Clinical Inquiry Exam 2 KEY TERMS
antecedent variable
(1) in survey research, the variable used to predict another variable; (2) in experimental research, the independent variable. Ex: the pt's motivation to learn about their medical condition might be important in determining the effect of the diabetes education program
a priori
(before initiating the intervention) by design or while conducting a statistical analyses
Elements of Informed Consent
- Must have explanation of study in detail (testing what happens if you give tequila to Toby) - whether if the participant will be harmed, or any treatment in the study (probably will) - if you join study can go back and withdraw from the study (nah)
basic types of observational roles
- use for collecting data and how people behave under certain conditions - observation consistent with study aims and objectives
Beneficence
-Obligation to do good and not harm to other people -To act in the best interests of another
Types of Observational Research
-concealment w/o intervention: observation with concealment (one way mirror like in CSI) -concealment with intervention -No concealment w/o intervention: observations with no concealment - no concealment with intervention: intervention is used when the reseacher is observing effects of an intervention introduced for scientific purposes
characteristics of a non-experimental research
-construct a picture of a phenonmenon - no control group - independent variable not manipulated - provides level IV evidence - tests relationships and differences among variables - explores events, people, or situations as they naturally occur (like seeing whats gonna happen to people who live in Pasadena 20 years from now)
Two ways Expert-based guidelines are developed
1. They are know-it-alls and develop the policies by themselves bc HELLO they are EXPERTS 2. they do a metaanalysis- going to databases and extracting data and pool average results
sampling unit
1st stage- consists of large units or clusters. 2nd stage - consists of smaller units or clusters 3rd stage- sampling units are even smaller
a nurse researcher has determined that an intervening variable might slightly affect both randomized sample groups. What is the best response? 1 realize it is flawed 2 continue as before 3. attempt to remove the variable 4. change the research design
2. continue as before
field notes
A complete record of all measurements made during the survey with sketches and narration, where necessary, to clarify the notes.
time series design
A research design that involves measurements made over some period, such as the study of traffic accident rates before and after lowering the speed limit.
cross-sectional study
A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time. (so different ppl of different ages)
developmental study
A type of nonexperimental research design that is concerned not only with the existing status and interrelationship of phenomena, but also with changes that take place as a function of time.
one-group pretest-posttest design
An experiment in which a researcher recruits one group of participants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on a posttest.
after-only design
An experimental design with two randomly assigned groups—a treatment group and a control group. This design differs from the true experiment in that both groups are measured only after the experimental treatment. Neither group is pretested or measured
Basic ethical principles in research
Beneficence, Respect, and Justice
CASP tools
Checklists that provide an evidence-based approach for assessing the quality, quantity, and consistency of specific study designs.
what question is most important when evaluating evidence for experimental studies?
Could something else explain the evidence?
expert-based practice guidelines
Depend on having a group of nationally known experts in the field who meet and solely use opinions of experts along with whatever research evidence is developed to date. (Ex: Jazmin is an expert on all things Bruno Mars)
extraneous variable
In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV. This variable interferes with the operations of the phenomena being studied Ex: if a participant that was doing a memory testing study was tired bc he didn't get enough sleep last night
matching
In connection with experiments, the procedure whereby pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their similarities on one or more variables (such as age, level of education, medical diagnosis), and one member of the pair is assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group.
Meta-analysis provides which level of evidence?
Level 1
likert-type scales
Lists of statements for which respondents indicate whether they "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree," or "strongly disagree."
types of quasi-experimental designs:
Nonequivalent control group designs After-only nonequivalent control group design One-group (pretest-posttest) design Time series design
respondent burden
Occurs when the length of the questionnaire or interview is too long or the questions too difficult for respondents to answer in a reasonable amount of time considering their age, health condition, or mental status . (or they're just plain bored like me)
attention control
Operationalized as the control group receiving the same amount of "attention" as the experimental group.
quasi-experimental design
Research method similar to an experimental design except that it makes use of naturally occurring groups rather than randomly assigning subjects to groups.
Protection of Human Rights
Right to self-determination Right to privacy and dignity Right to anonymity and confidentiality Right to fair treatment Right to protection from discomfort and harm
methodological research
The controlled investigation and measurement of the means of gathering and analyzing data. (research to check the validity?)
meta-analysis
a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion
network/snowball sampling
a form of volunteer sampling that occurs when you rely on members of a network to introduce you to other members of the network. This strategy takes advantage of social networks and the fact that friends tend to share characteristics in common
sample frame
a master list of the entire population
power analysis
a mathematical method to determine the acceptable sample size that will best detect the true effect of the independent variable
effect size
a measure of the strength of the relationship between the intervention and control group or the extent of an experimental effect
Probability sampling
a method used by pollsters to select a representative sample in which every individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected as a respondent
Cohort study (longitudinal study)
a non-experimental research design in which a researcher collects data from the same group at a different point in time advantages: each subject serves as his or her own control increase depth of responses can be obtained early trends can be analyzed disadvantages: mortality is a threat data collection takes forever and it is costly test effects may be a threat
quota sampling
a nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population
nonequivalent control group design
a quasi-experimental design in which nonequivalent groups of subjects participate in the different experimental groups, and there is no pretest the basic problem w this design is the weakened confidence the researcher can have in assuming that the experimental and comparison groups are similar at the beginning of the study
secondary analysis
a research method in which researchers use existing material and analyze data that were originally collected by others
correlation study
a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other Ex: Is there a correlation to coffee drinkers and higher IQ's?
