COM 110 A01 Midterm/Final Review
What to consider when selecting and incorporating support material for your speech
*Ethical and legal responsibilities* Consider... 1. Are the stats representative? 2. Are the items being compared in analogies similar? 3. Are the facts verifiable? 4. Are the examples relevant, typical, and vivid? 5. Is the source identified and credible? 6. Is the source biased? 7. Is the information timely? 8. Is the information from reliable online sources? 9. Do the materials answer the posed research questions and address the needs of the audience? Other recommendations: keep sources within 5 years, avoid .com websites
Importance of introductions and conclusions
- Able to draw the audience in - First and last impressions that are made with the audience will ultimately determine whether or not the goals for the presentation were accomplished or not - Effective introductions and conclusions will help make connections with the audience so they learn or are influenced by the message
Warrants
- Aka link/why - Shows how your evidence supports your claim
Evidence credibility statements
- Aka oral citations - Brief statements that establish the quality of the information you are using to support your ideas
Rebuttals
- Aka other side - States the counterarguments and attacks them directly
Importance of organizing ideas clearly
- Audience needs to know where you're going with your speech - Helps you practice/increases confidence - Makes sure there are transitions - Improve note-taking abilities
Being a responsive and responsible member
- Be committed to the group's goal and task - Respect and listen to all group members - Attend all meetings on time - Complete individual assignments on time - Be mindful of other member's relational needs
Claims of policy
- Concerned what should be done, what law should be changed, or what policy should be followed - Use of agent of action: entity that is responsible for taking action such as a company, government group, person, etc. Example: ISU (agent of action) should build more dorms.
Claims of value
- Concerned what you might consider to be right or wrong, moral or immoral, just or unjust, good or bad - Goes beyond a debate about facts (ex. Min wage should increase) - Personal connection to create opinion - Criterion - Most common
Claims of fact
- Concerned with what is/is not true, what does or does not exist, what did or did not happen - Past/Fact: Whether something did or did not happen in the past - Present/Fact: Whether something is true or not currently - Projection: Whether something will be true or not in the future - Fact is in the 1st sentence of the thesis statement - Not as common, more complicated
Strategies for planning the presentation
- Divide the topic into areas of responsibility - Draft individual outlines according to these responsibilities - Combine individual outlines to create a group outline - Discuss the details of delivering the presentation - Practice the presentation as a group
Group norms
- Expectations of behavior for how each group member participates within the group - Implicit when they are not directly stated but indirectly observed and explicit when they are communicated and agreed on with the group - Can change once the group starts interacting
Effective delivery
- Gives life to words - Communicate with the audience rather than at the audience - Demonstrates enthusiasm/confidence in the topic and content chosen - Would not detract from the message - Should sound natural, conversational, confident, and enthusiastic about sharing information or influencing the audience in some way
Task roles
- Help the group to accomplish goals Examples: treasurer, recorder, moderator, initiator, information seeker, organizer, clarifier, elaborator, evaluator, etc.
Importance of outlining
- Helps to organize ideas clearly - Helps refine ideas, identify where additional support is needed, and determine whether the body of the speech is balanced - Helps to strategically integrate transitions and clearly link the intro and conclusion - Useful as memory/delivery aids and reduce speaking anxiety - Help earn better grades and benefit any career path
Formal methods of gathering information about an audience
- Interviewing - Questionnaire/surveys
Informal methods of gathering information about an audience
- Introductory speech - Class discussions - Spending time with classmates both before and after class
Strategies for accomplishing tasks
- Know the specific purpose for the meeting - Have an agenda for what needs to be accomplished during the meeting - Follow the agenda - Allow each member to report on their individual progress - Assign each member a new task before the next meeting - Report on the accomplishments of the current meeting
Citizen of democracy
- Make informed decisions - Requires that all citizens be informed - Respecting an audience - Using critical thinking skills - Understanding various viewpoints - Freedom of expression
Importance of Audience Analysis
- Make sure you don't misinform your audience, know who you are speaking for - Engage in competent communication - Predict the audience's reactions - Make the speaker more credible - Engage in ethical communication and maintain sound goals - Make the speaker more comfortable and confident
Disadvantages of working in a group
- Not all group member take responsibility seriously, some group members have to work harder to make up for it - Members must take time to report and communicate with each other about the progress and plan their presentations - Scheduling meetings can create problems - Can be difficult to reach decisions and conflict can occur - Groupthink
Importance of delivery
- Once in front of the room, the speaker is already communicating with the audience - Behaviors indicate whether speaker is prepared to present - Audience will not know of speaker's efforts unless they are communicated with them through the speaker's delivery - Leaves first impressions before even beginning speech - Enhance speaker's credibility
Ethnocentric
- Placing a value judgement on other cultures based on what we know about our own (not a good thing) - Example: teachers acting based on the expectations put on them
Relationship roles
- Provide for the social needs of the group and serve to foster teamwork and collaboration Examples: gatekeeper (keeps out distractions), harmonizer (stay civil), tension reliever (comic relief), supporter, etc.
