Cognitive Processes Test 3, Chapter 5/6 Wrap up

mode of attentional control that is the bottom-up automatic attraction of attention to a salient aspect of the environment

exogenous

Attention attracted by external events is ______, whereas attention directed by a strategy is ______.

exogenous or automatic; endogenous or controlled

attention extracted by external events is _____, whereas attention directed by a strategy is _____

exogenous or automatic; endogenous or controlled

theory by Treisman that proposes visual search requires 2 stages

feature integration theory (FIT)

search for a single unique item; item will pop out automatically due to activity in a feature map, making the search quick and efficient, regardless of number of items (involved in FIT)

feature search

which of the following is one difference between feature-based and space-based attention?

feature-based attention is likely to be endogenous

how does recoding demonstrate the interaction between STM and LTM?

recoding is a way of escaping the limited capacity of STM

Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model?

the icon

Measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with _______.

the number of items held in working memory

measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with _____

the number of items held in working memory

explain what studies of change blindness and inattentional blindness suggest about our perception of the world (2)

the perceptual representation of the visual world is not as detailed as usually presumed; visual world is used as "outside memory"

Repeating a phone number to yourself to hold it in memory while you dial it would use which component of working memory?

the phonological loop

provide the duration of STM, as estimated by Brown and the Petersons. Info is lost within ______

18 seconds

experiments using the change-detection task have estimated the capacity of VSTM to be ______ items

3-4

The central executive in working memory is hypothesized to have the function of:

directing the flow of information.

The capacity of short-term memory was thought by George Miller to be:

7 (plus or minus 2) meaningful chunks of information.

STM has _______ links to LTM, maximum

7 plus or minus 2

the capacity of short-term memory was thought by George Miller to be _____

7 plus or minus 2 meaningful chunks of information

made up of 3 memory stores (sensory store, STM, and LTM) w/ control processes that control movement of info within and between memory stores (sensory input, attention, encoding, and retrieval)

Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory

central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and an episodic buffer

Baddeley's working memory theory

1. subjects were given a consonant trigram counting backwards by 3 to prevent rehearsal 2. 0-18 second delay 3. recall argued that info is decayed in STM unless it was refreshed by maintenance rehearsal

Brown and Peterson task

What is the basic logic behind the Wickens' "release from PI experiment?"

Changing the categories of the items improves performance.

experiment where it was determined that nothing but the gross physical characteristics of the unattended message were processed (if message switched to a tone, or changed from male to female)

Cherry's shadowing experiment

_____ (2000) suggests that Miller's 7 plus or minus 2 is valid for situations allowing "online rehearsal, chunking, and memorization, for which the exact number of chunks in memory cannot be ascertained; recent evidence indicates a pure capacity limit of around __, on average

Cowan; 4

Identify who performed one of the first studies of attention in 1800s

Helmholtz

who showed problems w/ early selection theory by saying that unattended words influenced interpretation of an attended sentence?

Mackay (1973)

who thought that the problem with early selection theory was that people unaware of stimuli in unattended ear, except for their own names? Also suggested that highly salient messages could penetrate the filter

Neville Moray (1959)

Which parts of a list of words are most likely to be in STM when the cue to recall the words is given?

Ones from the recency region

The most famous case of amnesia in the psychology literature is that of patient H.M., who underwent surgery to treat a serious case of epilepsy. The surgeon removed which parts of H.M.’s brain?

Parts of the temporal lobes

who found that the problem w/ late selection theory is that most of the evidence for it can be explained as lapses of attention or automatic attentional responses to important stimuli?

Pashler (1998)

stage in FIT that registers basic visual features, like lines, colors, etc in parallel (all at once)

Stage 1

stage in FIT where the spotlight of attention moves from location to location on a master "map of location," combining the features present at each location

Stage 2

the process of transforming transient perceptual representations into durable VSTM representations is called _______

consolidation

who found that the problem w/ late selection theory is that shadowing by meaning is very difficult and has small effects of unattended items?

Treisman and Reily (1969)

What are the four components of Baddeley's working memory theory?

What are the four components of Baddeley's working memory theory?

