Cognitive Psych Exam 3

Davidson (1994), p. 300

asked participants to read a variety of stories that described well-known schemas such as "going to the movies." The results demonstrated that people were especially likely to recall schema-inconsistent events when those events interrupted the normal, expected story.

implication for education - situated cognition in problem solving

Context-free computational problems are often difficult to solve Implications for education: •"authentic math problems" •role of internships for older students

advice about problem solving p 432-33

ask if the problem requires insight You might try to represent the problem in a different way or think about a different meaning for an ambiguous word basically think outside the box

Kahneman & Frederick (2002), "bat & ball" example (not in text; see class notes)

- an answer comes to mind Just like 50% of students at Havard, MIT & Princeton; up to 80% at other universities

explanations for stereotype threat p 429

2 explanations--both concern working memory 1.stereotype threat produces high arousal •anxiety reduces working memory—"choking under pressure" 2.stereotype threat encourages thought suppression •working hard to to "bury" idea that they are supposed to perform poorly à reduced capacity of working memory

Kahneman & Tversky (1972), "The hospital question", p. 459 & class notes

56% of participants say about the same the correct choice is the large is correct

mental set definition p 425-26

using the same solution from previous problems to solve a new problem •even though a simpler method is out there.... •closing your mind too soon... •relying too much on past experiences > overactive top down processing

representativeness heuristic

we believe random looking outcomes are more likely than orderly outcomes we ignore important statistical information 1. We use the representativeness heuristic when we make decisions based on whether a sample looks similar in important characteristics to the population from which it is selected 2. The representativeness heuristic is so appealing that we tend to ignore other important characteristics that we should consider, such as sample size and base rate. 3. We also fail to realize that the probability of two events occurring together (e.g., bank teller and feminist) needs to be smaller than the probability of just one of those events (e.g., bank teller). JUDGEMENTS ABOUT SIMILARITY

what is the prototype approach Eleanor Rosch p 275

we form concepts using prototypes you decide whether a particular item belongs to a category by comparing this item with a prototype experiences drive prototypes

effect of recency of availability

we judge recent items to be more likely than they really are

effect of familiarity on availability

we tend to overrate the likelihood of unfamiliar events

Ruben (2001) Rutgers' college application problem (pp. 418-19)

what was the solution tracking student applications like tracking packages

conjunction fallacy

when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event using representativeness instead of statistical probability

self efficacy p 438-39

which is the belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a speciic task,

the framing effect and the wording of questions DEMO 12.8 (p. 477), Tversky & Kahneman (1981)

wording of the questions (disease cure example in textbook, p. 477)—disease that will kill 600 people • • •When faced with gains > people avoid risks, choose certainty (frame: lives saved) • •When faces with losses > people tend to seek risks (frame: lives lost; deaths)

analogy approach

you employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new problem The major challenge for people who use the analogy strategy is to determine the real problem—that is, the abstract puzzle underneath all the details

availability heuristic

you estimate the frequency of probability in terms of how easy it is to think of relevant examples of something A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind...we tend to judge "available" events to be more frequent. •Can I retrieve relative examples quickly and easily? Or does it require effort? •if quick and easy—-> frequent and more common event •"If you can think of it, then it must be important" (Tversky & Kahneman) •if it seems difficult—-> infrequent event (TYPE 1 THINKING) •usually a good tactic, but...our memory retrieval is not necessarily correlated with TRUE frequency JUDGEMENTS AVOUT EXAMPLES

role of memory for consistent information

you remember schema consistent items easily

metacognition differences role of expertise in problem solving

•experts better at monitoring their problem-solving ability •judging difficulty •allocating time •monitoring ideas •inventors—know when an idea is creative, useful •recognize errors sooner BUT experts underestimate the amount of time that novices will require to solve a problem in the experts' area of specialization

memory role of expertise in problem solving

•experts have context-specific set of memory skills •e.g., chess position memory of chess experts—schemas real vs. random arrangement of chess pieces - Surprisingly, though, chess experts are only slightly better than novices at remembering random arrangements of the chess pieces - experts have better memory if it fits into their schema

knowledge base role of expertise in problem solving

•experts have larger knowledge base •schemas •variety of settings

-Tversky & Kahneman (1983), "The Linda problem," see Demo. p. 460 & class notes

85% choose option 2: bank teller and a feminist.... even though this violates a basic rule of probability

A major issue/problem with the Analogy Approach

: "...people often have trouble solving the same problem in a new setting. They fail to transfer their knowledge" (find this quote top of p. 419)

what is a prototype pg 275-281

an item that is the best, most typical example of a category "the ideal representative" item that possesses all the characteristic features specifies the CENTER of a concept

examples of overcoming functional fixedness

- using a coin or knife as a screwdriver - using a ladder as a Christmas tree

academic projects

students are usually overconident that they will complete their academic projects on time.

Intraub et al.'s (1996) experiments—p. 304 • How were these experiments carried out? What were participants asked to do?

