Developmental Final

Sternberg's triangular theory of love

Intimacy component - the component of love that encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness Passion component - the component of love that comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance Commitment component - the third aspect of love that embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another person and the longer-term determination to maintain that love liking (I), infatuation (P), empty love (C), companionate (I +C), fatuous (P + C), consummate (ALL), romantic (P + I)

Media and technology use

Kaiser Family Foundation. 7.5 hours per day using entertainment media (53 hours per week). 2,000 students media multitasking, 10 hours into 7 hours 39% to 66% cell phones, 18% to 76% iPods and etc. 3/10 have rules on media usage (any rules = 3 hours less) 7/10 have TVs in bedroom 3/4 of 7th - 12th have social media profile 4.5 hours a day on TV, adults too Uses: entertainment, Identity formation (models, ideals, characters), high sensation, coping, youth culture identification Negative social stereotypes, lots of TV = stereotypical views on gender, see average 100 commercials a day, MTV commercials (body types, attractiveness, clothes, object of gaze) Violence; Heavy exposure to TV violence can be a risk factor for aggression 1. emotional arousal (carry over or interpreted as anger) 2. Aggressive models, particularly males being rewarded for aggressive behavior 3. Reduction of inhibitions, see rewarding for aggressive behavior 4. Desensitization educational: sesame street (African American bot in wheel chair, and other diversity), Author, characters with disorders

Rovee-Collier experiments

Interaction of domains. Connected babies foot to ribbon connected to mobile hanging. Babies could learn that licking their foot moved the mobile. 3m. babies took only like 3-6 min to figure it out. Return amount of time later = babies kicked so much (more than originally) seemed they remembered learning it.

Motor development

Gross: stairs, rolling over, sitting without support, standing with support, thumb use, standing, walking, building, steps, jumping Fine: open hands, holds rattle, traps with thumb, holding crayon, puts pegs, imitates lines, circles, paper cutting, writing, drawing etc.

Theories of intelligence

*Spearman's Two-factor theory of intelligence*: Unitary phenomenon g-factor: or general intelligence (behind intellectual functioning) s-factor: or specific abilities Early intelligence test showed doing good on one area, they did well on others etc. (positive correlation with areas) -> test all sections tapping into same thing (g-factor): specific abilities depend on g-factors *Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities theory of intelligence*: Influenced by Spearman. Thought distinct capabilities and g-factor. Test distinct capabilities -> word comprehension (reading comprehension), word fluency (as many words as you can say stating with "b"), number problems, spatial visualization of objects, memory *Sternberg's Triarchic Theory*: Too much like accumulation of facts (psych...) he thought its more how you use it, relate to real world. Contextual/practical: Street smarts, adapting to environment (specific), knows what it takes to make it. EX: way you talk to friends, police, boss etc. Experiential/creative: inside and creativity based on experience, no longer new, you should be faster at it. EX: social interaction, new job at restaurant Componential/analytic: breaking down problem, can be applied to book smarts. EX: taxes (forms, receipts) *Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences*: Case studies of exceptional talents in one area but not another; neuroscience -> distinct. Linguistic (language, words) logical-mathematical musical bodily-kinesthetic (hands on people) spatial (visual details) intrapersonal (understanding self) Interpersonal (understand others) Naturalistic (see patterns in nature) Existential (ultimate issues, philosopher) Suggests propensities are from nature or nurture

Aggression

- Babies and toddlers can be commonly aggressive, for limited resources (Toys) - Pre-school physical aggression tends to go down; verbal aggression can go up. - (4-7 years) instrumental aggression (aggression to achieve explicit goal) declines between 4 and 7 years, hostile aggression (unprovoked) may increase - Middle childhood to adolescence: usually easily detectable forms of aggression decrease. Less obvious aggression (media and rumors) increase, trying to undermine social relationships = relational aggression. Among most violent, may show progression of aggression and criminal behavior. Aggression differences can be very stable. Freud: ID not being controlled Behavorist: reinforcement Biological/evolutionary: survival, high testosterone nature and nurture: testosterone and temperament (irritable = disliked by people = conflicts = aggressive response) interaction with environment Cognitive: Hostile attribution bias= behaviors attributed to hostile intent (people are out to get you) Roots of aggressive behavior: macro factors: Economic hardships, fighting for resources (land, jobs), oppression, destructive ideologies Individual family: - difficult life conditions - excessive permissiveness - neglect, harsh parenting - fighting and bickering at home - media violence - conceptions of maleness (machoness) - peer influence - temperament and biology