The capacity of short-term memory was thought by George Miller to be: a. 7 +/- 2 meaningful chunks of information b. About 75% of visual display c. 12 +/- 3 chunks of information d. 7 +/- 2 letters or numbers e. Unlimited

a. 7 +/- 2 meaningful chunks of information

Echoic memory is thought to be: a. A lifetime b. About 1 minute, based upon evidence from the 3-eared man procedure c. About 3-4 seconds, but perhaps up to 20 seconds based upon controversial evidence d. Up to 5 minutes in the absence of interference or presentation of new information e. Less than the length of the icon

a. About 3-4 seconds, but perhaps up to 20 seconds based upon controversial evidence

The primary and recency effects in memory: a. Can be independently manipulated, indicating at least two types of memory at work b. Have recently been discredited in cognitive psychology c. Are thought to be due to the action of short-term memory d. Are thought to be due to the action of sensory memory e. Are thought to be due to the action of long-term memory

a. Can be independently manipulated, indicating at least two types of memory at work

According to Miller in his "Magical number 7+/- 2" paper, one way to exceed the limits of STM capacity is to engage in a strategy called: a. Chunking b. Rehearsal c. Rote repetition d. Imagery

a. Chunking

Luck and Vogel showed that people could remember about ______ colored shapes without making errors when shown two successive displays of shapes. a. Four b. Two c. Seven d. Three

a. Four

Introducing a delay filled with an interfering task of several minutes, between studying the list and recalling, it is likely to result in the greatest decrement for _______. a. Ones from the middle of the list b. Ones from the primacy portion c. Ones from either end d. Ones from the recency region

a. Ones from the middle of the list

In a free recall test of memory for a list of words, which items are typically recalled first? a. Ones from the recency region b. Ones from the middle of the list c. Ones from either end d. Ones from the primacy portion

a. Ones from the recency region

Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model? a. The icon b. The central executive c. The phonological loop Td. he visuospatial sketchpad The episodic buffer

a. The icon

Measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with _______. a. The number of items held in working memory b. Episodic buffer tasks c. Spatial tasks d. Lower levels of phonological loop activity

a. The number of items held in working memory

Sternberg reasoned that the duration of a stage could be measured by making it repeat and measuring how much each repetition adds to the total processing time

additive factors method

Anterograde amnesia refers to forgetting things that happened __________ a traumatic event.

after

anterograde amnesia refers to forgetting things that happened _____ a traumatic event

after

neurophysiological research on attention in humans and animals has shown that attention affects ______

almost all visual processes throughout the cortex

what is the estimated duration of iconic memory?

around 300 ms (1/3 second)

what is the estimated duration of echoic memory?

at least 3-4 seconds

theory by Treisman with 2 proposals: 1. selective filter attenuates (turns down) flow from the unattended channel 2. filtering occurs at the earliest level of processing possible to separate the attended from the unattended

attenuation theory

What is the basic logic behind the Wickens' "release from PI experiment?" a. Changing the rate of presentation improves performance b. Changing the categories of the items improves performance c. Changing the length of the retention interval improves performance d. Changing the instructions improves the performance

b. Changing the categories of the items improves performance

In the absence of rehearsal, short-term memory tends to: a. Last for an unlimited amount of time b. Last about 20 seconds c. Decay slowly over 24 hours d. Last about 8 seconds e. Decay slowly over a week

b. Last about 20 seconds

according to Treisman, if the target differs from all distractors by a single, salient feature, search time should _____

be independent of the number of distractors

why might serial exhaustive search be more efficient than the intuitively plausible serial self-terminating search?

because otherwise 2 processes would have to compete for each item (compare AND decision Y or N)

Posner showed that a spatial cue presented shortly before a target to be detected could produce which of the following?

both benefits for valid cues and costs for invalid cues

(in Wolfe's guided search model) the form of visual search guidance where information from stimuli in form of two-dimensional "salience maps" of the visual environment

bottom-up

Wolfe's guided search theory was an extension of FIT that included which of the following?

bottom-up activation of salient features and top-down activation of objects similar to the target template

what are the 2 forms of visual search guidance proposed by Wolfe's guided search model

bottom-up and top-down

Anterograde amnesia refers to forgetting things that happened ________ a traumatic event. a. Before b. During c. After d. All of the above

c. After

What are the four components of Baddeley's working memory theory? a. A central executive, sensory memory, STM, and LTM b. Sensory memory, STM, phonological loop, and LTM c. Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and an episodic buffer d. LTM, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and sensory memory

c. Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and an episodic buffer

Brooks demonstrated support for Baddeley's theory by showing that performance was best when which of the following occurred? a. People did two spatial things at once b. People did two verbal things at once c. People did one verbal and one spatial thing together d. People rehearsed at the same time they recalled things

c. People did one verbal and one spatial thing together

The Brown-Peterson task was invented in order to study forgetting in STM by preventing _______. a. Encoding b. Retrieval c. Rehearsal d. Recoding

c. Rehearsal

Measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with ______. a. Lower levels of phonological loop activity b. Spatial tasks c. The number of items held in working memory d. Episodic buffer tasks

c. The number of items held in working memory

Repeating a phone number to yourself to hold it in memory while you dial it would use which component of working memory? a. The episodic buffer b. Both the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop c. The phonological loop d. The visuospatial sketchpad e. Both the visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffer

c. The phonological loop

the primacy and recency effects in memory:

can be independently manipulated, indicating at least 2 types of memory at work

The primacy and recency effects in memory:

can be independently manipulated, indicating at least two types of memory at work.