"wide angle memories of close up scenes" 7 scenes depicting single objects participants view an image for 15 seconds then, asked to draw "exactly what they saw" (object and background) drawings provide a more wide angle view unconscious PREDICTION MAKING reflects our expectations of a broader physical world

hill climbing heuristic p 421 and notes

--What defines this heuristic? •using the most direct/shortest path to solution; involves continuous steps toward the goal state -Direct route vs. indirect route hard to know the direct route. often the indirect route is the solution - "career path" example on p. 421 Similarly, a student whose career goal is to earn a high salary may decide to take a job immediately after graduating from college, although a graduate degree might yield greater long-term beneits. Sometimes the best solution to a problem requires us to move temporarily backward—away from the goal

use of matrices p 410-411 and demo 11.3

A MATRIX is a grid of rows and columns • useful for sorting information into categories •Simplifies complex problems by organizing and keeping track of problem details

things to remember about schemas

1. If the information describes a minor event—and time is limited—people tend to remember information accurately when it is consistent with a schema (e.g., the desk and the chair in the "ofice"). 2. If the information describes a minor event—and time is limited—people do not remember information that is inconsistent with the schema (e.g., the wine bottle and the picnic basket). 3. People seldom create a completely false memory for a lengthy event that did not occur (e.g., the lecturer did not dance across the room). 4. When the information describes a major event that is inconsistent with the stand- ard schema, people are likely to remember that event (e.g., the child who crashes into Sarah)

characteristics of prototypes p 277-279

1. prototypes are supplied as examples of a category 2. prototypes are judged more quickly than nonprototypes after semantic priming 3. prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category

the framing effect and background information DEMO 12.7 (p. 476), Kahneman & Tversky (1984)

1.Imagine that you decided to see a concert and you paid $20 for the admission price of one ticket. You are about the enter the theater, when you discover that you cannot find your ticket. The theater doesn't keep a record of ticket purchases, so you cannot simply get another ticket. You have $60 in your wallet. Would you pay $20 for another ticket for the concert? 46% said yes. FRAME: Spending $20 twice for the same ticket—not acceptable 2. Imagine that you decided to buy a ticket for a concert; the ticket will cost $20. You go to the theater box office. Then you open your wallet and discover that a $20 bill is missing (Fortunately, you still have $40 left in your wallet.) Would you pay $20 for a ticket for the concert? 88% said yes FRAME: The lost $20 is irrelevant to the ticket...seems okay RATIONAL THINKING WOULD SAY YES TO BOTH. BUT BACKGROUND INFO PROVIDES DIFFERENT FRAMES

what are the 3 levels of categorization, how are they different from each other?

1.superordinate-level categories (higher, more general) 2.basic-level categories (moderately specific) 3.subordinate-level categories (more specific)

crystal-ball technique

A Method for reducing overconfidence; a de-biasing technique •An alternative look into the future •Try imagining that your hypothesis is wrong •Then, search for alternative explanations and find evidence to support them

what is a script?

A script is a simple, well-structured sequence of events in a specified order; this script is associated with a highly familiar activity

the ancient coin problem p 432

A stranger approached a museum curator and offered him an ancient bronze coin. The coin had an authentic appearance and was marked with the date 544 B.C. The curator had happily made acquisitions from suspicious sources before, but this time he promptly called the police and had the stranger arrested. Why? because the person who made the coin wouldn't know what BC is

Which ones, of the 4 tasks above are valid?

AFFIRMING ANTECENDENT DENYING CONSEQUENT

Which ones, of the 4 tasks above are invalid?

AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT DENYING THE ANTECEDENT

Which one of the above leads to the most errors?

AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT heuristic thinking tells us it's likely its true •conflicts with rules of deductive reasoning that require "always"

algorithms vs heuristics

An algorithm is a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient Algorithms are often ineficient and unsophisticated. Other, more sophisticated methods reduce the possibilities that must be explored to ind a solution how are they different - heuristics don't guarantee a correct solution solving anagrams heuristics may not lead you to the answer

belief bias effect p 452

An error in reasoning that occurs when people make judgments based on prior beliefs and general knowledge, rather than on the rules of logic Our own background knowledge sometimes encourages us to make mistakes on reasoning tasks •everyday knowledge can override principles of logic •over-reliance on what we know/believe to solve a reasoning task REMEMBER: propositional calculus is a formal system of logic •An outcome may be true (or false) "in the world" but not match up with rules of logic

Metcalfe (1986, pp. 432-33; & graph) --How was experiment conducted? --What were the results?

As students worked on this kind of insight problem, they supplied ratings every 10 seconds on a "feeling-of-warmth" scale. A rating of 0 indicated that they were com- pletely "cold" about the problem, with no glimmer of a solution. A score of 10 meant that they were certain they had a solution. As you can see from the left-hand side of Figure 11.3, the participants' warmth ratings initially showed only gradual increases for the insight problems. However, their warmth ratings soared dramatically when they discovered the correct solution. If you igured out the answer to the coin question, did you experience this same sudden burst of certainty?

functional fixedness (pp. 426-7+ lecture notes)

Assigning stable uses to an object ....and failing to think about the features of an object that might be helpful in solving a problem in a new context •only seeing usual uses and not potential uses due to overactive top-down processing

role of expertise in problem solving 423-25

Experts benefit from a well-developed set of top-down processes

picture identification tasks (lecture)

Does this picture show a bird? Result: Which decision is faster? TYPICALITY EFFECT

use of diagrams

Easy to relate data to position without need for extra information.

exemplar approach

First: learn information about some specific example(s) of a concept Later: we classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it resembles all of those specific examples How does exemplar approach explain the results from typicality effect? If an exemplar is more typical, it is more similar to recalled objects from a category suppose you see a robin for the first time: brings to mind memories of of many birds (sparrows, cardinals, woodpeckers, blue jays) highly similar, so easy to categorize If exemplar is less typical: less similar to recalled objects; fewer that can be recalled suppose you see an ostrich for the first time: - very few birds are similar

Kida (2006), going-to-war example, p. 455

For example, suppose that Country A wants to start a war in Country B. The leaders in Country A will keep seeking support for their position. These leaders will also avoid seeking information that their position may not be correct. Here's a remedy for the conirmation bias: Try to explain why another person might hold the opposite view (Lilienfeld et al., 2009; Myers, 2002). In an ideal world, for example, the leaders of Country A should sincerely try to construct arguments against attacking Country B.

Gigerenzer (2008)

Gigerenzer (2008) - organ donation in France versus The United States •In U.S., must sign up, so most people remain in non-donor category (40%) •In France, must opt out, so most people remain in donor category (99%) •"Opt-in" versus "opt-out"

Duncker's candle problem 1945 p 426 and class notes

HOW TO AFFIX CANDLE TO THE WALL, SO THAT WAX DOES NOT DRIP ONTO THE TABLE? •CANDLE •BOOK OF MATCHES BOX OF THUMBTACKS How is this problem related to functional fixedness? - The solution requires overcoming functional ixedness by thinking lexibly about other ways to use an object How—specifically—can this problem be altered so that it is easier for participants to solve? - remove the tacks from the box o Why does this change make the "candle problem" easier? - easier to see the box as a container itself than just the holder for the tacks

the attacking army problem class notes

Hints: •This problem is analogous to The Radiation Problem •Surface features are different, BUT....the structure underlying both problems is VERY SIMILAR 70% could solve the second one if given both 10% could solve just one

the radiation problem class notes

Hints: •What if you could adjust the intensity of the beams? •What if you had more than 1 beam? Use multiple low intensity beams to converge on tumor

Elves and Goblins problem demo 11.5 & illustration, p. 417-18) • solution/explanation: READ bottom of p. 419-top of p. 420)

His study showed that people pause at points in the problem when they begin to tackle a sub- problem and need to organize a sequence of moves. Working memory is especially active when people are planning one of these movement sequences people are reluctant to move away from the goal state—even if the correct solution requires you to make this temporary detour

stereotype threat

If you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think about your membership in that group—your performance may suffer. sterotype—-> anxiety—->less effective problem-solving

the "multiplication experiment" (see p. 471; also demo of this expt., top of p. 469)

In a classic study, high school students were asked to estimate the answers to these two multiplication problems (Tversky & Kahneman, 1982). The students were allowed only 5 seconds to respond. The results showed that the two problems generated widely different answers. If the irst number in this sequence was 8, a relatively large number, the median of their estimates was 2,250 (i.e., half the students estimated higher than 2,250, and half estimated lower.) In contrast, if the irst number was 1, a small number, their median estimate was only 512. Furthermore, both groups anchored too heavily on the initial impression that every number in the problem was only a single digit, because both estimates were far too low. The correct answer for both problems is 40,320.

ecological rationality p 473

In decision making, a description of how people create a wide variety of heuristics to help make useful, adaptive choices in the real world.

Griggs & Cox (1982) p. 454 & lecture notes --how are results from this experiment different from typical Wason tasks?

RULE: "If a person is drinking beer, then the person must be over 19 years of age." Which cards do you need to turn over to determine whether rule is being broken? RESULT: This time, 73% select correct cards: "Beer" & "16" reasoning is far better on this task compared to the ABSTRACT four card task

means end heuristic

Method that involves identifying the "ends" (final result) and then searching for the "means" (methods) you will use to get there •2 steps: 1.dividing problem in to smaller subproblems 2.reducing difference between initial state and goal state •key: continuously comparing the current state of the problem to the goal state

Englich & Mussweiler (2001) p 471

Mock trial format IV: Length of sentence prosecutor recommends in closing statement •Either: prosecutor "demands" 12 month sentence •Or: prosecutor "demands" 34 months PARTICIPANTS: real judges (note: students act as prosecutors) Results: •prosecutor "demands" 12 month sentence > judges hand down (on avg.) 28 mos •prosecutor "demands" 34 months > judges hand down 36 mos •A difference of 8 mos for the identical crime... Of note: •judges had average of 15 years experience •judges were explicitly informed that the "prosecutor" was a computer science student Also: •Judges handed down similar sentence lengths as other participants —expertise not a factor

the penny problem (lecture notes)

