and flows in an attempt to reach equilibrium. Blowing wind spins wind turbines and converts the solar powered wind energy to kinetic energy which is then used to power a generator to use for electricity.

NEGATIVE DELTA G

spontaneous process

amphiphilic

substance that is partly hydrophilic (polar) and partly hydrophobic (non-polar) ex. detergent

surfactants

surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension between two substances or of a liquid in which it is dissolved

Stratosphere

temperature inversion no water in the stratosphere ozone

second law of thermodynamics

the entropy of any isolated system always increases. Isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermal equilibrium- the state of maximum entropy of the system a room, if not cleaned, no matter how hard the person tries not to dirty it, will invariably become messier and disorderly with time.

What are the main features of the carbon cycle

the series of processes by which carbon compounds are converted in the environment, incorporation of carbon dioxide into living tissue by photosynthesis and its return to the atmosphere through respiration, the decay of dead organisms, and the burning of fossil fuels. Photosynthetic algae are the predominant carbon-fixing agents in water. As they consume co2 to produce biomass, the pH of water increases which enables acid rain solar energy is transferred to biological systems and ultimately to the geo/anthrosphere as fossil carbon and fuel. Microorganisms degrade organic carbon and hyrocarbons from biomass and petroleum and return it to the environment as CO2.

advantages of the atmosphere

thin protective layer. Nurtures and protects life on earth Reflects excess UV radiation Absorbs energy and UV radiation from sun Moderates earth's temp Provides N and O

layers of the atmosphere

traphosphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, Ionosphere.

Photosynthesis summary

water carbon dioxide sunlight water absorbed through soil into roots. Stromata (tiny pores on bottom of plant) absorbs Co2 glucose is fed to plant o2 is a byproduct gas and released into atmosphere humans in turn breath out co2 respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis