CJ 220 Exam Two

Course of Development

In the first nine months of an infant's life, he or she develops an attachment to a primary figure. This primary figure is the person who provides the most fulfilling and pleasing social interaction.

Thomas Hobbes

Social contract creating society as a way to counteract chaos and fear from the greediness and self-centeredness

Engagement of Emotion

Some of the most intense and passionate emotions are associated with attachment relationships.

Adoption studies- Mednick and Colleagues

-Examined male children born in Copenhagen between 1927 and 1941 who had been adopted early in life. -The findings can be considered a 2x2 matrix, containing four cells of youth which represent adoptees in various circumstances in terms of the criminality of their biological and/or adoptive parents.

Criticism of twin studies

-Identical twins, who look almost exactly alike, are typically dressed the same by their parents, as well as treated the same by the public. → This is not true for fraternal twins, who often look very different and quite often are different genders. -The higher concordance among MZ twins could have been due to the extremely similar way they were treated, or expected to behave, by society. -Another criticism of the early twin studies was regarding the accuracy in determining twins as fraternal versus identical, which was often done by sight in the early tests.

Concordance rates

-Rates at which twin pairs share either a trait (e.g. criminality) or lack of the trait. -If genetics play a major role in determining the criminality of individuals, then it would be expected that MZ twins would have a significantly higher concordance rate for being criminal offenders than would DZ (fraternal) twins. -Most studies showed twice as much concordance or more for MZ twins, even for serious criminality.

Two important conclusions form family studies

1. Although criminality is common in some families (never proven otherwise), this is not a product of genetics or heredity. Additionally, individuals of the same family are also impacted by the same environment, meaning this conclusion does little to advance knowledge regarding the relative influence of nature vs. nurture in predicting criminality 2. hese studies showed that criminality in the mother or the lead female caretaker, had a much stronger influence on future criminality of the children than did the father's criminality. The father is often absent while the children are being raised It takes more for a woman to break social norms and become a convicted offender, which indicates that the mother is highly antisocial and gives some limited credence to the argument that criminality is inherited

Secondary Psychopath

1. Have many of the same maladaptive traits as the primary psychopath. 2. Seems to be more prone to exhibit extensive symptoms of psychological turmoil and emotional reactivity. 3. These individuals tend to be more reactive, antagonistic, and impulsive; they are also more at risk for engaging in self- and other-destructive behavior such as drug use/abuse, suicidal ideation/gestures, and interpersonal aggression.

Elements of Differential Association Theory

1. Criminal behavior is learned. Criminal behavior is not inherited; rather, a person needs to be trained, or educated in crime 2.Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. In most instances, this communication is verbal. However, communication can also be nonverbal in nature. 3.The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. Sutherland distinguished personal and impersonal groups. Personal communications between family and friends, he theorized, will have more of an influence than impersonal communications, such as that which occurs with simple acquaintances, as well as through the movies and other entertainment media. 4.When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple; (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. Criminals learn from others the techniques, methods, and motives necessary to sustain their behavior. 5.The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable and unfavorable. Individuals may associate with others who define the legal codes as rules that should be observed; these individuals, however, may also associate with others whose definitions favor violating these legal codes. 6.A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law. Sutherland noted that this is the essence of differential association. Individuals can have associations that favor both criminal and noncriminal behavior patterns. A person will engage in criminal behavior when there is an excess of definitions that favor violating the law. 7.Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. Frequency and duration refer to how often and how long associations occur. Priority refers to whether an individual has developed a strong sense of lawful behavior during early childhood. Intensity is not precisely defined. 8.The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. This statement asserts that the process of learning criminal behavior is similar to the process of learning other types of behavior. 9.While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, since noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. Sutherland argued that motives, needs, and values as explanations for criminal behavior are inadequate because they are also explanations for noncriminal behavior. For instance, needing money is a motivation for a thief to steal as well as for a student to get a part-time job. This final proposition was largely an argument against the other dominant social theories of crime at the time that Sutherland wrote, namely strain theory, which emphasized economic goals and means in predicting criminal activity. The primary distinction of differential association theory from the earlier positivistic theories is that instead of biological or psychological traits being emphasized as primary factors in causing criminality, it is social interaction and learning.

Four Types of Brain Waves (from slowest to fastest)

1. Delta Often seen when people sleep. 2. Theta Typically observed in times of lower levels of being awake, such as drowsiness. 3. Alpha Divided into "slow alpha" and "fast alpha." Tend to be related to more relaxed wakefulness. 4. Beta Divided into "slow beta" and "fast beta." Observed with high levels of wakefulness. ***Psychopaths tend to have more activity in the theta (or sometimes "slow alpha") patterns, whereas normals tend to show more activity in the "fast alpha" or beta types of waves.

Biological Function

Attachment behavior has a biological function in terms of survival which is supported by research on various species.

Duration

Attachments are enduring and persistent; these attachments can sometimes last throughout a person's life.

Specificity

Attachments are selective or "choosy," these attachments are often focused on one or more individuals, usually with some order of preference.

Adoption studies criticism

Adoption agencies typically incorporated a policy of selective placement. 1. The adoptees were placed with adoptive families similar to those in terms of demographics and background as those of the biological parents. 2. Recent analyses that have examined the impact of such bias have concluded that even when accounting for the influence of selective placement, the ultimate findings of the adoption studies are still somewhat valid.

Primary Psychopath

An individual who displays certain characteristics that are maladaptive and pathological (e.g., lack of conscience, irresponsibility, failure to learn from experience)—as well as key traits that appear ostensibly adaptive, or at least nonpathological (e.g., low anxiety, interpersonal charm, absence of irrational thinking).

Aichhorn

Attempted to apply psychoanalysis to uncover unconscious motives of juveniles engaging in delinquent behavior. Distinguished between manifest and latent delinquency. Delinquency is considered manifest when it results in antisocial behavior; latent delinquency is when the same state of mind exists but has not yet expressed itself in such behavior.

Organization

Attachment behavior follows cognitive development as well as interpersonal maturation from birth.

Control Theories

Control theories assume that all people would naturally commit crimes if it wasn't for restraints on the selfish tendencies that exist in every individual. Control theorists rhetorically ask, "What is it about society, human interaction, and other factors that cause people not to act on their natural impulses."

David Lykken

David Lykken distinguished between the term sociopath and psychopath. A sociopath refers specifically to antisocial personalities that are due to social or familial dysfunction. A psychopath refers to individuals whose antisocial behavior may be a result from a defect or abnormality within themselves rather than in their rearing or socialization.

Techniques of Neutralization

Denial of Responsibility: Denial of responsibility is more than just claiming that deviant acts are an accident. Rather, individuals may claim that due to forces outside themselves (e.g., uncaring parents, bad friends, or poverty), they are not responsible or accountable for their behavior. Statements such as "it wasn't my fault" are extremely common among both youth and adult offenders. Denial of Injury: Criminals may evaluate their wrongful behavior in terms of whether anyone was hurt by their behavior. For instance, vandalism may be considered as simply "mischief"; stealing a car may be viewed as "borrowing." Sometimes society agrees with people who evaluate their wrongfulness in this manner in terms of designating these activities as "pranks." Denial of the Victim: While criminal may accept responsibility for their actions and may admit these actions involved an injury, they neutralize these actions as being a rightful retaliation or punishment. Criminals may perceive themselves as avengers and the victim is the wrongdoer. For instance, vandalism is revenge on an unfair teacher and shoplifting is retaliation against a "crooked" store owner. Another variation is when shoplifters claim that no one is getting hurt because the stores have theft insurance, failing to acknowledge that stores raise their prices to alleviate such losses and higher insurance premiums. Condemnation of the Condemners: Criminals may also shift the focus of attention from their deviant acts to the motives and behavior of those who disapprove of these actions. They may claim the condemners are hypocrites, deviants in disguise, or compelled by personal spite. For instance, one may claim that police are corrupt, teachers show favoritism, and parents "take it out" on their children. Thus, criminals neutralize their behavior through "a rejection of the rejectors." Appeal to Higher Loyalties: Criminals may sacrifice the rules of the larger society for the rules of the smaller social groups to which the person belongs, such as a gang or peer group. Criminals are then caught in a dilemma. They do not necessarily deviate because they reject the norms of the larger society. Rather, their higher loyalty is with these smaller groups. Thus, they subscribe to the norms of these groups. They may claim that one must "always help a buddy" or "never squeal on a friend." Another example of this technique is that of anti-abortion radicals who shoot doctors who perform abortions; they claim they are appealing to a higher loyalty (a supreme being) which alleviates them from responsibility or guilt. One area that techniques of neutralization have been applied is to white collar crime. Defense of necessity implies that an individual should not feel shame or guilt if they do something immoral as long as the behavior is perceived as necessary. Metaphor of the ledger essentially is the belief that an individual or group has done so much good (e.g., provided a useful product or service for public consumption) that they are entitled to mess up by doing something illegal (e.g., "cook the books" or knowingly distribute a faulty, dangerous product).

Eysenck's personality theory and PEN model

Developed a theory that linked personality to criminality. Human personality can be viewed in three dimensions (i.e., the PEN-model). Developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to measure individuals on these three dimensions.

Robert Hare

Developed the Psychopath Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) to examine psychopathy in adult samples. Includes scales measuring two factors: 1. The callous, selfish, remorseless use of others; and 2. A chronically unstable and antisocial lifestyle.

Chicago School

Ecological framework Studies done IN THE FIELD The School of Ecology and the Chicago School of Criminology >The Chicago School of criminology represents one of the most valid and generalizable theories, in the sense that many of its propositions can be readily applied to the growth and evolution of virtually all cities around the world. >The Chicago School is often referred to as the Ecological School or the theory of Social Disorganization.

Erickson

Examined adolescents struggling to discover their own ego identity, while negotiating, learning, and understanding social interactions as well as developing a sense of morality and right from wrong.

Adoption studies

Examined the predictive influence of the biological parents of adopted children versus that of the adoptive parents that raised the children from infancy to adulthood.

Social Bond

Four Elements of Bond: Attachment >>>Consist of affectionate bonds between an individual and his or her significant others. Commitment >>>The investment a person has in conventional society. >>>This has been explained as one's "stake in conformity," or what is at risk of being lost if one gets caught committing a crime. Involvement >>>The time spent in conventional activities. >>>>The assumption is that time spent in constructive activities will reduce time devoted to illegal behaviors. Belief >>>Has generally been interpreted as moral beliefs concerning the laws and rules of society. >>>>This is one of the most examined, and consistently supported, aspects of the social bond.

Freud's conscious and unconscious mind

Freud maintained that large portions of the ego and superego can remain unconscious. >It takes a great deal of effort for individuals to realize their conscious. >The unconscious include disturbing memories, forbidden urges, and other experiences that have been repressed or pushed out of the conscious. >Until these unconscious experiences are brought to awareness, the individual could engage in irrational and destructive behavior.

Goddard's work with the Kallikak

His work supported Lombroso's stigmata, in the photographs taken of the family they did look like criminals, however it was later found that the pictures were doctored to make them look more sinister and evil. They had many children in the family become criminals

Drift Theory

In many contexts (such as business), risk-taking and aggressiveness are seen as desirable characteristics, so many individuals are influenced by such subterranean values. >>>>This, according to Matza, adds to individuals' likelihood for "drifting" into crime and delinquency.

Harvey Cleckley

In his book, Mask of Sanity, he maintained that psychopaths were intelligent, self-centered, glib, superficially charming, verbally shallow, and manipulative; in terms of emotions these individuals lacked essential human characteristics such as empathy and remorse; and behaviorally psychopaths engaged in irresponsible behavior; prone to seek novelty and excitation, and often engage in moral transgressions and/or antisocial acts.

Central Nervous System

Largely consists of the brain and spinal column, which is largely responsible for what we as individuals chose to do, meaning our voluntary activities. Studies have emphasized comparing brain wave patterns of known chronic offenders (i.e., psychopaths, repeat violent offenders) to those of "normal" persons (i.e., those who have never been charged with a crime). >These studies consistently show that the brain wave patterns of chronic offenders are abnormal as compared to the normal population, with most studies showing slower brain wave patterns in psychopaths as compared to normal peoples.

Stimulus hunger

Persons who have low levels of Autonomic Nervous System arousal tend to experience "stimulus hunger." Stimulus hunger is a phenomenon meaning that certain individuals have such a low level of ANS arousal that they constantly seek out experiences and stimuli that are risky, and thus often illegal.

Fear Quotient theory

Lykken has suggested the low fear quotient theory. 1. All individuals have an innate propensity to fear certain stimuli such as a loss of support, snakes, or strangers. 2.Individuals subsequently associate, or condition, fear to stimuli and situations which they have previously experienced with pain or punishment. >This is referred to as innate fear quotient; this fear quotient varies from person to person. 3.Primary psychopaths are at the low end of this fear quotient continuum.

Abrahamsen

Maintained that criminal behavior is a symptom of more complex personality distortions, there is a conflict between the ego and superego, as well as the inability to control impulsive and pleasure-seeking drives because these influences are rooted in early childhood and later reinforced through reactions to familial and social stresses.

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Preconventional Conventional Postconventional

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain and body which help transmit electrical signals from one neuron to another. The most studied neurotransmitters in relation to criminal activity are dopamine and serotonin.

Freud's Concept of Id and Superego

One of Freud's most essential propositions is that all individuals are born with a tendency toward inherent drives and selfishness due to the "Id" domain of the psyche. Another one of Freud's assumptions is that this inherent, selfish tendency must be countered by controls produced from the development of the "Superego." The Superego is the domain of the psyche that contains our conscience, is formed through the interactions that occur between a young infant/child and their significant others.

Durkheim's Idea of Collective Conscience

One of the primary elements of this regulative force is the collective conscience, which is the extent of similarities or likenesses that people share. >>>The notion of collective conscience can be seen as an early form of the idea of social bonding. According to Durkheim, the collective conscience serves many functions in society. >>>One such function is the ability to establish rules that control individuals from following their natural tendencies toward selfish behavior. >>>Durkheim also believed that crime allows people to unite together in opposition against deviants.

classical conditioning

Pavlov Classical conditioning assumes that animals, as well as people, learn through associations between stimuli and responses. Tests with dogs

Three Laws of Imitation Theory

People imitate one another in proportion as they are in close contact; Often the superior is imitated by the inferior; and When two mutually exclusive methods or approaches come together, one method can be substituted for another.

Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory

Perhaps the most influential social control theory. Hirschi's theory of social bonding takes an assumption from Durkheim that "we are all animals, and thus naturally capable of committing criminal acts." However, as Hirschi acknowledged, most humans can be adequately socialized to become tightly bonded to conventional entities, such as families, schools, communities, and the like. The stronger a person is bonded to conventional society, the less prone to engaging in crime he or she will be. >>>>More specifically, the stronger the social bond, the less likely that an individual will commit criminal offenses.

Operant Conditioning

Primarily developed by B.F. Skinner. Concerned with how behavior is influenced by reinforcements and punishments. Assumes that the animal or human being is a proactive player in seeking out rewards, and not just a passive entity that simply receives stimuli. Certain behaviors are encouraged through reward (positive reinforcement) or through avoidance of punishment (negative reinforcement). Like different types of reinforcement, punishment comes in two forms as well. >>>>>>Behavior is discouraged, or weakened, via adverse stimuli (positive punishment) or lack of reward (negative punishment). >>>>>>>>>>>A positive punishment would be anything that directly presents negative sensations or feelings.

Autonomic nervous system

Primarily responsible for involuntary motor activities, such as heart rate, dilation of pupils, electric conductivity in the skin, etc. This is the type of physiological activity that is measure by polygraph measures. >However, such measures are not infallible because the individuals who are most at risk of being serious, violent offenders are the most likely to pass such tests even though they are lying.

PEN Model

Psychoticism >Individuals considered to have high psychoticism are associated with being aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive, antisocial, unempathetic, creative, and tough-minded; individuals with low psychoticism are characterized as being empathic, unselfish, altruistic, warm, peaceful, and generally more pleasant. Extraversion >Associated traits of being sociable, lively, active, assertive, sensation-seeking, carefree, dominant, surgent, and venturesome. Neuroticism (instability) >Linked with such traits as being anxious, depressed, guilty feelings, low self-esteem, tense, irrational, shy, moody, and emotional.