Siblings

- family size in U.S., per person in 1957 3.7, now is 2.1 One-child: - Stereotypes, spoiled, needs, self-centered (date back to 1896) - Higher achievement, motivation, higher grades, higher IG scores, higher self-esteem, more leadership skills - no major differences in overall adjustment to life - parents generally have more time to spend with child Multi-child: - more opportunity fo peer interaction, older provide support - Western cultures, importance of siblings might decrease in adolescence - Importance of siblings might increase in old age - Potentially longest relations ion you will have First born characteristics: resemble only children, parents have higher expectations, more likely to to comply with adult requests, more likely to go to college, personality -> high in conscientiousness, responsible Later born: more popular with peers, more creative/innovative, personality -> high on agreeableness, gets along with others, less concerned with complying with parents and adults Middle children: mixture of first and later born characteristics, may be more apt to be competitive, ambitious, maybe even confused about role in the family, not necessarily jealous and insecure Catherine salmon: without parental pressure they feel free to explore and excel, skilled at negotiations. First had authority, third pulls emotion strings, middle negotiates

Multicultural education

- teaches value of cultural diversity Goals- build knowledge about various cultures, enhance self-concept Recommendations - science education with plant life and culture. fairness, materials, community resources, constructive dialogue, cooperative work

Habituation and dishabituation

H: Gradual decline in responding following repeated occurrences of the same stimulus. (learning to ignore something not new/not new info) D:Increase in attention with observable changes in the stimulus

Grief and bereavement (including cultural differences)

Bereavement - acknowledgement of the objective fact that one has experienced a death Grief - the emotional response to ones loss Funeral rituals serve a dual function : acknowledging the death of a loved one and recognizing and anticipating the mortality of all who participate Stages: shock, numbness, disbelief, or outright denial. confront the death and realize the extent of their loss. accommodation complicated grief/prolonged grief disorder - continues for unceasingly for months and years.

Bronfenbrenner's

1. Child in center, concentric rings represent forces, many factors in interrelated web (age, sex, health etc. 2. *Microsystem*, people objects institutions in immediate physical environment (direct contact with child; family peers, school etc) 3. *Mesosystem*, microsystem things can interact (family and school, fiends neighborhood etc) 4. *Ecosystem*, people objects and institutions that have indirects influence on child through people and things in the microsystem (school board decisions) 5. *Macrosystem*, attitudes and ideologies of that culture (war, embedded in large cultures)

Language development

2 months: cooing, production of vowel sounds 4 to 6 months: Babbling, utterance of sounds with consonant an vowel together (often repetitive) 10 months: pointing and showing 12 months: first words; one word stage. Now language is communicating meaning (cognitive insight). Usually words in immediate environment. - Observe babies using signs/symbols (ie wave etc) - Baby signs: Linda Acredolo; Use language and signs before vocal cords develop to help with frustration. 14 months symbol for cat vs kitty, 19 month old bird and horse for winged horse. Helps with development of language. 18 to 24 months: Vocabulary spurt and two-word stage. 18 months have about 150 words in their vocab. (50 spoken and 100 understood but not spoken). Telegraphic speech: short sentences of about two words; usually verb and noun 2 years: combining words into sentences, not necessarily grammatically correct. Learning process contribute (ie operant and imitating) 3 years: Mastery of most rules of grammar (larger vocab). 4 to 6 years: Continued improvement, closer to adult speech. 4-5y refinements to pronunciation. 5-6y Vocab might include 10,000-14,000 words

Differing conceptions of death

Responses to death are in part determines by culture. death may be regarded as a release from the pains of the world, the beginning of a pleasurable afterlife, a punishment or judgment, or simply the end to life.

Brain development

100 billion neurons (not all connection or patterns yet) synaptic pruning over years, brain is elastic (plasticity), lateralization->the process in which certain cognitive functions are located more in one hemisphere of the brain than in the other (by culture)

Acculturation: Integration, assimilation, separation, marginalization

Acculturation: the changes and adjustments that occur when groups of different people come into sustained firsthand contact integration: the process in which people maintain their own culture while simultaneously seeking to adapt and incorporate the majority culture Assimilation: the process in which people begin to identify with the mainstream culture Separation: the process in which people identify with the ethnic minority culture to which they belong while rejecting or rebuffing the majority culture Marginalization: the process that occurs when people identify neither with their minority culture nor with the majority culture.

Peers, cliques, crowds

6 months social smiles at one another, integrating physical and motor movement (crawling toward peers), arousal at sighting of peer 2 years social exchange longer, imitation of one another, bouts of aggression over toys, strong verbal component 3-4 years even more elaborative (make believe), and cooperative play, interacting with cognitive and language development, play with same sex peers (begins about 2-3years) 5-9 years group activities (more), sports teams, less physical aggression more verbal usage, more prosocial behavior 10-14 years formation of more intimate friendships, intimacy through talking, loyalty important, consuming media and sports Adolescence became more intense, larger networks. Cliques; peer group where the members frequently interact, number of members can vary (2-12 etc). Crowd; large group of peers, members may or may not hang out together, share a label (based on stereotype/reputation/traits etc) (jakes, brains, popular etc. - membership reflects need for group belonging away from parents. Parents might have some influence on what ones. these two are powerful social agents. Older adolescence fewer cliques and crowds, more sexuality and dating, involve develop social skills Cliques; peer group where the members frequently interact, number of members can vary (2-12 etc). Crowd; large group of peers, members may or may not hang out together, share a label (based on stereotype/reputation/traits etc) (jakes, brains, popular etc.