Analogical reasoning
- Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second - Reasoning that clarifies complex situations by comparing them with situations more familiar to the audience
Advantages of working in a group
- Sharing workload - Pooling of resources - Bouncing ideas off one another - Enjoying and gaining motivation from working with other people - Group synergy
Characteristics of a group
- Size (typically gathering of 3-10 people, 5-7 is best size) - Common purpose (why you got together) - Group synergy - Groupthink - Interdependent (one's actions will influence others) - Must interact with each other
Role of a leader in a group
- To direct and influence others - Able to identify the unique qualities of all members and assign various tasks to them - Effective direction: the ability to organize and guide the group's activities - Gain the respect of other group members and take on as many task and relationship roles as possible
Goals of persuasive public speaking
- To influence audience's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors - If the audience is neutral about your position - to shape their response in a way that is consistent with your advocacy - If the audience agrees with your advocacy - reinforce their position - If the audience opposes your advocacy - change their position
Using communication for the common good
- Using ethical communication to be truthful, accurate, honest, and reasonable to others - Sometimes all you got to do is ask
Relationship between critical listening and critical thinking
- We cannot listen critically without the ability to think critically - We listen critically when consuming messages and we think critically while both consuming and producing them
Disruptive roles
- When an individual puts their needs above the group's needs Examples: blocker, avoider, credit seeker, distractor, dominator (take over the group), etc.
5 steps in dealing with conflict
1. *Avoid* feelings or perceptions that imply the other person is wrong or needs to change. 2. *Communicate* a desire to work together to explore a problem or seek a solution. 3. *Try* to identify or empathize with another team member's problems, share their feelings, or accept their reactions. 4. *Treat* other team members with respect and trust. 5. *Investigate* issues rather than taking sides on them.
Process of listening (a little different from HURIER Model)
1. *Receiving* (different from HURIER Model) 2. Understanding 3. Remembering 4. Interpreting 5. Evaluating 6. Responding
Aspects of verbal delivery
1. Articulation 2. Pronunciation 3. Volume 4. Rate 5. Pause 6. Pitch 7. Vocal variety (verbally varying volume, rate, pause, and pitch)
Information to be included in an oral citation
1. Author 2. Date of publication 3. Source information (title of journal, magazine, article, etc.) 4. Credibility if possible *For orally citing a website, include the title, who maintains the website, and date that website was last updated and/or when you accessed the website*
Types of supporting material
1. Books 2. Journals 3. Magazines 4. Newspapers/news sources 5. Government documents 6. Reference sources 7. Statistics 8. Interviews (cannot interview family, good friends, old teachers, etc. because there is bias with that, can give recommendations of other people to interview instead)
4 goals of an introduction
1. Capture the audience's attention --> attention getter 2. Establish the relevance of your topic to your audience --> relevance statement 3. Establish the speaker credibility --> credibility statement 4. Preview the body of the presentation --> thesis and preview statement
Toulmin Model
1. Claims 2. Evidence 3. Evidence credibility statements 4. Warrants 5. Qualifiers 6. Rebuttals
4 considerations for effective word choice
1. Clarity 2. Accuracy 3. Vividness 4. Appropriateness
Design considerations for presentation aids
1. Contrast 2. Repetition 3. Alignment 4. Proximity
Aspects of nonverbal delivery
1. Eye contact 2. Face 3. Body 4. Movement
HURIER model
1. Hearing 2. Understanding 3. Remembering 4. Interpreting 5. Evaluating 6. Responding
Causes of Communication Apprehension
1. Heredity 2. Learned apprehension 3. Skills deficit
7 guidelines of a preparation outline
1. Identify purpose, thesis, organizational pattern, and title 2. Label the intro, body, and conclusion as separate elements 3. Use a consistent pattern of symbols 4. Include transitions 5. Integrate supporting material 6. Provide a list of references 7. Use complete sentences
4 methods of delivery
1. Impromptu 2. Manuscript 3. Memorized 4. Extemporaneous (what we do, some written out, some memorized)
3 differences between oral and written style
1. Oral style uses shorter sentences 2. Oral style is less formal 3. Oral style is more repetitive Written: - More formal - Uses more figurative language - Expanded vocabulary
Various ways to display a presentation aid
1. Paper - use of handouts, large prints, posters, flip-charts, etc. 2. Screen - use of projectors, monitors, and document cameras, etc.
