CP110 Midterm #1 Short Answer Questions
What explains the reasons for highly segregated American cities?
-Anything but accidental or even based on individual prejudices; but rather a series of processes and entrenched policies that created the segregation we still see today -Many installations of racially motivated policies 1949 Housing Act: encouragement of White Flight, process of redlining, racially motivated zoning practices, urban renewal. Racially explicit federal, state or local policies shape de jure rather than de facto (individual choice, prejudices, income) segregation. -Deed restrictions, restrictive covenants, single-family residential buildings, control of sales, African-American slum neighborhoods are all examples of how this was carried out. -Redlining: preventing loans and financial assistance to certain communities to prevent them from homeownership, which is the largest form of wealth accumulation. This also prevents these areas from being developed/made nicer, or allowing people the opportunity to flee these areas, hence segregating marginalized groups. These areas also had a lot of highways and industrial infrastructure which caused further deterioration and health problems. -The Planning Enabling Act allowed cities to carry out these policies with little to no oversight, real estate development abides by this because it creates profits and ease of production. Causes issues of social justice and public health.
In what way can planners increase their cultural competency in communication?
-Cultural competency: the ability to understand and effectively interact with people from cultures different from one's own. Requires a basic understanding of other cultures, a willingness to learn, a positive attitude and willingness to accept and respect these differences. -Four main features: 1) awareness of what is happening, 2) attitude/tone towards the issue, 3) knowledge of issues being discussed, 4) communication skills -1) adopting an attitude of cultural humility, which commits oneself to learning about others, 2) becoming more self aware to understand one's positionality and identity and its impacts, 3) being more empathetic towards the struggles of others, 4) educating yourself to understand the culture of others
Describe when planning participation might be warranted and when it might not be?
-Depends on scale and complexity of the project -If it is a smaller project or doesn't impact a lot of people then less participation is needed, vice versa -Participation adds a lot of time to the planning process -Examples of when participation isn't needed versus when it could have been used
On what types of issues should the various planning models be used?
-Depends on the scale (short/long term), complexity (wicked?) and desired outcome/solutions for the issue -Design/Blueprint model: based on project type - built environment projects, once elements, site, budget or timeline is determined -Regulatory or Operational (Administrative) Model: based on formality - use for as of right permitting, for formal administrative procedures for making decisions Scientific or Rational Model: based on rationality - use for simple problems where all influences are known, if there is belief in the project, results are irrefutable and answers are concrete -Incremental Model: based on complex, entrenched problems - use for day to day fixes to tackle a larger problem, trial/error because of complex problems and feedback loops. Use for wicked problems, or when there isn't budget, staffing or resource capacity Strategic Model: based on focus - use for when energies need to be refocused, to develop mission statements and objectives to better use resources and for greater productivity -Advocacy Model: based on multidisciplinary problems - use for advocating for disenfranchised communities, dealing with top-down planning and growing public interests/pluralities
What reasons/rationales exist for why we plan?
-Ensuring public health and safety through the police power -Promoting the public interest(s)/protecting the public goods -Managing negative externalities/inhibiting nuisances Dealing with short-term consequences through long-term coordination
How do industrial technologies of the late 19th century change the lives of people in cities?
-Evolve the city forward: the elevator, natural gas supply, streetcars/subways, steel frame construction, electrification, underground steam, HVAC, refrigeration, street/night lighting -Impact movement around the city and what the built environment can look like/encompass in a daily basis, during nighttime, impacted domesticity, work, retail industries and the public realm -Public health/well-being outcomes, women's domestic life and job participation, refrigeration in changing the role of a grocery store in terms of location/size and with electricity reduces the need for women to spend so much time cooking; domestic work of a woman changes and increased job participation starts -Extends the city as a place that can be occupied at night
How has zoning been used to shape different urban outcomes in America?
-Four main avenues through which zoning causes segregation in the South: 1) citizen policing to racially cleanse cities, 2) pre-zoning era construction and Jim Crow social control (district segregation, disallowance of multi-family residences - exclusionary zoning, disallowance of racial mixing, control of property sale, block voting by majority race to allow other races to purchase housing, deed restrictions based on race), 3) racial zoning to achieve socio-spatial objectives, 4) use of master planning and real estate development for segregation (suburban development by economic class and product).
What are some of the driving forces of local planning culture?
-History of the settlement/pre or post planning form, major impact on context-based planning -Historic influences: e.g. religion, corruption, disaster, resources, geography -Influenced by social, urban and community culture - values of people, dynamic of people in the city -Local interpretation of rights and protections - what should a city have, what should it consist of, what should citizenry in this city look like -Evolution of local politics: communitarian, top-down/bottom-up, heavily impacts how local planning culture is done -Ebbs and flows of local industry and economics - also important factors in determining how the city wants to develop
Why is the role of the planner evolving from an expert to that of a facilitator?