Attachment (including in adult romantic relationships)

Asocial: 0-6 weeks, babies responding to social and nonsocial stimuli in a favorable way. Indiscriminate: 6 weeks to 7 months, babies preferring social over nonsocial stimuli, enjoy attention from just about anyone Specific: by 7 months, demonstrated attachment to a specific someone, usually primary caregiver. Demonstrated by stranger and separation anxiety (6-7 months). Stranger anxiety highest between 8 and 10 months. Separation anxiety highest between 12 and 14 months. Multiple: can begin at 7 months, attachment to others, other family members/caregivers Secure: most dominant, 60-65%, explore room, checking in with caregiver as secure base of exploration, upon separation some distress, approach upon reunion (proximity), baby is soothed with proximity Insecure resistant/anxious ambivalent: 10-15% in north America, Clinging to parent, demonstrating anxiety from start, high distress upon separation, start to approach but ultimately resist and withdraw as if they are angry (mad they left), as if holding a grudge, hard to console. Insecure avoidant: 20%, independent from the start, relatively low distress upon separation, avoid proximity not approaching, detached, not adaptive as an infant Insecure disorganized: 5-10%, not clear pattern, fluctuation between the previous insecure category behaviors (a mixture), confused/distressed whole time Internal working models Schemas for relationships. Your expectations about relationships, availability, dependability, trust. Might organize and influence later relationships (other relationships). Schemas can change/be modified. Securely attached, follow into pre-school/elementary have social competence (higher quality friendships)

Piaget's theory of cognitive development, including assimilation, accommodation, and stages

Assimilation: interpreting new input in terms of existing knowledge, incorporating new things into your schemas. Ex: baby grasps toy, new toy and baby grasps it, or 4 legged animals are dogs so a puppy or cat is a dog. Accommodation: adjusting schema; refers to modifying existing knowledge in response to new input. Assimilation and accommodation usually balance, a lot of accommodation is stage like change. Sensorimotor (0-2y): - learning through senses and moving around; touching, putting gin mouth etc. - Object permanence: awareness that objects still exist even if they are not perceived (younger than 8 months didn't understand object permanence) - Means-end behavior: deliberate use of an action to reach a goal. see more at 8 months. A means to an end. - Egocentrism: trouble taking others viewpoint - Deferred imitation: imitation is later; growing mental processes, expanding memory/metal abilities, 18 to 24 months Preoperationonal (2-7y): - Symbolic representation: talking more, artwork - Without logical reasoning during this time. (1) Still egocentric (2) Conservation tasks: lack an understanding that the quantity of a substance can stay the same despite shape changes. (ex. juice in different sized glasses. Lee's cookie dough experiment; 4 year old said the 11 small cookies, 5 year old said the four big cookies, 6 year old changed mind a lot then chose 11 smaller but after the explanation he understood while the other kids did not) (3) Lack of reversibility: can't negate transition Concrete operational (7-12y):- Simple logic: there is logical reasoning, about concrete things (easily seen or observed) ie not abstract - Math, group by category Formal operational (12yrs to adult): - abstract reasoning: ie not easily seen. When capable of hypothetical thinking, systematic hypothesis testing, mature more reasoning etc.

Developing a sense of self

Awareness you exists separately from others. (18-24 months) Linguistic: self-referencing (me,mine,I), narrative language, referring to past (2 word, telegraphic) Cognitive behavioral markers: imitation, mirror self recognition (rouge test- spot of rouge on nose, mirror shown, younger than 18 months so sense of self, older they wipe spot off) Emotional: complex emotions, guilt shame etc. Age differences in self-descriptions: Categories: personal characteristics, ascribed or assigned identities, social and group identity, interest in activities, material processions, abstract or existential Pre-schoolers: activities they like, physical attributes(age and friends), concrete. "I am a girl" "I like trains" Elementary: trait labels(smart), 7-8 emotion terms, membership in social groups, making more relational statements, still concrete. "I am the least musical" "I am smart" Adolescence: abstract (honest, trust, inventive), future oriented, view self from multiple perspectives "I am trustworthy" "I want to have three kids" Adult: retrospective, future, psychological characteristics "I am a survivor" " I am resilient"

Emotional development, including basic (primary) and complex (secondary) emotions

Basic emotions: Joy, surprise, disgust, sadness, anger, fear (first year). Look at facial expressions, demonstrated across cultures, nervous system. Develop not all at the same time. Anger: physiological arousal, heart-rate etc. Smiling: response to pleasure and 2 month social smile. Smile at another human (2-3 months) = social smile. Evolutionary stand point, comes at the perfect age. 6 months smiling at more complex stimuli, laughing (name recognition etc) Crying: Initially reaction to states (physical states), after first few months crying can be more psychological. 8 months have control of crying (they pause) Sensitivity to others (emotions of others): By half a year (6 months), using habituation, tell difference between facial expressions and intensities of those emotions. End of first year; they understand expressions/emotions Social referencing (1 year): in unfamiliar situations they look to others facial expressions. Using others facial expressions to gain knowledge of uncertain situations Social interactions, interactive synchrony (2-3 months): reciprocal (back and forth) vocalizations and facial expressions between infants and caregiver. Learning about social interactions, cross-cultural, like a dance ie learning your part. Emotional display rules: learning about displaying emotions (explicit messages) can vary from family, culture and gender etc. Asian cultures: not expressing negative emotions in public After 1 year = 18-24 months Complex emotions: guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride and empathy. Infants consistent mood and style of behavior. early emerging. Biologically based (push from nature to be certain way). Relatively stable over time. Affects the way others treat child.