6 elements of the communication process
1. People 2. Messages 3. Channel 4. Interference 5. Feedback 6. Context
3 benefits of studying communication
1. Personal - a way to create more meaningful relationships, develop confidence 2. Professional - a way to create a positive first impression at job interviews, advance future career 3. Social - a way to know how to influence people, interpret information, become an effective participant in democracy, more persuasive than personal
Factors that affect perception
1. Physical considerations 2. Experiential considerations (past experiences) 3. Situational considerations (current situation)
3 factors that influence the choice of an organizational pattern
1. Pick a method that's consistent with the purpose that's going to be conveyed 2. Topic and audience should influence the choice of a particular organizational pattern 3. Consider whether or not that the ideas being advanced are clear, compelling, and well-substantiated as well as how the main points and supporting material support the thesis
Guidelines for integrating your presentation aid into your speech
1. Practice with presentation aid 2. Be able to point confidently to the aid and explain necessary concepts 3. Once used, remove aid and don't display the next aid until it is needed 4. Inspect the room for lighting and the general setup before presenting 5. Be prepared to do the presentation without the visual aid
2 goals for a conclusion
1. Providing a summary --> rephrasing thesis and going over key info, signpost/transition 2. Providing a memorable close --> last thing the audience needs to know, what they will remember, can reference the attention getter at this time 3. Call to action (persuasive speech only) --> tells the audience what they can do, goes between summary and memorable close
Six behaviors that can improve listening
1. Remove, if possible, the physical barriers of listening 2. Focus on speaker's main idea 3. Listen for the intent, as well as the content, of the messages 4. Give the other person a full hearing 5. Remember the saying that meanings are in people, not in words 6. Concentrate on the other person as a communicator and as a human being
Process of Perception
1. Select (selective, subjective) 2. Organize 3. Interpret
3 main components in developing a successful research strategy
1. Select a topic 2. Prepare to find supporting materials 3. Find and incorporate sources
Relationship between perception and public speaking
1. Select a topic that interests you, appropriate for the audience, and possibly unique 2. Organize your topic; perception might have a part in what evidence/reasoning being used 3. Interpret the information you find to make the most worthwhile presentation possible
Types of Communication Apprehension
1. Situational (Feeling anxious temporarily due to a particular event at a particular time) 2. Audience (Feeling anxious to interact with a specific person(s)) 3. Context (Feeling anxious in certain settings, such as one-on-one, groups, meetings, or public speaking)
6 factors when analyzing the speaking situation
1. Size 2. Setting 3. Type 4. Interests 5. Knowledge 6. Attitudes
Why listening is important
1. We spend most of our time listening 2. Listening is an important survival skill
2 sides of visual literacy
1. What happens when we consume information 2. What happens when we produce information
Guidelines for writing a specific-purpose statement
1. Write the specific purpose to include the general purpose, the focus of the topic, and the audience 2. Don't be too broad or general 3. Write with as few words as possible 4. Write as a statement, not a question 5. Write as one distinct idea 6. Make sure the specific purpose meets the requirement of the assignment 7. Should be relevant and comprehensible
Types of presentation aids
1. Written language 2. Data graphics 3. Diagrams 4. Illustrations/paintings 5. Photographs 6. Films/videos/animations 7. Objects *cite your visual aid!*
What to consider when selecting a topic
1. Yourself (choosing a topic you're passionate about) 2. Your audience (choosing a topic your audience is interested in) 3. Your occasion (time for preparation, social climate, requirements, etc.)