Moving only two pennies, make an arrangement which ensures that every coin touches exactly three other pennies. What was your strategy? •Likely, trial and error... How close to a solution did you did you feel while working on the problem? (metacognition) •insight

role of attention in problem solving

One cognitive task (problem solving) often relies on other cognitive tasks > ATTENTION, MEMORY PROBLEM SOLVING often includes making a decision about which information is the most relevant

Overconfidence about decisions (pp. 479-482)

Our confidence judgments are higher than they should be, based on our actual performance. •Illusory correlations •Eyewitness testimony •Metamemory General knowledge: 77% overconfident

production tasks (lecture)

Participants are asked to name as many members of a category as quickly as possible So... "name as many birds as possible," or "flowers" or "vehicles" Result: people typically start with the category members that are closest to the prototype For fruits: apples, bananas, oranges vs. tomatoes and olives TYPICALITY EFFECT

Brewer & Treyens (1981), "the office experiment" --SEE DEMO 8.6 on. p. 299

Procedure: participants arrive to participate in an experiment • p's are asked to wait, a one at a time, in grad student's office (35 seconds) so that experimenter "can check the lab." Then, participants enter the lab, and are asked to list as many items as they can remember from the office Also, p's misremember "schema consistent" items that were not present (up to 40%) schema consistent - easily remembered schema consistent errors increase overtime

What are key differences between the prototype and the exemplar approaches? (pp. 283-4)

Prototype: we store in memory an "idealized version" of a particular concept; not necessarily like one you've seen before....an abstraction Exemplar: we store in memory information about numerous examples of a concept, typical and atypical, then classify new items based on these examples...actual experiences Both approaches compare a new item against a stored representation of the category •prototype approach—Stored representation is a typical/idealized member of the category. •exemplar approach—Stored representation is a collection of numerous specific members of the category. exemplar approaches don't - need an abstraction process - argues that the prototype approach would force you to discard useful, specific data about individual cases EXEMPLAR - SMALL GROUPS PROTOTYPE - LARGE GROUPS

Trafimow & Wyer (1993) p. 298

STIMULI: 4 common scripts photocopying a piece of paper writing a check making tea taking the subway INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: When script info was provided to participants (before or after reading description) TASK: participants read all four descriptions for 5 minutes—distractor task—then take a recall test When the script-identifying event had been presented irst, participants recalled 23% of those events. In contrast, they recalled only 10% when the script-identifying event had been presented last. As you might expect, the events in a sequence are much more memorable if you understand— from the very beginning—that these events are all part of a standard script BETTER RECALL - SCRIPTS FIRST

Schwartz et al. (2002)

Schwartz and his colleagues found a signiicant correlation (r = +0.52) between people's scores on the maximizing-satisicing scale and their score on the regret scale. Those who were maximizers tended to experience more regret. They blame them- selves for picking a less-than-ideal item (Schwartz, 2009). The researchers also found a signiicant correlation (r = +0.34) between peo- ple's scores on the maximizing-satisicing scale and their score on a standard scale of depressive symptoms, the Beck Depression Inventory. The maximizers tended to experience more depression (Schwartz, 2004, 2009).

Novick (2003) p 280-81

She found that U.S. college students rated airplane as being a prototypical vehicle during the period immediately following the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. In contrast, airplane had been considered a nonprototypical vehicle in studies during the 5 years prior to this date. Furthermore, when the media coverage decreased after the attack, airplane decreased in prototypicality. In fact, 4.5 months after the attack, airplane was no longer a prototypical vehicle.

Neuschatz et al. (2002) p 300 and lecture

TASK: Participants watch a video of a man giving a 10-minute lecture on leadership. cover story: "evaluate distance learning" STIMULI: in video, lecturer enacts both: schema-consistent (typical) actions schema-inconsistent (atypical) actions PROCEDURE: watch video filler task (read paragraphs) recognition test TEST: view list of actions: 1/2 performed; 1/2 not-performed 1/2 typical; 1/2 not typical (schema) "Did he do _______? "—participants answer: yes/no memory was more accurate for ATYPICAL ACTIONS participants more likely to FALSELY REMEMBER TYPICAL ACTIONS RATE OF FALSE MEMORY INCREASES OVERTIME

standard Watson selection task p 453 typical results and common mistakes

The Four Card Task which card(s) do you need to turn over to determine whether the rule is true or false? almost universally (~95%), people decide to turn over the E card to check whether or not an even number is on the other side... • to AFFIRM THE ANTECEDENT (confirming the hypothesis) BUT... also need to turn over the 7 card to check whether or not a vowel is on the other side •to DENY THE CONSEQUENT (disproving the hypothesis) •only about 4% of participants realize the need to do BOTH CONFIRMATION BIAS TASK Most people DO realize that you don't need to see back of the J card •rule says nothing about consonants Why don't you need to turn over the 6 card? •letter side does not matter --if it's a vowel that's okay—consistent --if it's a consonant, that's okay, too (rule does not say anything about consonants)

sahara problem p 444

The Sahara Problem (based on Perkins, 2001). Suppose that you are driving through the Sahara Desert in Africa. Suddenly, you see someone lying facedown in the sand. When you explore further, you see that it's a dead man. You cannot see any tracks anywhere nearby, and there have been no recent winds to erase the tracks. You look in a pack on the man's back. What do you find? an unopened parachute