Threats to wellness and health (e.g., SIDS, drugs, STIs, osteoporosis)

Behavioral problems - treated with drugs for emotional disorders Accidents - before age 10 they are twice as likely to to die from injury as from illness, high levels of physical activity, SES plays a role, lower SES more likely to die Safeguarding the childhood environment - "child proofing" SIDS - sudden infant death syndrome; a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in their sleep Drugs - marijuana, adderall, amphetamines (peer pressure, escape from pressures, for academic help etc). Addictive drugs -> drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in users, leading to increasingly powerful cravings for them. Alcohol; binge drinking, 2/3 effect the who don't drink as well(humiliated, sexual advances), damages brain tissue, false consensus effect, alcoholics, genetics. Men 5 or more women 4. men 49% women 41% Tobacco STIs (sexually transmitted infection)- disease spread by sexual contact (AIDS) Human papilloma virus (HPV), trichomoniasis, chlamydia, genital herpes, gonorrhea and syphilis Osteoporosis - a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a lack of calcium in the diet

Fluid and crystallized intelligence

C: the store of information, skills, and strategies that people have acquired through education and prior experiences and through their previous use of fluid intelligence F: intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory

Developmental research methods

Case study: involves extensive in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals. (+ unique, broad theories, hypothesis for future. - not generalizable self-report: small group chosen to represent larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior or thinking on a given topic. (+quick and easy, first hand, realty to others easily. - bias, perspective, design) Naturalistic observation: correlated study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation (+realistic, honest, deep understanding. - little control, act different under observation) Meta analysis: combining many studies into one conclusion (+large body of data. - time, money) correlational: seeks to identify whether an association exists (+patterns, test untestable variables. - does not show causation, third variable factor) Experiment (+causal, answers. - hard to design, money, ethical boundaries, biases) Longitudinal (+see changes across time, see norms. - money, time, people die or drop out, risk of repeated experience with researcher) Cross-sectional (+less time, patterns and norms, less drop out. - elective dropout, cohort differences, cannot tell changes in individual or group) Longitudinal-sequential (+broad sample to make comparisons, see changes over time and in individual. - the, money, dropout Cross-cultural (- travel, money, participants)

Theory of mind and false-belief tasks

Children's knowledge and beliefs about the mental world and how they and others think. ie: thinking about thinking. False belief tasks: Bog shift in theory of mind at 4 years old. EX: show kids a crayon box with candles inside, ask them what others who have not seen inside might think is inside; 3 years old said people would think it was candles, 4 years old said people would think there are crayons inside. They have an understanding that people can believe things you know are false. Some suggests: its part of being human (ie innate); other aspects involve language development (bigger vocabulary); or experiences (ie families with siblings)

Operant conditioning

Contingency- connection between a action/behavior and a consequence. Rovee-Collier mobile experiments; interaction of domains

Risks across the lifespan (e.g., coronary heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer's disease)

Coronary heart disease - more men than women. can be genetically predisposed, lifestyle choices are important, diet and exercise, personality types (A or B) Cancer - radiation therapy, chemotherapy Arthritis - inflammation of a joint Hypertension - high blood pressure dementia - the most common mental disorder of the elderly, covering several diseases, each of which includes serious memory loss accompanied by declines in other mental functioning Alzheimers - a progressive brain disorder that produces loss of memory and confusion (beta amyloid precursor protein). 100,00 deaths per year. over 85 years old, half are effected. Genetics, diet, life style, environment, nature + nurture.

Ethnic identity development: Unexamined, search, achievement stages (Phinney)

Ethnic identity: how members of ethnic, racial, and cultural minorities view themselves, both as members of their own group and in terms of their relationships with other groups Phinney: Unexamined - Characterized by a lack of consideration or exploration of one's ethnicity, as well as acceptance of the norms, beliefs, and attitudes of the dominant culture. Ethnic identity search - people experience some sort of crisis that makes them become aware of ethnicity as a significant factor in their lives. Become more motivated to obtain a deeper understanding of their cultural identity. Achieved - people fully embrace their ethnic identity - parental socialization and particular experiences an individual experiences

Choosing the nature of death (e.g., DNR, living wills)