6 steps to reflective thinking
1. identifying the problem 2. analyzing the topic 3. guidelines for evaluating solutions 4. generating solutions 5. selecting the best solution 6. evaluating the solution
Thesis statement
A clear and concise sentence that provides an overview of the entire presentation, most important part of a speech! 5 Components: 1. General purpose 2. Specific purpose 3. Topic and direction 4. Main points 5. Organizational pattern
Preparation outline
A detailed outline that includes the title, general and specific purpose, organizational pattern, intro, main points and sub-points, transitions, and references used in the speech *Use a consistent pattern of labeling and symbols as well as complete sentences*
Spacial order
A method of speech organization in which the main points are arranged according to place or position, especially useful if the topic is geographic or involves the discussion of multiple physical spaces
Topical order
A method of speech organization in which the main points are organized by breaking down the overall topic into small subpoints, could have categories
Chronological order
A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time sequence, appropriate for informing the audience about a series of events as they occurred (lesson plans follow this)
Casual order
A method of speech organization in which the main points show a cause-effect relationship, based on relationships, mostly used for persuasive, characters in a book, TV show, or movie
Triangle of meaning
A model that explains the relationship which exists among words, things, and thoughts Symbol (word), referent (object), thought (concept)
Nervousness
A natural phenomenon that occurs in almost all public speakers that adds an extra bit of adrenaline before presenting. Can benefit the speaker by making their senses more aware so they can have a successful presentation
APA Style
A particular method for organizing research into an outline and reference page. Popular in the social sciences and stands for the American Psychological Association
Internal summary
A review of what has just been discussed before moving on to the next point
Ethics
A set of standards that help us decide the choices we make and why we choose to behave as we do; make choices on what we aught to do instead of what we want to do
Persuasive speech
A speech that is controversial in some way and attempts to influence the audience's attitudes, beliefs, or actions with regard to the issue; typically about current events, social issues, local issues, or beliefs; the speaker serves as the advocate
Informative speech
A speech that presents information that contributes something significant to the knowledge of the audience; typically, the speaker is teaching them about some object, person, event, process, or concept that they would not know otherwise; the speaker serves as the teacher
Criterion
A standard by which the value judgment is to be made
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A tendency to live up to our own expectations and those that others have of us
Internal preview
A very brief statement of what the speaker will discuss next
Johari Window
A visual representation of components of the self that are known or unknown to the self and to others
Systematic desensitization
A way to cope with the physical symptoms of communication apprehension; this could include listening to music, muscle relaxation, and introducing yourself to the fear overtime, reward system
Cognitive restructuring
A way to cope with the psychological symptoms of communication apprehension; this includes replacing irrational thoughts with rational thoughts, brainstorming as many worst-case scenarios as you can, and then thinking about how they can be unreasonable or how to prevent them.
Critical thinking
Ability to make reasonable decisions about what to believe or do based on careful evaluation of available evidence and arguments
Qualifiers
Admit exceptions and demonstrate that argumentation is not an exact science
Status quo
All of the laws, regulations, and attitudes that currently exist
Considering Multiple Perspectives
Allows us to understand the things we have in common so that we can appreciate the things we don't: - Groupthink - Frames of reference - Culture - Ethnocentric - Cultural relativism
Captive audience
An audience that has been forced to be in attendance
Human perspective
An ethical standard that guides our responsibility to ourselves and to others to be open, gentle, compassionate, and critically reflective in our choices
Political perspective
An ethical standard that helps us understand ethical practices based on a value system (background, culture, etc.)