representative sample
a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole ex: I speak for all nursing students at UST when I say Leyden doesn't teach
non-probability sampling
a sampling technique in which there is no way to calculate the likelihood that a specific element of the population being studied will be chosen
content analysis
a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication, such as a written work, speech, or film. You read everyone's answers and look to see if other people used the same words or had similar stories
pilot study
a trial run in survey research; the study before the study; the "parent" study
intervening variable (also called mediator variable)
a variable that changes the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable. Can occur during an experimental or quasi-experimental study For example, there is an association between being poor and having a shorter life span. Just because someone is poor doesn't mean that will lead to an early death, so other hypothetical variables are used to explain the phenomenon. These intervening variables could include: lack of access to healthcare or poor nutrition
which type of design technique best identifies causation? - psychometrics - model testing - after only design - survey
after only design
assent
aka agreement; contains these elements 1. a basic understanding of what the child will be expected to do and what will be done to the child 2. a comprehension of the basic purpose of research 3. an ability to express preference regarding participation
risk/benefit ratio
an analysis of whether the research is important enough to warrant placing participants at risk
systematic error
an error that always occurs in the same direction
measurement error
an error that occurs when there is a difference between the information desired by the researcher and the information provided by the measurement process
prospective study
an observational study in which subjects are followed to observe future outcomes Ex: A study that monitors people who might become exposed to harmful chemicals in the future (everyone that lives in pasadena)
AGREE II
appraisal of guidelines research and evaluation; internationally developed instrument to evaluate clinical practice guidelines- informs practitioners what info should be reported and how it should be reported
dependent variable
cause the desired effect on the outcome
inclusion criteria
characteristics that each element must possess to be included in the sample Ex: have to female to participate in ovarian cancer study
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants and make sure everything is ethical
weakness of experimental design
complicated to design costly difficult to implement randomization may not be possible most nursing researches use quasi-experimental design
which type of observation is being used in the following scenario? A researcher uses a one-way mirror to observe interactions of caregivers and infants who have feeding problems`
concealment without intervention
Systematic data collection
data collected in a uniform, consistent, or standard way
exclusion criteria
don't qualify ex: a man in ovarian cancer study
Chance (random error)
errors that are difficult to control (a respondents anxiety level at time of testing)
simple random sampling
every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample
why testing can be a problem?
if the same measurement is given twice. Subjects tend to score better the second time just by remembering the test items
data saturation
in qualitative research, the time when no new information is being obtained and repetition of information is consistently heard
strength of experimental design
most powerful for testing cause-and-effect relationships owing to the use of control, manipulation and randomization
which of the following is snowballing?
networking
mortality
people tend to drop out of studies, especially those that require participation over an extended period of time. (me)
accessible population
portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable access (UST students)
Solomon four-group design
pretest-posttest design with two sets of nonequivalent groups, one set that takes the pretest and posttest and one set that takes only the posttest
the best design to use if a nurse only has one resource and sample is..
quasi-experiment
closed-ended questions
questions a person must answer by choosing from a limited, predetermined set of responses
clinical practice guidelines
recommendations based on evidence that serve as useful tools to direct clinical practice
concurrent variability
refers to the degree of correlation of one test with the scores of another more established instrument of the same concept when both are administered at the same time
Concealment
refers whether the subjects know they are being observed
ex post facto study (same as control study)
research in which subjects are chosen based on a pre-existing condition (such as race); all other variables are controlled. Examines the relationships among the variables after variations have occurred
purposive sampling
researcher selects subjects who are considered to be typical of the population
Integrative review of research
review conducted to identify, analyze, and synthesize the results from independent studies to determine the current knowledge (what is known and not known) in a particular area
Psychometrics
study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits- most important aspect of methodological research
anonymity
subject's identity cannot be linked- even by the researcher (HIPPA)
experimental design
suitable for testing cause-and-effect relationships bc they help eliminate potential threats to internal validity. 3 identifying properties: 1. randomization 2. control 3. manipulation
systematic review
summarized findings from multiple studies of a specific clinical practice question or topic that recommend practice changes and future directions for research; one of the strongest sources of evidence for evidence-based practice
retrospective study
the dependent variable has already been affected by the independent variable, and the investigator attempts to link present events to events that occurred in the past Ex: moms that took this pill 25 years ago gave birth to daughters who are infertile
manipulation
the process of "doing something," a different dose of "something" or comparing different types of treatment by manipulating the independent variable for at least some of the involved subjects
Control
the standard by which the test results can be compared. The investigator holds certain conditions constant to limit bias that could influence the dependent variables.
target population
the whole group you want to study or describe (ex: depressed nursing students)
forest plot
type of diagram used to present the meta-analysis results of studies with dichotomous outcomes
weakness of quasi-experimental design
unable to demonstrate clear and truly demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
objective
unbiased; not subjective
Covenience sampling
use of most readily accessible person or objects as subjects
reactivity
when a subject's behavior changes by the presence of an observer
when might an entire population be used in a research study?
when the population size is small