DNR - do not resuscitate. 1/3 ask not to be resuscitated, but less than 1/2 of their physicians know their preference. 49% have their wished on their chart. living wills - legal documents designating what medical treatments people want or do not want if they cannot express their wishes Health-care proxy - a person chosen by another person to make medical decisions if the second person becomes unable to do so Durable power of attorney - a legal agreement that allows an agent or representative of the patient to act on behalf of the patient. assisted suicide - Providing a seriously ill person with the means to commit suicide euthanasia - the practice of assisting people who are terminally ill to die more quickly Passive - A situation in which a seriously ill person is allowed to die naturally, through the cessation of medical intervention. Voluntary action - caregivers or medical staff act to end a person's life before death would normally occur

Schooling from kindergarten through college (including homeschooling)

Delaying children entry into school does not necessarily provide an advantage and in some cases may actually be harmful from emotional and behavioral problems. Promoting school success: Promote a "literacy environment", talk to children, provide a place for children to work, encourage children problem-solving skills. Homeschooling: Why? - thrive with one on one, dissatisfaction with the nature of instruction and feel they can do better, religious reasons - it clearly works with standardized tests, and college acceptance rates are equal. But success does depend on parental affluence and family structure and organization. Drawbacks - social interaction is lacking, doesn't reflect diversity of US society, unlikely to have sophisticated science and tech equipment, skills of parents may be lacking Middle school - puberty, thinking becoming more sophisticated, and relationships with family and friends become more complicated. Move from class to class, adapt to different teachers, have different peers in each class, find selves at bottom of food chain. Can be alarming and sometimes damaging, them being larger is harder as well, shown that they do better in smaller less bureaucratic settings Performance in adolescence: - GPA has risen but not SAT scores. Grade inflation due to teacher leniency (US scores lower than other countries, we spend less time in class than other countries, broad diversity). Now dropped in percentage that graduate, increase in dropping out. College: Who? - primarily white and middle class, overall proportion of the minority population that does enter college has decrease over the past decade. African American drop out rate is 70%, number of minutes attending is increasing, Gender - variation in classes the ganders will take. gender gap in professors, traditionally gendered majors/career directions. Call on men more in class, more eye contact with men, more likely to receive extra help, receive more positive reinforcement. Single sex college - more attention, more encouraging female professors nontraditional student - 26% between 25 and 35 36% over 30. Why -> economic, maturation reform(less risk taking and focus on being able to support family). Goals-> understand own aging, understand technology and cultural changes, combating obsolescence on the job, helpful in preparing for retirement. Late adult program - Road Scholar, intellect continues through life.

Stranger anxiety

Demonstrated by stranger anxiety (6-7 months). Stranger anxiety highest between 8 and 10 months.

Kubler-Ross's five steps of dying

Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance stage nature has been criticized.

Characteristics and course of relationships throughout the lifespan (including dating in adolescence, singlehood, marriage)

During adolescence, dating provides intimacy, entertainment and prestige. achieving psychological intimacy, difficult at first, becomes easier as adolescence mature gain confidence and take relationships more seriously. Young adults face Eriksons intimacy vs isolation stage, a period focused on developing close, intimate relationships with others. Singlehood - living alone without an intimate partner. as increased. (view marriage negatively, too restrictive, some just don't meet someone they want to marry) cohabitation, marriage is still preferred. Marriage (holding realistic expectations, focusing on the positive, compromising, avoiding suffering in silence) Divorce (less time together, now more socially acceptable, passion subsides, stress). Kids internalize guilt. More likely to be divorced in second marriage. age 50+ divorce has increased. Remarriage (people usually remarry, second marriages end in divorce even more often than first marriages, usually harder on women than men because of marriage gradient). 75-80% remarry after divorce, but more younger women than older women.

Self-esteem

Feelings about your worth. Judgments and evaluations. Rosenberg self esteem scale (adolescence and adults): 10 items, strong agree or disagree (number of good qualities, satisfied with self, positive attitude toward self etc) Self perception profile for children (harter): different domains = social acceptance, scholastic competence, physical appearance, athletic competence, behavioral conduct, overall global self esteem. Self report: actual vs ideal self. discrepancy, small = high self esteem Factors associated with self-esteem: Nurturing from parents (secure attachment) Positive feedback Social comparisons(you on top) Self-serving definitions and attribution (define self positively and attribute good things to your effort)

Prenatal development and teratogens

Germinal- conception to 2 weeks, organism is referred to as a zygote, egg fertilized and implanted in uterus Embryonic- 2 to 8 weeks, formation of major structures and organs Fetal- 8 wekken to birth, longest time, substantial physical growth ultrasound images. Critical or sensitive periods. first trimester is generally the most sensitive (extent of effect matters on when) Drugs, alcohol -> fetal alcohol syndrome (spectrum disorder); smaller baby, facial features, intellect. Tabacco-> risk of premature birth= underdevelopment Disease-> Rubella= birth defects and abnormalities, first month 50% chance of harm. Environmental hazards-> lead, radiations, cat poop Mother condition: Age- older women risk down syndrome and premature birth. Young risk premature birth and socio aspects like o knowing they are pregnant or hiding it and not getting care. nutrition- growth could be hampered if not nurtured, prenatal vitamins Stress- chronic severe stress, blood flow to fetus big hormonal changes may have effect