Dialogical perspective
An ethical standard used to promote the development of self, personality, and knowledge
Situational perspective
An ethical standard using context of the communication event to guide a decision; audience analysis comes in place here
Visualization
Another way to cope with the psychological symptoms of communication comprehension; this includes picturing the presentation being successful.
Physical distractions
Any distractions that come from our environment and keep us from focusing on the speaker and the messages, external source of interference
Pathos
Appeal to emotion
Claims
Assertion or point that a speaker advocates
False dilemma
Asserts that a complicated question has only two answers when more actually exist, complicated questions only have two answers
Ethos
Audience's perception of speaker's credibility Factors of Speaker Credibility: - Competence - Character - Goodwill
Visual literacy
Being able to understand what you see with what you know
Speaking outline
Brief outline that helps you remember key points as you are speaking *Not used in this class, mostly memorized and takes lots of practice*
Articulation
Clear formation of words
Derived credibility
Credibility developed through the speech
Initial credibility
Credibility right away
Terminal credibility
Credibility shown at the end of the speech
CTSA
Critical Thinking Self Assessment: Looks at knowledge (basic level), comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation (highest level)
Denotative
Dictionary definition
Connotative
Emotional responses to words, have become offensive, "cultural" definition
Political/Civic engagement
Engage in community around you
Blake Mouton Conflict Grid
Explains that middle ground needs to be found
Monroe's Motivational Sequence
Five step approach to arranging main points: 1. Attention (capture attention of audience) 2. Need (demonstrate severity of problem and how it must be addressed) 3. Satisfaction (offer a plan for solving the problem) 4. Visualization (help the listener visually see the advantages of adopting your plan and disadvantages of not) 5. Action (tell listeners what they should do and how)
Audience demographics
General characteristics about each person, such as age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, cultural background, income, occupation, education, religion, group membership, political affiliation, location, and place of residence. Knowing this general information about your audience will help you choose and develop topics with your audience in mind.
Voluntary audience
Group of individuals attending a presentation with a particular interest in doing so
Pronunciation
How a word is said and stressed
Frame of reference
How/what you already know, background of a person
Self concept
Idea composed of your self-image (how you describe yourself and how you think others would describe you) and self-esteem (assigning value to the descriptions of yourself)
Values
Importance of an idea (not going to change)
Red herring
Introduces irrelevant information into an argument in an attempt to mask the real issue under discussion, introduce a distraction
How does language create a social reality?
It sets up the environment in which we live in and shows what and whom we value
Cultural relativism
Judge another culture by a higher standard (a good thing)
intentional plagiarism
Knowingly stealing someone else's ideas or words and passing them off as your own
Characteristics of principals of language
Language is symbolic (words stand to symbolize things) and language is arbitrary (meaning comes from the people who use them)
Skills training
Learning about the skills necessary to be successful in planning, practicing, and presenting a public speech; this could reduce the internal and external effects of communication apprehension.
Logos
Logical appeal; relies on evidence and reasoning; use of rational proof (inductive, deductive, casual, analogical)
Critical thinker
One who can defer judgment until he/she has enough information on which to act
Problem-cause solution pattern
Organizational pattern in which specific causes associate with a problem
Comparative advantage pattern
Organizational pattern that describes the advantages of one point/solution over another
Problem-solution pattern
Organizational pattern where the first main point is devoted to establishing the problem; second main point will introduce your specific plan and explain how it solves the problem
Status quo bias
People are generally predisposed to favor what they currently believe as well as what currently exists
Roles
Positions within the group that each member may take which can be formal or informal; each member can take on more than one role
Thesis statement vs. preview statement
Preview states 3 main points, thesis statement does not, thesis is usually shorter
Persuasive public speaking
Public speaking in order to shape, reinforce, or change the response of another or others; the speaker is an advocate for a position, policy, or way of viewing the world
Premise of the National Communication Association Credo for Ethical Communication
Put in place in order to create a greater understanding between ethics and ethical communication. It was founded on the basis of the First Amendment, respect for others, access to information, democratic decision making, and responsibility for our own behavior. Includes personal credo, family credo, and classroom
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning from detailed facts to general principles
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)
Casual reasoning