-Late 20th century activism changed the status quo for who has power, society goes through a change of recognizing voices, powers, groups and inequalities in an effort to change. Growth of women in the field of city planning. -Planning becomes more inclusive and a collaborative effort, new voices assume leadership positions. To reach different interest groups different stakeholder groups are collaborated with to understand their planning needs; devising the best strategies for planning. -The pressure of the planner in planning for the disenfranchised and for the growth machine -These all shift the role of the planner from an expert making decisions to a facilitator guiding others. Shift from top-down planning to better reflect the pluralisms in American society. -The facilitator helps guide groups to create objectives and reach their goals, keeping participants on track and making sure stakeholder groups are represented. -Key role in public outreach and civic engagement events (shift in the role of the planner), in organizing community design charrettes and taking their work outside of the office to understand the impacts of their work
Describe the two predominant areas of planning theory and their differences.
-On a broader scale outside of the planning subject, there are four types of general theory including deductive/empirical, normative, prescriptive/proscriptive and critical theory -Theory for planning is specifically approached by two methods: 1) city-making model and 2) decision-making model -City making model: efforts for how we/planners/citizens are impacting the urban form of the city. This includes complete communities, sustainable cities, quality of life improvement, biophilic city design, new urbanism etc. -Decision making model: defining problem, gathering information, deciding, devising informed solutions/determine actions, implementing and evaluating. Process of making a choice based on informed knowledge (evidence, research) and tacit knowledge (intuition, values) to examine alternatives against criteria. Through command, consultation, collaboration, consensus and civil process.
What are some of the common critiques of planning?
-Planners are too physically oriented to the city and urban growth -Planners are too tied up to growth machine politics and entrenched interests; these interests in power have certain agendas and motives that they want to push -Planners respond too closely to dominant/middle class norms: follow dominant urban planning forms with little consideration of how the city changes over time -Planners use an overly simplistic/reductionist model of decision making, things are made based off of a limited perspective perhaps for the sake of ease, time and pleasing those in power
How might a planner's personal identity markets and positionality impact planning?
-Play a role in determining which decision-making model is used, based off of their values and objectives they feel are important to them -Outlined by Philip Almendinger: personal identity is a bias that is a caution to the use of theory. Theory has various functions with different motives. It is rarely objective and is reflective of the voice that uses it. -Decision making itself is a process of reasoning based on values, interests and justice. The methods employed to make decisions and the models applied are based off of the values of the planner and what they deem as important.
Why can the planning approvals process take so long?
-Review process required that involves an entire team of city planners and takes more time based on the scale and complexity of the project -Because of regulation: development regulations, building codes, environmental codes, city/district codes, neighborhood approval -Incorrect or incomplete applications delay the process -Reviews from multiple stakeholders which go back to the client and ask for revisions. Then later formal review, design review, formal review 2, planning commission review, city council review - because of the many institutions that guide the planning process. -Realizes the impact of development
What general trends in plan-making have occurred between the earliest plans and today?
-Shift from design-oriented plans to non-design oriented planning; rather than solely focusing on the layout and aesthetics of cities, it has become a multidisciplinary effort. Shift from designer produced to planner produced. -Top-down structure has been replaced by a collaborative field -Trend towards socially-justice focused design -Planning has changed from being placed-based to being policy-based; it is the policies rather than the environment that dictate how planning occurs Scale of planning efforts have changed; now regional contexts are considered
Why has planning become more context-based over time?
-The rejection of universalist city and the one size fits all approach -The questioning of best practices without context adaptation -Scientifically rationality no longer persuades like it used to -A postmodern turn in reflecting the world: facts are relative, points of view matter, meta-narratives are no longer accepted, individualism has triumphed, authority should be questioned, pluralism has been accepted. Different interest groups in the city have various claims on the future -Every city is different and developed uniquely -Most cities have very individual planning histories and hence strategies
Why should we study planning history?
-To avoid making the same mistakes/to learn what not to do -To provide positive lessons and learning moments for the future -Because we deal with the traces of the past in the present -To better know ourselves and empathy for others -Provides useful lessons and information when dealing with change -Helps us to reassess the past and begin rectifying it - a large aspect of urban planning today -Focuses on the temporal evolution, development and analysis of profession
What generally differentiates planning culture between nations?
-Two main aspects: the culture of institutions and the culture of planners. The culture of institutions includes the rationales of the nation, government, citizens, urban culture and prevailing development culture throughout the country. The culture of planners refers to the ethos and attitudes of professional planners in relation to the layout of cities and larger society -These are rooted in the foundations (origins, key ideologies), institutions and practices/artifacts -Why the nation exists, how it exists and how cities exist in this nation determines the planning culture strongly
Describe four general areas of planning ethics that can impact practice?
1) Serving the Public interest: having concern for long-range consequences, create opportunities for meaningful citizen participation, expanding choice and opportunity, protecting the integrity of the natural environment, striving for excellence of design and conserving the built heritage 2) Perform Work Competently and Independently: exercise independent, professional judgment, do not perform work when there is a conflict of interest, do not improperly use your power of office to seek advantage, do not solicit clients or employment through false claims, do not accept work beyond your level of competence, do not reveal information 3) Contribute to the Development of the Profession: protect and enhance the integrity of the profession, accurately represent views of colleagues, review work in a professional manner, share results of experience and research, contribute time and information to the development of others, increase opportunities for minority groups 4) Strive for high standards of integrity, proficiency and knowledge: do not commit a deliberately wrongful act, respect the rights of others, strive to continue one's education accurately represent qualifications, contribute time to fulfill lacking planning resources