Intelligence testing

History of intelligence testing: Original version by Alfred Binet, established norms and trends with age, public schools opened in France so psych needed to identify those who needed help in school. How IQ was and is calculated Performance compared to same age peers. Look at a lot of people, seen with normal bell-shape distribution IQ=(mental age/chronological age)x100 *Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale*: IQ (intelligence quotient) IQ =(mental age/chronological age)x100 Formula makes less sense the older you are. Modern taste set 100 as average a test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested Infant: Don't correlate well with later scales. These look at motor development, manipulating objects. Fagan does correlate: looks at habituation and that correlates with later IQ test scores. Children: Wechsler (still common). widely used; performance component (puzzle or picture organization), overall score

Caring for the terminally ill (e.g., hospice care)

Home care - an alternative to hospitalization in which dying people stay in their homes and receive treatment from their families and visiting medical staff Hospice care - care provided for the dying in institutions devoted to those who are terminally ill

Divorce

Immediately after a divorce, the effects on children in the middle childhood years can be serious, depending on the financial condition of the family and the hostility level between spouses before the divorce Emotional disruption due to changes in structure and loss of relationships mostly with father. Drop in standard of living, for children and mothers mainly. hot hardest in childhood and adolescence. Reactions: internalized guilt, adjustment problems (acting out, withdrawing) Such reactions may have existed before divorce. Parents interviewed about children at 7 then 11, divorce children may have displayed before, some disturbed reaction there before divorce, from marital issues not the breakup.

Temperament

Infants consistent mood and style of behavior. early emerging. Biologically based (push from nature to be certain way). Relatively stable over time. Affects the way others treat child. Components: - Activity level - Positive affect/ emotionality (contentment and joy) - Negative affect/ emotionality (irritability, fearfulness, anger) - Sooth-ability - Rhythmicity (eating spelling patterns) - Effortful control (control effort, attention vs distracted easily) - Inhibition (inhibited to withdraw or approaching unfamiliar objects or people) Thomas and Chess Easy: 40%, positive affect, moderate activity levels, adaptable, regular routines Difficult: 10%, negative affect, irritable, poor sooth-ability, withdraws from the new stuff Slow- to-warm-up: 15%, cautious, negative somewhat/ lower activity, slow to adapt (repeated exposure needed) 1/3 not easily categorized. Led to new ways to discuss

Malnutrition, obesity, and eating disorders

Malnutrition - the condition of having an improper amount and lance of nutrients. More common among children living in many developing countries. slower growth rate, lower on IQ tests and do more poorly on school. US - undernutrition, effects cognitive development. *Marasmus* - a disease in which infants stop growing *Kwashiorkor* - a disease in which a child's stomach, limbs, and face swell with water *nonorganic failure to thrive* - a disorder in which infants stop growing due to a lack of stimulation and attention as the result of inadequate parenting Obesity - weight greater than 20 percent above average for a given age and height female proportions of obese is increasing. Obesity taxes the circulatory system, increasing risk of high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes. why? - poor diet, lack of exercise, TV and computer games, Anorexia nervosa - a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse to eat, while denying that their behavior and appearance, which may become skeletal, are out of the ordinary (mainly women between 12 and 40; intelligent successful and attractive white adolescence from affluent homes most susceptible) Bulimia - an eating disorder characterized by binges on large quantities of food, followed by purges of the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives Causes of eating disorders- societal images, girls who mature early, depressed people, biological causes, hormone imbalance, psychological and social factors

Impact of socioeconomic status and poverty

Many of the problems faced by minority adolescence are more closely linked to socioeconomic status that to ethnicity or race. Half of adolescence in the US live in poverty or in low income household, and members of minority groups are disproportionally represented in these households. - not enough food, lack health insurance, behavioral and emotional issues, less well adjusted,

Imitation

Meltzoff and Moore: Early ages (just after birth) they can imitate a variety of behaviors like mouth opening and tongue protrusion. Not easily replicated and there were skeptics. Eventually it as able to be replicated. Evolutionary perspective, interaction with people who can help the baby to survive. Deferred: delayed (later); minutes to hours to weeks later. See it more at 18 to 24 months. M & M: 14 m. forehead to box that lights up, on brink of toddlerhood might opt for simpler way to imitate adults. Hand occupied vs free, more mimicked with free hands others used hands; seem to have some thoughts on practicality

Twin and adoption studies and heredity

Monozygotic: physical characteristics (ir weight gain) Dizygotic: intelligence differentiation role of genetics in determining personality, genetically identical but raised apart, nature vs nurture

Child maltreatment

More common in cultures that allow/glamorize violence and cultures that tolerate/allow physical punishment. Emotional, physical, sexual abuse. Characteristics of those who abuse: abused themselves, believe in harsh punishment, unrealistic expectations, most common in families stressed by poverty, more common in socially isolated families. Characteristics of those abused: low self-esteem, anxiety, guilt, poor social skills, low motivation/academic performance, aggressive behavior, sexual acting out or inappropriate behavior, psychological issues, death (injuries or suicide) resilience in healing

