Cognitive Processes Test 3, Chapter 5/6 Wrap up
mode of attentional control that is the bottom-up automatic attraction of attention to a salient aspect of the environment
exogenous
Attention attracted by external events is ______, whereas attention directed by a strategy is ______.
exogenous or automatic; endogenous or controlled
attention extracted by external events is _____, whereas attention directed by a strategy is _____
exogenous or automatic; endogenous or controlled
theory by Treisman that proposes visual search requires 2 stages
feature integration theory (FIT)
search for a single unique item; item will pop out automatically due to activity in a feature map, making the search quick and efficient, regardless of number of items (involved in FIT)
feature search
which of the following is one difference between feature-based and space-based attention?
feature-based attention is likely to be endogenous
how does recoding demonstrate the interaction between STM and LTM?
recoding is a way of escaping the limited capacity of STM
Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model?
the icon
Measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with _______.
the number of items held in working memory
measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with _____
the number of items held in working memory
explain what studies of change blindness and inattentional blindness suggest about our perception of the world (2)
the perceptual representation of the visual world is not as detailed as usually presumed; visual world is used as "outside memory"
Repeating a phone number to yourself to hold it in memory while you dial it would use which component of working memory?
the phonological loop
provide the duration of STM, as estimated by Brown and the Petersons. Info is lost within ______
18 seconds
experiments using the change-detection task have estimated the capacity of VSTM to be ______ items
3-4
The central executive in working memory is hypothesized to have the function of:
directing the flow of information.
The capacity of short-term memory was thought by George Miller to be:
7 (plus or minus 2) meaningful chunks of information.
STM has _______ links to LTM, maximum
7 plus or minus 2
the capacity of short-term memory was thought by George Miller to be _____
7 plus or minus 2 meaningful chunks of information
made up of 3 memory stores (sensory store, STM, and LTM) w/ control processes that control movement of info within and between memory stores (sensory input, attention, encoding, and retrieval)
Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory
central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and an episodic buffer
Baddeley's working memory theory
1. subjects were given a consonant trigram counting backwards by 3 to prevent rehearsal 2. 0-18 second delay 3. recall argued that info is decayed in STM unless it was refreshed by maintenance rehearsal
Brown and Peterson task
What is the basic logic behind the Wickens' "release from PI experiment?"
Changing the categories of the items improves performance.
experiment where it was determined that nothing but the gross physical characteristics of the unattended message were processed (if message switched to a tone, or changed from male to female)
Cherry's shadowing experiment
_____ (2000) suggests that Miller's 7 plus or minus 2 is valid for situations allowing "online rehearsal, chunking, and memorization, for which the exact number of chunks in memory cannot be ascertained; recent evidence indicates a pure capacity limit of around __, on average
Cowan; 4
Identify who performed one of the first studies of attention in 1800s
Helmholtz
who showed problems w/ early selection theory by saying that unattended words influenced interpretation of an attended sentence?
Mackay (1973)
who thought that the problem with early selection theory was that people unaware of stimuli in unattended ear, except for their own names? Also suggested that highly salient messages could penetrate the filter
Neville Moray (1959)
Which parts of a list of words are most likely to be in STM when the cue to recall the words is given?
Ones from the recency region
The most famous case of amnesia in the psychology literature is that of patient H.M., who underwent surgery to treat a serious case of epilepsy. The surgeon removed which parts of H.M.’s brain?
Parts of the temporal lobes
who found that the problem w/ late selection theory is that most of the evidence for it can be explained as lapses of attention or automatic attentional responses to important stimuli?
Pashler (1998)
stage in FIT that registers basic visual features, like lines, colors, etc in parallel (all at once)
Stage 1
stage in FIT where the spotlight of attention moves from location to location on a master "map of location," combining the features present at each location
Stage 2
the process of transforming transient perceptual representations into durable VSTM representations is called _______
consolidation
who found that the problem w/ late selection theory is that shadowing by meaning is very difficult and has small effects of unattended items?
Treisman and Reily (1969)
What are the four components of Baddeley's working memory theory?
What are the four components of Baddeley's working memory theory?