Reasoning that relates two or more events in such a way as to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others
Attitude
Relatively enduring set of beliefs around a person
Appeal to authority
Rests on the assumption that because an authority figure says something, it must be true Example: Use of celebs to promote a product
Advanced information seeking skill set
Someone who develops an effective research strategy using the concept of information literacy
Interdependence
Something that one member of a group does affects the rest of the group; could be a good or bad thing
Specific purpose
Statement indicating the direction or focus the speaker will take with his/her topic
General purpose
Statements that describe the overall intent of the message; typically, to inform, persuade, entertain, or commemorate
External effects of communication apprehension
Stems from behavioral issues such as avoidance or disfluency, could include avoidance and vocal disfluencies (ex. filler words)
Internal effects of communication apprehension
Stems from psychological issues that may have physical effects, typically audience isn't aware of this
Evidence
Supporting material to substantiate a speaker's claim
Ethical communication
The actual application of ethical standards to everyday life; results when we apply ethical standards to messages we produce and consume
Communication apprehension
The fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another or others Apprehension - a learned issue, from experience Anxiety - develops from apprehension, might not do event again. more severe/diagnosed
Burden of proof
The obligation a persuasive speaker faces to provide sufficient reasons for changes what already exists
Transactional Model of Communication
This model utilizes simultaneous sending and receiving of information between both people involved. There is not one speaker nor listener. Context is also taken into account as well as all six elements of communication.
Actional Model of Communication
This model views communication as a linear process which has a beginning and end. The speaker sends out a message that the listener receives. Speaker-->Listener
Interactional Model of Communication
This model views feedback as apart of the communication process. The speaker and listener take turns sending and receiving messages; adds one more layer.
Appreciative listening
Type of listening for personal enjoyment (ex. listening to music)
Critical listening
Type of listening to make judgments about the messages we receive, coming to a conclusion after listening
Empathetic listening
Type of listening to support or help another person, to understand and feel for the other person
Comprehensive listening
Type of listening when we are attempting to understand a message for a particular reason: to gain knowledge or complete a task
Discriminative listening
Type of listening when we distinguish between verbal and nonverbal messages
Information literacy
Understanding information around you
Partial plagiarism
Using key words and phrases from different sources and changing them slightly to pass them off as your own, "copy and paste"
Primacy and recency effect
We remember the beginnings and the ends the best
Beliefs
What you hold true (could change)
Slippery slope
When a speaker asserts that some event must inevitably follow from another down a steep slope toward disaster, one event follows the other
Ad hominem
When a speaker attacks the character of a person making an argument rather than the argument itself, against the person
Fallacy
When an argument is based on unsound reasoning or evidence
Groupthink
When members of a group are more concerned with getting the task done as opposed to getting it done effectively; not a good thing!
Mental distractions
When our mind gets in the way of our ability to concentrate and listen, internal source of interference, in your head
Bandwagon
When something is correct, good, or true because many other people agree with it or are doing it, many people agree or disagree
Group synergy
When the whole group is more effective than any individual within it; a good thing!
Factual distractions
When we concentrate so hard on a speaker's message that we miss the main point (may not entirely be the listener's fault), internal source of interference, focus too much
Semantic distractions
When we have an emotional response to particular words or concepts the speaker is presenting (positive or negative), internal source of interference, you don't understand, you're distracted by a previous event
Consumer of messages
When you are not in the position to inform or persuade so you have to listen intently to the messages around you
Unintentional plagiarism
When you fail to cite your sources due to a lack of note-taking or documenting your sources
Transitions
Words or phrases that demonstrate key relationships among ideas and indicate that a speaker is leaving one point and moving onto another
Signposts
Words that signal the next point to be made, repeated phrase or "cue"
Relationship between perception and self-concept
Your perceptions of self and other people's perceptions of you serve to form views about yourself
Why study persuasion?
•Persuasive messages are everywhere - You may not know when/where you're being persuaded - Being a responsible and a more informed/critical consumer of messages •Many students believe they already know everything - Testing situations - Don't trust your opinions •Implications - making mistakes - Persuasion is not inherently bad or negative - Enhance own efforts to persuade others - Help you in every facet of life