Play styles

Nonsocial activity- on looker behavior, solitary play Parallel play- playing side by side but interacting very little, not trying to influence one another, might smile at one another (infancy and toddler) Associative/simple social play- engage in similar activities, might exchange toys/objects (more by 1 y or later) Cooperative play- collaboration (2 years mainly), shared goals, working together to build things, make believe, figure out roles, roles like in hide and seek, taking turns functional: play that involves simple, repetitive activities typical of 3 year olds constructive pay: play in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something

Parenting styles and cultural variation

Parenting trends: fathers tend to engage more in physical/unpredictable play with children. Mother tend to be more rhythmic and soothing during play and involved in more caregiving activities like breastfeeding etc. Warmth/responsiveness (involvement, support, acceptance). Kids with parents high in this will say "i can count on my parents to help" "they explain things" "family time" Control/demandingness (behavioral regulation, strictness) Psychological and physical. kids with parents high in this would say "parents change the subject or often cut me off" "parents change how I think" "they know what i do in my spare time" Authoritarian: High in control, low in warmth. - control takes rigid form, rules. - Correlated with kids having average cognitive and social skills - Compared to Authoritative they have lower grades, less prosocial behavior, lower self-esteem Authoritative: High in control, high in warmth - rules, more flexible, warm, adaptable - High cognitive and social skills - better social relationships, high self-esteem, good academically Permissive: Low in control, high in warmth - affectionate, accepting, let kid run own life with little guidance - Low cognitive and social skills - Impulsive, poor persistence Uninvolved: Low control, low warmth - invest little, expect little, neglect - Lowest levels of cognitive and social skills (lowest impulse control, highest substance abuse and aggression) Southern CA with diverse families. Looked at immigrant parents of chinese and taiwanese cultures. Rated mostly authoritarian (average cognitive and social skills), said it was due to training: they express love with training children well, adhere to social and cultural norms (show love with propriety and harmony) authoritarian may be adaptive to help with survival

Gender socialization

Physical: females reach puberty sooner. Males develop greater height, weight, and muscle mass Cognitive: Females correlated with higher verbal and language skills, and better at decoding and interpreting facial expressions. Males correlated with better spatial perception and mental rotation of objects. Males known for physical aggression, females known for relational aggression Social: Male more active and fussy and grimace more in infancy. Fathers interacting more with sons than daughter. Parents engage in different types of play. Toys they play with. Boys more rough and tumble play, girls more organized and role playing. Girls play more with girls and vise versa. same sex preference shows up at 2 for girls and 3 for boys. even by 5 they have established gender expectations of men being independent and competent and girls being warm and submissive. Gender identity: usually established by preschool age, this is a deeply felt sense of being male, female, or a gender that is both, fluid, or neither. Biological theory: chromosomes and hormones, evolutionary Social learning theory: operant conditioning, imitation, copying parent, self-fulfilling prophesy, (gender appropriate ways are reinforced or punished), stereotypes, pressure to conform. Cognitive theory: schemas, stereotypes. Gender schema=a cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender. Gender constancy=the belief that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors Integrated developmental model: Lisa Eliot; putting it all together, small chromosomal and hormonal differences, also social expectations, growing awareness of gender roles (schemas)

Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning

Pre-conventional: - revolve around punishment and reward. - before age 9 - Most children, many adolescence and some adults - "should not steal or he will be punished" "Should steal and his wife will give him a hug and kiss" Conventional: - revolve around what everyone else is doing, conforming to social norms, social approval. - By early adolescence - among most adolescence and adults - "Should not steal because people will think he's a criminal" "should steal because pope will think he let his wife die" Post-conventional: - revolve around broader universal values, principles of ethics and justice - abstract thinking and reasoning - some adults 25+ - "two wrongs don't make a right" "people have the right to live at any cost" Stages age related and sequential, advance as you get older. relatively universal. Criticism: - Carol: bias against women and females, morality for females is a matter of caring relationships not abstract concepts (ie emphasis on relationships with others) But this is also biased in that males too can have this caring relationship moral concept. Across cultures: go from pre to conventional but post isn't always reached, most who reach it are in the western cultures (individualism), so its also biased against collectivist cultures. Its not an everyday scenario.

Reflexes of the newborn

Protective reactions (rooting, stepping, swimming, grasping, startle, eye blink, sucking, gag)

Memory

Sensory: entry way, info coming into senses; fraction of a second and gone. The initial, momentary storage of information lasting only an instant. Working memory: (short-term) rehearsing, manipulating into storage or gone within 30 seconds. A set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information. Long-term memory: Store house, extended periods of time. The memory components in which information is stored on a relatively permanent basis. Infantile amnesia: the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age Autobiographical memory: memory of particular events from one's own life Memory control strategies: conscious, intentionally used tactics to improve cognitive processing. Rehearsal of information, more effort to organize material into patterns, keyword strategy (one word is paired with another that sounds like it), use of scripts Memory in adulthood: -Memory peaks in early adulthood -Long term memory often declines with age because they store/retrieve information less efficiently -Memory decline in middle age is minor (can better it by paying more attention) - It is the meaning they give to their forgetfulness that changes, rather than their actual ability