the triangle problem p 444

The Triangle Problem. With six matches, construct four equilateral trian- gles. One intact match (not broken or bent) must make up one side of each triangle. The answers to these two problems are at the end of the chapter. it's a 3D answer not 2D

small sample fallacy

The incorrect assumption that small samples will be representative of the population from which they were selected however large samples are statistically more likely to show the true proportions basis for stereotypes - unwarranted generalization about a group based on a few people

goal state vs initial state

The initial state describes the situation at the beginning of the problem. You reach the goal state when you solve the problem

use of symbols p 409 and demo 11.2

Translating words into symbols is useful, but can be problematic > errors in representation •reversing role of 2 variables Oversimplification > misrepresenting information •"The engine's rate in still water is 12 miles per hour more than the rate of the current" •Mistake: The engine's rate in still water is 12 mph

Maier's two ropes problem

The problem: •2 cords attached to ceiling •Goal: tie 2 ends together •Obstacle: cords placed far enough apart that you cannot reach both •Participants can use other objects in the room People are more likely to be able to solve if they had been instructed during "an exercise break" to "move their arms in a swinging motion" > EMBODIED COGNITION

base rate fallacy

The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information. how representative someone seems of something overrides the base rate that it actually occurs

Chapman & Chapman (1969), pp. 467-468; also see table on p. 467

Their data showed that students formed an illusory correlation between people's reported sexual orientation and their responses on an inkblot test.

Novick and Morse 2000 origami study lecture and GRAPH

Title: "Folding a fish, making a mushroom: The role of diagrams in executing assembly procedures" TASK: teaching p's to make complex origami objects IV1: Type of instruction given •step-by-step, written instructions only •step-by-step, written instructions + final diagram •step-by-step- instructions +intermediary diagrams IV2: Difficulty (# of steps) images add useful concrete information

sentence verification tasks (lecture)

True or False: Robins are birds. Penguins are birds. Result: Which T/F decision above is faster? robins share more features with prototypical bird than penguins do, so... TYPICALITY EFFECT

buddhist monk problem demo 11.4 and graph on p 412

Trying to use a mathematical solution (rates & distances) will not work... To solve: "Picture" the problem •create a diagram to represent abstract info in a concrete fashion...

How is decision making differ from deductive reasoning? (p. 456)

UNCERTAINTY --No clear cut rules/conclusions --the correct decision often ambiguous --Have to take other info into account -- (vs. propositional calculus)

Carli (1999) Read pp. 482-483

Using a hypothetical situation to test hindsight bias •Participants read a story about "Barbara and Jack" •Identical story with 2 different endings •half participants: story has tragic ending, rape •half participants: story has happy ending, marriage proposal After reading the story, participants take unannounced T/F memory test: • --Some T/F questions about actual events that took place in the story --Other T/F questions about stereotypical events that did not take place: •Either consistent with marriage-proposal scenario, e.g., "Barbara wanted a family very much" •Or consistent with rape scenario, e.g., "Barbara met many men at parties" •P's asked to indicate what they would have predicted if they had not been given the outcome •Over half participants reported they "could have predicted" the version of scenario that they read... •P's answers on T/F questions conform to the version outcome they read

political decisions

We expect our politicians/leaders to exude confidence...but they are often overconfident about their decisions •Overconfidence has consequences •Failure to to consider the risks involved in international conflicts; both sides overestimate their own chances of success •Other policies

what is the role of embodied cognition in problem solving? (i.e., your own body—see p. 413 & 414-5)

We often use our own body and our own motor actions in order to express our abstracts thoughts and knowledge •Can solve problems more quickly/accurately when we move parts of our body •Mental rotation problems are solved more accurately when participants are allowed to use their hands

what is a life script?

a list of events that a person believes would be most important throughout his/her lifespan

what is a conditional reasoning task?

a propositional reasoning task involves the relationship between 2 conditions if... then... task to judge whether the conclusion is VALID or INVALID

category (textbook)

a set of objects that belong together the category tells us something about it's members

what are problem isomorphs?

a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different speciic details

proposition

a statement or assertion that expresses a judgment or opinion

propositional calculus

a system for categorizing the four kinds of reasoning used in analyzing propositions or statements

What is the effect of concrete vs. abstract examples on conditional reasoning tasks? p 451

abstract makes it harder more accurate with concrete examples

what is the definitional approach (notes)

assumes sharp boundaries in or out the problem is ambiguity we know something is a chair even if it defies our definition of one not flexible enough to account for the way we create and use categories

stereotypes

beliefs that certain groups of people have certain characteristics

benefits of categories and concepts

combining many similar objects using a single concept saves space allows you to make inferences about new category members without concepts, you would need to examine every new object in order to figure out how to use it

obstacles

describe the restrictions that make it dificult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state

Todd & Gigerenzer (2007)

devised a term called ecological rationality to describe how people create a wide variety of heuristics to help themselves make useful, adaptive decisions in the real world. This point resembles the observation in Chapter 11 that Brazilian children can accurately solve complex math problems when selling candy in the streets, but not in a classroom. Similarly, adults typically make wise decisions, if we examine the speciic characteris- tics of the environment in which we live.