Who conducted the most notable family studies

Richard L. Dugdale and H.H. Goddard

Social Disorganization

Shaw and McKay's theory assumption that certain neighborhoods in all cities have more crime than other parts of the city, most of them located in Burgess' Zone II, which is the zone in transition from residential to industrial, due to the invasion of factories. According to Shaw and McKay, the neighborhoods that have the highest rates of crime typically have at least three common problems in the area: physical dilapidation, poverty, and heterogeneity (high cultural mix). One of the most significant contributions of Shaw and McKay's model was that they demonstrated that the prevalence and frequency of various social ills, be it poverty, disease, low birth weight, etc., tend to overlap with higher delinquency rates. Regardless of what social problem is measured, higher rates of social problems are almost always clustered in the zone in transition. Thus, the breakdown in the conditions of the neighborhood leads to social disorganization, which in turn leads to delinquents learning criminal activities from older youth in the neighborhood. all groups had high delinquency while in Zone IIOnce most of each ethnic group moved out of Zone II, their delinquency rates decreased significantly.

Inhibitory Defect or Underendowment

Some psychopathic individuals seem to act impulsively without assessing the situation, appreciating the dangers, or considering the consequences. This perspective maintains that lesions in certain areas of the brain can cause a decrease in inhibitory control in animals as well as humans.

Preconventional

Stage 1: Right is obedience to power and avoidance of punishment. Stage 2: Right is taking responsibility and leaving others to be responsible for themselves.

Conventional

Stage 3: Right is being considerate: "uphold the values of other adolescents and adults' rules of society at large." Stage 4: Right is being good, with the values and norms of family and society at large.

Postconventional

Stage 5: Right is finding inner "universal rights" balance between self-rights and societal rules—a social contract. Stage 6: Right is based on a higher order of applying principles to all human-kind; being non-judgmental and respecting all human life.

Brain Injuries -- lobes that affect behavior

Studies have consistently shown that damage to any part of the brain increases the risk of crime by individuals in the future. damage to the frontal lobes or temporal lobes (particularly those on the left side) appears to have the most consistent association with criminal offending.

Goal of twin studies

The goal of the twin studies was to examine the concordance rates between MZ (identical) twin pairs versus that of DZ ( fraternal) twin pairs regarding delinquency. Twin studies were specifically meant to determine, through examination of identical twin pairs, the relative influence of nature and nurture on criminality.

Attachment theory

The development of Attachment Theory is the combined work of Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Bowlby maintained there are seven essential features of this theoretical perspective: Specificity Duration Engagement of Emotion Course of development Learning Organization Diological function

Ego

The ego is the moderator between the demands of an instinct (i.e., the id), the superego, and reality. The ego characterizes what is referred to as reason and sanity while the id refers to passions. In the id, there are no conflicts whereas in the ego conflicts between impulses need to be resolved.

Insanity

The general rationale to an insanity defense is that a person should not be punished for engaging in a criminal act if he or she cannot refrain from doing so.

Mental health courts

The goals of mental health courts include increasing public safety for communities, increasing treatment participation and quality of life for offenders, and enhancing the use of resources in various communities. Mental health courts share some common features. >They are a specialized court for offenders with mental health illnesses. >Focuses more on problem-solving approaches. Participants in this court are identified through a series of mental health screenings and assessments. >Offenders voluntarily participate in a judicially supervised treatment plan. >There are incentives for adherence to the treatment as well as sanctions due to nonadherence. There are variations among the different mental health courts such as target population, charge accepted, plea arrangement, intensity of supervision, program duration, as well as type of treatment available.

Adoption studies findings

The highest predictability for future criminality was found for adopted youth who had both biological and adoptive parents who were convicted criminals. Adoptees who had only biological parents who were criminal had a much higher likelihood of becoming criminal as compared to the youths who only had adoptive parents who were criminal. Biological parents had far more influence in the likelihood that youth would become criminal.

Id

The id is the source of instinctual drives; it contains everything that is present at birth. Essentially, there are two types of instinctual drives. >There are constructive drives, usually of a sexual nature (the libido). >The other type of instinctual drive is destructive. Destructive drives refer to such things as aggression, destruction, and death. In the id, there are no conflicts

Psychoanalytic perspective

The psychoanalytic perspective is both complex and extremely systematized. >First, an individual's behavior is presumed to be due to the three aspects of his or her personality: the id, ego, and superego. Second, anxiety, defense mechanisms, and the unconscious are also key principles of the psychoanalytic perspective. >In terms of anxiety, this is considered a warning of looming danger and a painful experience. >This results in the individual attempting to correct the situation. >In most instances, the ego can cope with this anxiety through rational measures. >When this does not work, however, the ego uses irrational measures, like rationalization (ego-defense mechanisms).