adults have a capacity of 7 plus or minus 2 chunks of info; Miller determined this value by giving experimental subjects lists of items to recall in order

capacity of STM

form of blindness; inability to notice large unattended changes in the visual field that occur simultaneously w/ a visual disruption

change blindness

exogenous attention probably evolved to alert us to important __________

changes in the environment

According to Miller in his "Magical number 7 plus or minus 2" paper, one way to exceed limits of STM capacity is to engage in a strategy called ______.

chunking

the process of creating a chunk by reorganizing info through association w/ info in long-term memory

chunking or recoding

searching for a combination of features requires attention to move from item-location to item-location to find the correct combination, which is a slow process (involved in FIT)

conjunction search

Information is stored in iconic memory for: a. A lifetime b. 5-10 seconds c. Up to 1 year d. Around one-third of a second e. Around 20 seconds

d. Around one-third of a second

According to the Atkinson Shiffrin theory, rehearsal has two main functions in memory, namely ______. a. Maintenance and storage b. Verbal and spatial c. Encoding and retrieval d. Maintenance and retrieval

d. Maintenance and retrieval

Which parts of a list of words are most likely to be in STM when the cue to recall the words is given? a. Ones from either end b. Ones from the middle of the list c. Ones from the primacy portion d. Ones from the recency region

d. Ones from the recency region

The most famous case of amnesia in the psychology literature is that of patient H.M., who underwent surgery to treat a serious case of epilepsy. The surgeon removed which parts of H.M.'s brain? a. Parts of the occipital lobes b. Parts of the parietal lobes c. Parts of the frontal lobes d. Parts of the temporal lobes

d. Parts of the temporal lobes

In 1890, William James distinguished between what he called primary memory and secondary memory. Today we recognize this distinctions as between _____ memory and ______ memory, respectively. a. Semantic; episodic b. Sensory; short-term c. Implicit; explicit d. Short-term; long-term

d. Short-term; long-term

The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory of memory distinguishes between ______ types of different structural memories. a. Five b. Two c. Four d. Three

d. Three

studies of the cocktail party phenomenon done in the laboratory by Cherry and others used an attention-demanding task called ______

dichotic listening and shadowing an attended message

irrelevant info if filtered out before it can be processed, resulting in early selection; part of perceptual load theory; aka high load

difficult perceptual tasks

the central executive in working memory is hypothesizes to have the function of ______

directing the flow of information

network in attention whose role is goal-directed control of attention to locations or features

dorsal frontoparietal network

theory by Donald Broadbent (1958) where info enters a brief sensory store, where unattended info is filtered out and attended info is sent to short and long-term memory

early selection theory

Lavie's perceptual load theory helped to settle a long-standing debate between ______

early vs late selection theories of attention

what is the difference between early and late selection theory?

early- physical characteristics of input; late- after the meaning of input is extracted

Broadbent's filter theory described a(n) _____ filter between _____

early; sensory processes and working memory

irrelevant info is processed deeply, requiring late selection of relevant info; part of perceptual load theory; aka low load

easy perceptual tasks

auditory sensory memory

echoic memory

mode of attentional control that is the top-down, voluntary direction of attention toward info of interest

endogenous

Luck and Vogel showed that people could remember about ___ colored shapes without making errors when shown two successive displays of shapes

four

Luck and Vogel showed that people could remember about ____ colored shapes without making errors when shown two successive displays of shapes.

four

VSTM is thought to bridge the gaps between ________

glimpses of a scene due to eye movement

which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model? -visuospatial sketchpad -phonological loop -icon -episodic buffer -central executive

icon

visual sensory memory

iconic memory

the inhibition-deficit hypothesis of cognitive aging ascribes some of the difficulties that older people have in their ________

inability to ignore irrelevant information

form of blindness; inability to perceive an unexpected object when attention is focused elsewhere

inattentional blindness

evidence suggests that STM forgetting is more likely due to _______ than _______, although the latter has not been completely eliminated as a partial explanation

interference; decay

what components are involved in the dorsal frontoparietal network in attention?