role of memory for inconsistent information

don't remember schema inconsistent items

Hong et al. (2000)—schema-based expectations (p. 297)

examined how bicultural individuals develop a different set of schemas for each of their two cultures. A young boy may see the world through U.S.-based schemas while at school, but he may use Mexican-based schemas when he returns to his home.

use of exhaustive search vs heuristic which is more likely to lead to a solution?

exhaustive searches

type 1 processing

fast and automatic; requires little conscious attention instinctive expression recognition depth perception stereotypes

Dweck 2006 p 426

fixed vs growth mindset fixed - you believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can help you perform better. growth - you believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills. You challenge yourself to perform better, whether you are trying to learn how to play tennis, how to adjust to a new roommate, or how to perform better on your next examination in your course in cognitive psychology

what is a schema?

generalized, well integrated knowledge about a situation, an event or a person packages of information/things we know

affirming the antecedent task p 447-9

if ______ is TRUE VALID CONCLUSION

denying the antecedent task

if ____________ is FALSE INVALID CONCLUSION

Default Heuristic

if there is a standard option—which happens if people do nothing—then people will choose it.

insight problems vs non insight problems Gestalt influence

insight problems: •seem impossible until sudden solution appears gestalt psychologists—emphasized organization in problem solving; "putting the parts together" must set aside incorrect assumptions > leads to insight non-insight problems: •gradual solution using your memory, reasoning, strategies •Step-by-step (vs. insight with no real "process") •Algebra

Kahneman & Tversky (1973)— "Engineers & Lawyers" example;(see bottom of p. 460 & class notes)

jack's description conforms to the stereotype •people ignore base rate (30 engineeers/70 lawyers), and rely, instead, on representativeness...

Bransford & Johnson (1972) (+ lecture notes)

long passages, ask to remember details pictures help and provide context schemas help to remember things

belief bias effect and how flexible thinking affects it

low scores of flexible thinking > increased belief bias effects high scores •take into consideration any evidence that goes against their beliefs •ability to actively block everyday knowledge •willingness to look for faulty logic

Decision Making Styles pp. 484-485

maximizing decision making - examine as many options as possible - Anxiety about whether making the right choice; less happy with outcomes of their decisions satisicing decision-making style; they tend to settle for something that is satisfactory - Criteria can still be high, but as soon as they find the car, the coat, the pasta sauce that has the qualities they want, they are satisfied

the difference between surface features and structural features

surface features - the specific objects and terms used in the question structural features - the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly

what does "boundary extension" mean?

memory illusion created by schemas we tend to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than we were originally shown because a partial view activates a schema top down schematic knowledge in memory DRAWING TASKS a problem in eyewitness testimony - recalling features not actually visible - reporting a complete target even when blocked by a crowd

what is intrinsic motivation p 437

motivation to work on a task for its own sake; focus on personal interest, excitement, challenge •High intrinsic motivation increases creativity...more creativity when working on a task you enjoy associated with high self efficacy

What is the effect of negative information on conditional reasoning tasks? p 451

negative information takes longer to evaluate and strains working memory leads to more errors even when we try and translate it into a positive

what is the typicality effect?

occurs when people judge typical items (prototypes) faster than items that are not typical (non- prototypes) when asked to give examples of a category, people tend to give a prototypical answer accounting for this effect

schema theories

our memories encode "generic" information about a situation we then use this information to understand and remember new examples of the schema

problem with availability heuristic

our memory retrieval is not necessarily correlated with TRUE frequency Availability heuristic reinforces SYSTEM 1 THINKING...

concept (textbook)

our mental representations of a category a wide variety of similar objects are combined into a single concept For instance, you have a concept of "fruit," which refers to your mental representation of the objects in that category. we tend to code a concept in terms of the context in which we learned the information knowledge is dependent on context allows us to make inferences when we encounter new examples of a category

semantic memory (textbook)

our organized knowledge about the world general knowledge - historical events - school stuff ie. reading, language and terms - definitions of words - colloquialisms you don't need to experience these things to remember them

Mervis et al. (1976)

participants were given a category and a list of 50 members. For example: CLOTHING pants, shirt, coat, socks, bathing suit, shoes, etc participants' task was to provide a rating on how well the item represented the category

Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic (beginning on p. 468)

people start with an implicit reference point—the anchor—and make adjustments to it to reach their decision •first approximation: the anchor •Applies both to novices & experts restricts our search for relevant information there is a bias toward the value when the anchor is set

Harvey & Tang (2012), Insomnia study p. 454-455 & class notes

people tend to OVERESTIMATE how long it takes them to fall asleep UNDERESTIMATE the number of hours the spend sleeping at night people are seeking confirming evidence that they're bad sleepers provide estimates that are consistent with their own diagnosis

planning fallacy

people typically underestimate the amount of time (or money) required to complete a project; they also estimate that the task will be relatively easy to complete

belief bias effect and intelligence affect on it

people with low intelligence test scores are more likely to show the belief bias affect

family resemblance

that no single attribute is shared by all examples of a concept; however, each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept

Janssen & Rubin (2001) p. 297

people within a culture share similar life scripts The participants were asked to imagine a representative infant growing up in the Netherlands. Then they should list the seven most important events that would take place during this child's life. Interestingly, the participants' age did not have a signiicant effect on the listed events. Speciically, participants between the ages of 16-35, 36-55, and 56-75 were all especially likely to create a list that included having children, beginning school, marriage, falling in love, their parents' death, and irst full-time job

confirmation bias

preference for confirming a hypothesis rather than disproving it •Often, we'd rather know what is versus what isn't •turning a blind eye to info that doesn't confirm our beliefs •actively seeking out confirmatory evidence and assigning it more weight...

understanding the problem

problem solving: the processes necessary to reach a goal, when the solution isn't immediately obvious 3 components: •initial state (there's a problem) •obstacles •goal state (the solution) initial state: "I need to reach Jim tonight so that we can work on our social psychology presentation, but I don't know his last name, his email, or his phone number..." obstacles: "Jim wasn't in class yesterday, the draft is due in 2 days, the professor said she was going to be away today..." •special circumstances often require a different set of solutions than the normal one...

new york elevator problem p 407 and class notes

problem: elevators are too slow what was the solution? Before reconstruction began, however, someone decided to add mirrors in the lob- bies next to the elevators. The complaints stopped. Apparently, the original problem solvers had not properly understood the problem. In fact, the real problem wasn't the speed of the elevators, but the boredom of waiting for them to arrive importance of defining the problem

what does "graded structure" mean?

range of representativeness from most prototypical to least prototypical

dual processing theory

reasoning and decision making, the approach that distinguishes between two types of cognitive processing: Type 1 processing is fast and auto- matic, requiring little conscious attention. In contrast, Type 2 processing is relatively slow and controlled, requir- ing focused attention, and is typically more accurate

What does the graph on p. 462 indicate about the conjunction fallacy?

regardless of education level, the groups guessed about the same

What is extrensic motivation? p 437

reward focused •Desire to work on a task in order to get a good grade, a good job review, etc. •High extrinsic motivation can decrease creativity... •Although feedback can enhance

guilford's divergent production tasks

see DEMO 11.8, p. 435 •measure how many many different directions from initial problem state participants make •overcoming functional fixedness

semantic vs episodic memory (textbook)

semantic memory doesn't need to be experienced like episodic memory

What is an exemplar?

separate representations of experienced examples of a category

what is the role of situated cognition in problem solving

situated cognition - info from environment/context We use helpful info from immediate environment to create spatial representations context as a 'driver' of problem-solving •cognition takes advantage of information-rich environment •real life experience often provides the information needed to solve problems Problem embedded in real life > solutions out of necessity

type 2 processing

slow, controlled, requires focused attention, and is typically more accurate •when thinking of exceptions to a general rule... •when we realize a Type 1 response was wrong... •pause and shift to Type 2 when more effortful approach is needed...."bat & ball problem" and conditional reasoning problems

For which kind of categories does the exemplar approach work best?(hint: larger categories vs. smaller categories)

smaller ones

Which is more probable? "spilling coffee" or "spilling hot coffee" (answer, p. 463)

spilling coffee

What is schema therapy? (p. 297)

the clinician and the client may work together in order to explore the client's core beliefs and create appropriate new, more helpful strategies. For example, imagine a female client who says, "My boss praised me, but I didn't deserve it." The therapist can help her modify her interpreta- tion of that praise

prototypicality

the degree at which an object is representative of it's category

antecedent

the first proposition or statement; the antecedent is contained in the "if..." part of the sentence.

inference (textbook)

the logical interpretations and conclusions that were never part of the original stimulus material

Brown & Siegler, (1992), population-estimate studies, p. 466

the media can distort people's estimates of a countries population Brown and Siegler (1992) conducted a study during an era when El Salvador was frequently mentioned in the news because of U.S. intervention in Latin America. In contrast, Indonesia was seldom mentioned. Brown and Siegler found that the students' estimates for the population of these two countries were similar, even though the population of Indonesia was about 35 times as large as the population of El Salvador

What is the conjunction rule?

the probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be larger than the probability of either of its constituent events

consequent

the proposition that comes second; it is the consequence. The consequent is contained in the "then..." part of the sentence.