The capacity of short-term memory was thought by George Miller to be: a. 7 +/- 2 meaningful chunks of information b. About 75% of visual display c. 12 +/- 3 chunks of information d. 7 +/- 2 letters or numbers e. Unlimited
a. 7 +/- 2 meaningful chunks of information
Echoic memory is thought to be: a. A lifetime b. About 1 minute, based upon evidence from the 3-eared man procedure c. About 3-4 seconds, but perhaps up to 20 seconds based upon controversial evidence d. Up to 5 minutes in the absence of interference or presentation of new information e. Less than the length of the icon
a. About 3-4 seconds, but perhaps up to 20 seconds based upon controversial evidence
The primary and recency effects in memory: a. Can be independently manipulated, indicating at least two types of memory at work b. Have recently been discredited in cognitive psychology c. Are thought to be due to the action of short-term memory d. Are thought to be due to the action of sensory memory e. Are thought to be due to the action of long-term memory
a. Can be independently manipulated, indicating at least two types of memory at work
According to Miller in his "Magical number 7+/- 2" paper, one way to exceed the limits of STM capacity is to engage in a strategy called: a. Chunking b. Rehearsal c. Rote repetition d. Imagery
a. Chunking
Luck and Vogel showed that people could remember about ______ colored shapes without making errors when shown two successive displays of shapes. a. Four b. Two c. Seven d. Three
a. Four
Introducing a delay filled with an interfering task of several minutes, between studying the list and recalling, it is likely to result in the greatest decrement for _______. a. Ones from the middle of the list b. Ones from the primacy portion c. Ones from either end d. Ones from the recency region
a. Ones from the middle of the list
In a free recall test of memory for a list of words, which items are typically recalled first? a. Ones from the recency region b. Ones from the middle of the list c. Ones from either end d. Ones from the primacy portion
a. Ones from the recency region
Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model? a. The icon b. The central executive c. The phonological loop Td. he visuospatial sketchpad The episodic buffer
a. The icon
Measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with _______. a. The number of items held in working memory b. Episodic buffer tasks c. Spatial tasks d. Lower levels of phonological loop activity
a. The number of items held in working memory
Sternberg reasoned that the duration of a stage could be measured by making it repeat and measuring how much each repetition adds to the total processing time
additive factors method
Anterograde amnesia refers to forgetting things that happened __________ a traumatic event.
after
anterograde amnesia refers to forgetting things that happened _____ a traumatic event
after
neurophysiological research on attention in humans and animals has shown that attention affects ______
almost all visual processes throughout the cortex
what is the estimated duration of iconic memory?
around 300 ms (1/3 second)
what is the estimated duration of echoic memory?
at least 3-4 seconds
theory by Treisman with 2 proposals: 1. selective filter attenuates (turns down) flow from the unattended channel 2. filtering occurs at the earliest level of processing possible to separate the attended from the unattended
attenuation theory
What is the basic logic behind the Wickens' "release from PI experiment?" a. Changing the rate of presentation improves performance b. Changing the categories of the items improves performance c. Changing the length of the retention interval improves performance d. Changing the instructions improves the performance
b. Changing the categories of the items improves performance
In the absence of rehearsal, short-term memory tends to: a. Last for an unlimited amount of time b. Last about 20 seconds c. Decay slowly over 24 hours d. Last about 8 seconds e. Decay slowly over a week
b. Last about 20 seconds
according to Treisman, if the target differs from all distractors by a single, salient feature, search time should _____
be independent of the number of distractors
why might serial exhaustive search be more efficient than the intuitively plausible serial self-terminating search?
because otherwise 2 processes would have to compete for each item (compare AND decision Y or N)
Posner showed that a spatial cue presented shortly before a target to be detected could produce which of the following?
both benefits for valid cues and costs for invalid cues
(in Wolfe's guided search model) the form of visual search guidance where information from stimuli in form of two-dimensional "salience maps" of the visual environment
bottom-up
Wolfe's guided search theory was an extension of FIT that included which of the following?
bottom-up activation of salient features and top-down activation of objects similar to the target template
what are the 2 forms of visual search guidance proposed by Wolfe's guided search model
bottom-up and top-down
Anterograde amnesia refers to forgetting things that happened ________ a traumatic event. a. Before b. During c. After d. All of the above
c. After
What are the four components of Baddeley's working memory theory? a. A central executive, sensory memory, STM, and LTM b. Sensory memory, STM, phonological loop, and LTM c. Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and an episodic buffer d. LTM, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and sensory memory
c. Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratch pad, and an episodic buffer
Brooks demonstrated support for Baddeley's theory by showing that performance was best when which of the following occurred? a. People did two spatial things at once b. People did two verbal things at once c. People did one verbal and one spatial thing together d. People rehearsed at the same time they recalled things
c. People did one verbal and one spatial thing together
The Brown-Peterson task was invented in order to study forgetting in STM by preventing _______. a. Encoding b. Retrieval c. Rehearsal d. Recoding
c. Rehearsal
Measures of brain activity have shown that prefrontal lobe activity increases with ______. a. Lower levels of phonological loop activity b. Spatial tasks c. The number of items held in working memory d. Episodic buffer tasks
c. The number of items held in working memory
Repeating a phone number to yourself to hold it in memory while you dial it would use which component of working memory? a. The episodic buffer b. Both the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop c. The phonological loop d. The visuospatial sketchpad e. Both the visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffer
c. The phonological loop
the primacy and recency effects in memory:
can be independently manipulated, indicating at least 2 types of memory at work
The primacy and recency effects in memory:
can be independently manipulated, indicating at least two types of memory at work.