Superego

The superego is also designated as a conscience. This evolves during the course of an individual's development. Individuals learn the restrictions, mores, and values of society.

Hormones and Crime

There are various chemicals in the brain and the rest of the body that determine how we think, perceive, and react to various stimuli. Some studies have shown that a relatively excessive amount of testosterone in the body is consistently linked to criminal or aggressive behavior, with most studies showing a moderate relationship. Studies have also shown that hormonal changes in females can cause criminal behavior. Specifically, studies have shown that a high proportion of the women in prison for violent crimes committed their crimes during their premenstrual cycle, at which time women experience a high level of hormones that make them more "male-like" during that time.

Dopamine

Unfortunately, no conclusion can be made at this point about dopamine levels, due to the lack of scientific evidence regarding this chemical. > there has been evidence that shows that low levels of dopamine are linked to criminality, but others show that there is no association or even a positive link to criminal behavior. so it cannot for sure be said that it goes either way

Learning

While learning does have some influence on a person's attachments, the key component is social interaction.

Neutralization Theory

Why is it called neutralization theory? >>>The answer is that people justify and rationalize behavior through "neutralizing" it, or making it appear not so serious. >>>In other words, individuals make up situational excuses for behavior that they know is wrong, and they do this to alleviate the guilt they feel for doing such immoral acts. Neutralization theory is associated with Gresham Sykes and David Matza's Techniques of Neutralization and Matza's Drift Theory. Sykes and Matza argued that most criminals are still partially committed to the dominant social order. Youths are not immersed in a subculture that is committed to either extremes of complete conformity or complete nonconformity. Rather, these individuals drift between these two extremes: >>>The delinquent transiently exists in a limbo between convention and crime, responding in turn to the demands of each, flirting now with one, now the other, but postponing commitment, evading decision. Thus, he [or she] drifts between criminal and conventional action.

Concentric Zones

Zone I The Central Business District. This area of a city contains the large business buildings (modern skyscrapers), which would include banking, chambers of commerce, courthouses, and other essential business/political centers such as police headquarters, post offices, etc. Factory Zone The adjacent area just outside the business district, was the "factory zone" (unnumbered), which is perhaps the most significant in terms of causing crime because it was this factory zone that invaded the previously stable residential zones in Zone II. Zone II Zone in Transition In a state of transition from residential to industrial. The area that was most significantly subjected to the ecological principles suggested by Park, namely invasion, domination, recession, and succession. It is this zone that subsequent theorists focused on in criminological theorizing. Zone III "Workingmen's Homes" Largely made up of relatively modest homes and apartments. Zone IV Consisted of relatively higher priced family dwellings and more expensive apartments. Zone V Considered the suburban or commuter zone.

Defense Mechanisms

anxiety, defense mechanisms, and the unconscious are also key principles of the psychoanalytic perspective. In terms of anxiety, this is considered a warning of looming danger and a painful experience. This results in the individual attempting to correct the situation. In most instances, the ego can cope with this anxiety through rational measures. When this does not work, however, the ego uses irrational measures, like rationalization (ego-defense mechanisms).

Heinz Dilemma

heinz wife is dying and the cure or her is $2,000 but he only has $1,000, should he steal it?

Serotonin

studies have consistently shown that low levels of serotonin are consistently linked with criminal offending. Is important in virtually all information processing, whether it be learning, emotional processing, etc., thus, it is vital in more aspects of interactions with the environment.

Family studies

studies that examine the amount of criminalitym within a family

Focal Concerns

virtually everyone in the lower class believed in and socialized the values of six focal concerns Fate The concern of luck, or whatever life dealt you; it disregarded responsibility and accountability for one's actions. Autonomy The value of independence from authority. Trouble The concern of staying out of legal problems, as well as getting into and out of personal difficulties. Toughness Maintaining your reputation on the street in many ways. Excitement The engagement of activities (some illegal) that helped liven up an otherwise mundane existence of being lower class. Smartness An emphasis on "street smarts" or the ability to con others. Miller claimed that these six Focal Concerns were emphasized and taught by members of the lower class as a culture or environment (or "milieu," as stated in the title of his work).