The Framing Effect (pp. 475-478)

the role of context in decision making The way the same information is presented to us has an impact on how we process and react to it. Probabilities seem different, depending on how they are framed

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it Problem: often includes misremembering/reconstructing the past to match our current knowledge

affirming the consequent task

then ________ is TRUE INVALID CONCLUSION

denying the consequent task

then __________ is FALSE VALID CONCLUSION

How do prototypes shift over time?

they can vary overtime with new experiences

use of parallel vs serial processing role of expertise in problem solving

they solve problems more quickly because they use parallel processing they're doing multiple things at once novices solve problems slower and are probably using serial processing

why are schemas a type of heuristic?

they're general rules that are typically accurate and quickly accessible errors can be made but generally make sense in the framework of the schema

Illusory correlations p 446-7

•Belief that two variables are statistically related •Even though there is no actual evidence for the relationship... •think: stereotypes

water jar problem p 424 and class notes

•How do you measure out the right amount of water using 3 jars? •JAR A •JAR B •JAR C The classic experiment on mental set is Abraham Luchins's (1942) water-jar prob- lem, illustrated in Part A of Demonstration 11.6. The best way to solve Problem 1 in Part A is to ill up jar B and remove one jarful with jar A and two jarfuls with jar C. You can solve Problems 1 through 5 by using this strategy, so you develop a mental set. Most people will keep using this complex method when they reach Problem 6. Unfortunately, however, the previous learning will actually hinder your performance, because you can solve these last two problems by using easier, more direct methods. For example, you can solve Problem 6 by subtracting C from A, and you can solve Problem 7 by adding C to A. USING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE DOESN'T ALWAYS HELP

O'Brien & Crandall (2003) p 429

•IV: information given during instructions •"test known to show higher scores for men than women" •"test known to show no gender differences" •RESULTS..........first group significantly worse than second group

nine dots problem class notes

•Join all 9 dots by drawing no more than 4 straight lines. •The straight lines must be continuous - i.e. you must not lift your pen from the paper once you start drawing you have to go outside the box to solve it

Shih et al. (1999) p 428

•PARTICIPANTS are all Asian American female college students (stereotype: Asian Americans are "good at math" Women are "bad at math") •EXPT. TASK: p's take a challenging math test, under 3 different conditions •IV: type of "pre-test" given to participants •"ethnicity emphasis" condition: answer a series of questions about their ethnic identity •"gender emphasis" condition: answer a series of questions about their gender •control group: no pre-test Apparently, when Asian American women are reminded of their ethnicity, they perform relatively well. However, when Asian American women are reminded of their gender, they may experience stereotype threat, and their problem-solving ability can decline.

Thoman et al (2008) p 429

•Varied instructions for participants (females): •Group 1: •"men score higher due to greater ability" •Group 2: •"men score higher because males try harder" ANSWERED MOST CORRECTLY •Group 3: •Received no information about gender differences

recognition heuristic

•When comparing relative frequencies we tend to conclude that the ones we recognize have the higher frequency

my side bias

•a form of confirmation bias + overconfidence •involves confrontational, important situations •So confident in our own position, cannot even contemplate opponent's position may be at least partially correct.... • evaluating evidence through lens of your own beliefs • requires effort to overcome; use of type 2 thinking

Branford and Stein 1984

•algebra story problems to college students •major obstacle: lack of attention •distracting negative thoughts persisted during the task ("I hate these algebra problems") Effective problem solvers: •read the problem carefully •pay attention to inconsistencies •scan strategically to decide which information is most important (i.e., not a trial-and-error approach)

Hyde 2008 p 427

•analyzed standardized math test scores •7.2M US students, 2nd-11th grade •Result: consistent gender similarities for all ages •females earn higher grades in math, elementary through college •females do not associate themselves with mathematics •even math majors

Rosch et al. family resemblance

•ask p's to write down as many characteristics/attributes as they could think of for each item (category). •For example •Cars: four wheels, you drive them, steering wheel, use fuel •Dogs: have four legs, bark, have fur •When attributes overlap with many other members' attributes, family resemblance is high RESULT: items with high prototypically ratings also have high family resemblance

For which type of categories does the prototype approach work best? (see p. 280)

•basic-level categories •We tend to use basic level categories when naming items Rosch et al. (1976) •participants viewed a series of pictures and named each object •RESULTS: •people typically prefer to use basic level names related findings : •participants provide basic-level names faster than either superordinate or subordinate names •when presented with superordinate or subordinate names during learning, people tend to recall basic level version of these terms later on

research with Brazilian children p 414

•complex ratio calculation at 10 years old •no formal schooling... •Box of candy bars = 20,000 Brazilian cruzeiros •2 bars for 500, but 5 for 1000 Problem embedded in real life > solutions out of necessity ability to solve a problem is often tied to specific physical and social context in which we learned to solve the problem

approach to novel problems role of expertise in problem solving

•experts more likely to use means-ends heuristic •dividing problem into subproblems •systematic versus haphazard (novices) •use of analogies

MacLeod & Campbell (1992), p. 465

•judgements about future likelihood of positive and negative events, based on recent recall of past events •When encouraged to recall pleasant events from past, they later judge that pleasant events are more likely in the future •When recall unpleasant events from past, they later judge that unpleasant events are more likely in the future

prospect theory (p. 478)

•losses have greater emotional impact us than gains do •So, given choices presented two ways — with both offering the same statistical result — an individual will pick the option offering perceived gains. Prospect theory sometimes called "loss-aversion theory" Broad application to consumer decisions...we value gains, shun away from losses •people take money out of stock market when prices dip— avoiding losses at all costs •advertising takes advantage of this: "fear of missing out"--FOMO

Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky o read overview, p. 457 & class notes

•we use a small number of heuristics to guide our decision-making •usually efficient •but also lead to cognitive errors, which we often fail to appreciate!