adults have a capacity of 7 plus or minus 2 chunks of info; Miller determined this value by giving experimental subjects lists of items to recall in order
capacity of STM
form of blindness; inability to notice large unattended changes in the visual field that occur simultaneously w/ a visual disruption
change blindness
exogenous attention probably evolved to alert us to important __________
changes in the environment
According to Miller in his "Magical number 7 plus or minus 2" paper, one way to exceed limits of STM capacity is to engage in a strategy called ______.
chunking
the process of creating a chunk by reorganizing info through association w/ info in long-term memory
chunking or recoding
searching for a combination of features requires attention to move from item-location to item-location to find the correct combination, which is a slow process (involved in FIT)
conjunction search
Information is stored in iconic memory for: a. A lifetime b. 5-10 seconds c. Up to 1 year d. Around one-third of a second e. Around 20 seconds
d. Around one-third of a second
According to the Atkinson Shiffrin theory, rehearsal has two main functions in memory, namely ______. a. Maintenance and storage b. Verbal and spatial c. Encoding and retrieval d. Maintenance and retrieval
d. Maintenance and retrieval
Which parts of a list of words are most likely to be in STM when the cue to recall the words is given? a. Ones from either end b. Ones from the middle of the list c. Ones from the primacy portion d. Ones from the recency region
d. Ones from the recency region
The most famous case of amnesia in the psychology literature is that of patient H.M., who underwent surgery to treat a serious case of epilepsy. The surgeon removed which parts of H.M.'s brain? a. Parts of the occipital lobes b. Parts of the parietal lobes c. Parts of the frontal lobes d. Parts of the temporal lobes
d. Parts of the temporal lobes
In 1890, William James distinguished between what he called primary memory and secondary memory. Today we recognize this distinctions as between _____ memory and ______ memory, respectively. a. Semantic; episodic b. Sensory; short-term c. Implicit; explicit d. Short-term; long-term
d. Short-term; long-term
The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory of memory distinguishes between ______ types of different structural memories. a. Five b. Two c. Four d. Three
d. Three
studies of the cocktail party phenomenon done in the laboratory by Cherry and others used an attention-demanding task called ______
dichotic listening and shadowing an attended message
irrelevant info if filtered out before it can be processed, resulting in early selection; part of perceptual load theory; aka high load
difficult perceptual tasks
the central executive in working memory is hypothesizes to have the function of ______
directing the flow of information
network in attention whose role is goal-directed control of attention to locations or features
dorsal frontoparietal network
theory by Donald Broadbent (1958) where info enters a brief sensory store, where unattended info is filtered out and attended info is sent to short and long-term memory
early selection theory
Lavie's perceptual load theory helped to settle a long-standing debate between ______
early vs late selection theories of attention
what is the difference between early and late selection theory?
early- physical characteristics of input; late- after the meaning of input is extracted
Broadbent's filter theory described a(n) _____ filter between _____
early; sensory processes and working memory
irrelevant info is processed deeply, requiring late selection of relevant info; part of perceptual load theory; aka low load
easy perceptual tasks
auditory sensory memory
echoic memory
mode of attentional control that is the top-down, voluntary direction of attention toward info of interest
endogenous
Luck and Vogel showed that people could remember about ___ colored shapes without making errors when shown two successive displays of shapes
four
Luck and Vogel showed that people could remember about ____ colored shapes without making errors when shown two successive displays of shapes.
four
VSTM is thought to bridge the gaps between ________
glimpses of a scene due to eye movement
which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model? -visuospatial sketchpad -phonological loop -icon -episodic buffer -central executive
icon
visual sensory memory
iconic memory
the inhibition-deficit hypothesis of cognitive aging ascribes some of the difficulties that older people have in their ________
inability to ignore irrelevant information
form of blindness; inability to perceive an unexpected object when attention is focused elsewhere
inattentional blindness
evidence suggests that STM forgetting is more likely due to _______ than _______, although the latter has not been completely eliminated as a partial explanation
interference; decay
what components are involved in the dorsal frontoparietal network in attention?