intra-parietal sulcus extending into superior parietal lobule (IPS/SPL) and frontal eye fields (FEF)

activity in the _______ is closely associated w/ VSTM performance

intraparietal sulcus

In the absence of rehearsal, short-term memory tends to:

last about 20 seconds.

theory that proposes that selective attention to info occurs only after info on all channels has undergone extensive processing for meaning; the selectivity in attention comes at the response selection stage of processing

late selection theory

the maximum number of items that can be recalled in order

memory span

Luck and Vogel (1997) proposed that the capacity of VSTM is limited by ______

number of objects that must be remembered

Introducing a delay filled with an interfering task of several minutes, between studying the list and recalling, it is likely to result in the greatest decrement for ______.

ones from the recency region

which parts of a list of words are most likely to be in STM when the cue to recall the words is given?

ones from the recency region

in a free recall test of memory for a list of words, which items are typically recalled first?

ones from the receny region

in Sperling's experiment, subjects were asked to report only one row of letters; this was used to compensate for the fading of whole report

partial report

the most famous case of amnesia in the psychology literature is that of patient H.M., who underwent surgery to treat a serious case of epilepsy. the surgeon removed which parts of H.M.'s brain?

parts of the temporal lobes

theory by Lavie that proposed that early vs late selection depends upon the perceptual load imposed by a task; easy/difficult perceptual tasks; Eriksen flanker task

perceptual load theory

when Posner and Jonides compared the effects of central (instructional) cues and peripheral (abrupt-onset) cues on target recognition response times, what did they find?

peripheral cues produced benefits that were independent of cue validity, but central cues did not

the cocktail party phenomenon refers to our apparent ability to do which of the following?

pick one message out of several similar, simultaneous ones and track it for comprehension

Posner's spotlight model of visual attention was based on experiments showing that a stimulus could be detected faster if it were ______

preceded by a visual cue near the subsequent spot

In a free recall test of memory for a list of words, which items are typically recalled first?

primary

Keppel and Underwood's experiment consisted of only three trials. They claimed that forgetting in the Brown-Peterson task) is due to ______.

proactive and retroactive interference

a type of interference that occurs when previously learned info interferes w/ the learning of new info; the more similar the old and new info, the greater the interference

proactive interference

The Brown-Peterson task was invented in order to study forgetting in STM by preventing _______.

rehearsal

the Brown-Peterson task was invented in order to study forgetting in STM by preventing _______

rehearsal

research on the psychological refractory period has revealed which stage to be the source of delayed responding when a person is performing two tasks simultaneously?

response decision

psychologists usually define attention in terms of two key concepts, namely ________

selection and capacity

which type of search did subjects use in Sternberg's memory scanning experiment?

serial exhaustive search

Sternberg's classic work on searching for information from short-term memory indicated that the search process is:

serial exhaustive.

repeating the words of a message as soon as they are spoken

shadowing

in 1890, william james distinguished between what he called primary memory and secondary memory. Today we recognize this distinction as between ______memory and ______ memory, respectively.

short-term; long-term

VSTM can be subdivided into ______ subsystems

spatial and object

Donders assumed that removing a stage from the info processing chain will not change the remaining stages, BUT it's impossible to know that the remaining changes are unchanged

subtractive method

VSTM representations are stored by means of ______

sustained firing of action potentials

what components are involved in the ventral frontoparietal network in attention?

temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and ventral frontal cortex (VFC)

if two target items are present in an RSVP stream such that the first is easily detected, the second is often missed if it follows the first one closely. this phenomenon is called _______

the attentional blink

James defined attention as a process that determines _____

the contents of consciousness by "taking possession of the mind"

The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory of memory distinguishes between ______ types of different structural memories.

three

(in Wolfe's guided search model) the form of visual search guidance where activation of objects or features that closely match a target template

top-down

network in attention whose roles are: stimulus driven detection of salient unattended or unexpected stimuli and triggering of shifts of attention

ventral frontoparietal network

when can illusory conjunctions occur, according to Treisman's FIT?

when features are not bound by focal attention

In Sperling's experiment, subjects were asked to report all of the letters that they could remember; in larger displays, subjects perceived the entire visual array, but it faded before they could finish reporting

whole report

visual short-term memory (VSTM) is considered to be the visual storage component of the _______ system

working memory