intra-parietal sulcus extending into superior parietal lobule (IPS/SPL) and frontal eye fields (FEF)
activity in the _______ is closely associated w/ VSTM performance
intraparietal sulcus
In the absence of rehearsal, short-term memory tends to:
last about 20 seconds.
theory that proposes that selective attention to info occurs only after info on all channels has undergone extensive processing for meaning; the selectivity in attention comes at the response selection stage of processing
late selection theory
the maximum number of items that can be recalled in order
memory span
Luck and Vogel (1997) proposed that the capacity of VSTM is limited by ______
number of objects that must be remembered
Introducing a delay filled with an interfering task of several minutes, between studying the list and recalling, it is likely to result in the greatest decrement for ______.
ones from the recency region
which parts of a list of words are most likely to be in STM when the cue to recall the words is given?
ones from the recency region
in a free recall test of memory for a list of words, which items are typically recalled first?
ones from the receny region
in Sperling's experiment, subjects were asked to report only one row of letters; this was used to compensate for the fading of whole report
partial report
the most famous case of amnesia in the psychology literature is that of patient H.M., who underwent surgery to treat a serious case of epilepsy. the surgeon removed which parts of H.M.'s brain?
parts of the temporal lobes
theory by Lavie that proposed that early vs late selection depends upon the perceptual load imposed by a task; easy/difficult perceptual tasks; Eriksen flanker task
perceptual load theory
when Posner and Jonides compared the effects of central (instructional) cues and peripheral (abrupt-onset) cues on target recognition response times, what did they find?
peripheral cues produced benefits that were independent of cue validity, but central cues did not
the cocktail party phenomenon refers to our apparent ability to do which of the following?
pick one message out of several similar, simultaneous ones and track it for comprehension
Posner's spotlight model of visual attention was based on experiments showing that a stimulus could be detected faster if it were ______
preceded by a visual cue near the subsequent spot
In a free recall test of memory for a list of words, which items are typically recalled first?
primary
Keppel and Underwood's experiment consisted of only three trials. They claimed that forgetting in the Brown-Peterson task) is due to ______.
proactive and retroactive interference
a type of interference that occurs when previously learned info interferes w/ the learning of new info; the more similar the old and new info, the greater the interference
proactive interference
The Brown-Peterson task was invented in order to study forgetting in STM by preventing _______.
rehearsal
the Brown-Peterson task was invented in order to study forgetting in STM by preventing _______
rehearsal
research on the psychological refractory period has revealed which stage to be the source of delayed responding when a person is performing two tasks simultaneously?
response decision
psychologists usually define attention in terms of two key concepts, namely ________
selection and capacity
which type of search did subjects use in Sternberg's memory scanning experiment?
serial exhaustive search
Sternberg's classic work on searching for information from short-term memory indicated that the search process is:
serial exhaustive.
repeating the words of a message as soon as they are spoken
shadowing
in 1890, william james distinguished between what he called primary memory and secondary memory. Today we recognize this distinction as between ______memory and ______ memory, respectively.
short-term; long-term
VSTM can be subdivided into ______ subsystems
spatial and object
Donders assumed that removing a stage from the info processing chain will not change the remaining stages, BUT it's impossible to know that the remaining changes are unchanged
subtractive method
VSTM representations are stored by means of ______
sustained firing of action potentials
what components are involved in the ventral frontoparietal network in attention?
temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and ventral frontal cortex (VFC)
if two target items are present in an RSVP stream such that the first is easily detected, the second is often missed if it follows the first one closely. this phenomenon is called _______
the attentional blink
James defined attention as a process that determines _____
the contents of consciousness by "taking possession of the mind"
The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory of memory distinguishes between ______ types of different structural memories.
three
(in Wolfe's guided search model) the form of visual search guidance where activation of objects or features that closely match a target template
top-down
network in attention whose roles are: stimulus driven detection of salient unattended or unexpected stimuli and triggering of shifts of attention
ventral frontoparietal network
when can illusory conjunctions occur, according to Treisman's FIT?
when features are not bound by focal attention
In Sperling's experiment, subjects were asked to report all of the letters that they could remember; in larger displays, subjects perceived the entire visual array, but it faded before they could finish reporting
whole report
visual short-term memory (VSTM) is considered to be the visual storage component of the _______ system
working memory