Origins and consequences of stress

Stages: Primary appraisal - an individual's assessment of an event to determine whether its implications are positive, negative, or neutral Secondary appraisal - a person's answer to the question, "can I handle it?" -an assessment of whether the coping abilities and resources on hand are adequate. The pressure to make good grades, late to bed early to rise Consequences: psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) - the study of the relationship among the brain, the immune system, and psychological factors - physiological outcomes (blood pressure, decreased immune system, hormones), harmful behaviors (decrease in sleep nutrition, increase use of nicotine and drugs) , indirect health-related behaviors (decrease compliance with medical advise, increase delay in seeking medical attention, less likely to exercise) Psychosomatic disorders - medical problems caused by the interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties

Academic achievement among ethnic minority children

Standardized tests, GPA etc. Ethnic variation- latina/AA lower in academic than whites and asian. Possible explanations: *SES*, Low SES have poorly funded schools. *parental influence*: value of education, ethnic minority mostly value it, Involvement in school - less knowledge because new, low SES = long hours, financial hardship. expectations for school success. Theory of relative functionalism(sue and okazaki) - Asian Americans, explain academic success through parental emphasis/value, actual experiences or perceptions may feel there are limitations in such branches (entertainment, sports, music etc), real or percieved, see avenues as blocked, so education is way around this lack of upward mobility, education gives upward mobility. Criticism is that it doesn't explain the very young *Interaction of parental and peer influences*, Peers might support or undermine academic achievement. Ogbu and others African American and latino might discourage it. white and asian encourage it. Hispanis are C, black are B and white are A students *School characteristics*, cultural compatibility hypothesis (tharp), mainstream schools might be inconsistent with cultural backgrounds of diverse students. This hypothesis says instruction would be most effective if comparable with cultural backgrounds of students. Hawaii school EX. Lack of respect for culture can contribute to low motivation because they feel teachers don't understand them and see them through stereotypes. Ogbu says other racial groups don't see work and school leading to good outcomes. Succeed despite education (prejudice/discrimination)

Coping

Strategies: Problem-Focused coping - managing a threatening situation by directly changing it to make it less stressful Emotion-focused - the conscious regulation of emotion. ie look on the bright side social support - assistance and comfort supplied by others Defensive coping - unconscious strategies that distort or deny the true nature of a situation emotional insulation - people unconsciously try to block emotions and thereby avoid pain Hardiness - a personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness. Take-charge people. Resilience->the ability to withstand, overcome, and actually thrive after profound adversity

Gifted children

federal "children who give evidence of higher performance capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school..." warrant special concern. acceleration and enrichment

Developmental themes, issues and approaches

The study of physical, mental and social changes throughout the life cycle. Biological approach: *Develop adaptive nature* Biological forced determining development - maturational theory-> natural growth processes, unfold according to gene blueprints (predetermines emphasis). Planned development by genes. - ethological theory-> bowlby, nature, evolutionary approach = emerge and exist because its important to survival. Look at adaptive behaviors (what functions do they serve) Cognitive neuroscience approach: Brain (functioning, chemical messengers) what is going on in the brain. Neurological processes. Involve brain scans. Cognitive Developmental approach: *Psychological mental structures, problem solving strategies* - Piagets cognitive developmental theory-> stage theory, children like scientists, 4 stages, no worry about sociocontext - Information-processing-> computer analogy, take in input-process-and the output. emphasis on continuous change. continually improving strategies to solve problems and adding to those structures (expanding) like memory - Cognitive neuro Leaning theory approach: *responses to environment - nurture emphasis* - learning -> relatively permanent changes in behavior/knowledge etc. result of experiences in environment. learnt theory. - Classical conditioning (watson) - Operant conditioning (skinner) - Social cognitive theory/ observational theory-> bandura Psychodynamic approach: *accomplishment, identity* - Frueds psychosexual theory-> personality based on how you solve crisis early on. Born with. sexual drives. innate biological drives. effect adult life, unconscious, used as a springboard. in everyday life unconscious needs are struggling for expression behavior and development is product of effort to satisfy needs. - erikson->focused on psychosocial issue. 8 stages, major issue or crisis and not dealt with have issues early on. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. how earliest crises are resolves influence later development Contextual approach: *relationships, nurture* - Brofenbrenners-> change overtime, Child in center, microsystem (direct), mesosystem (interaction), ecosystem (indirect), microsystem (attitudes and ideologies) - Vygotskys sociohistorical theory. Former soviet unpin. Emphasis on continuously and actively engaging with people in our culture and thats how we learn. Collective wisdom of culture gets passed on through interactions learn from those around, specific to socioculture historical context. *Zone of proximal development (ZPD)*: The gap between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help. *Scaffolding*: Support for the learner, in tune to the needs of the learner, what can do vs what can potentially do. EX: Preschooler counting marbles with mistakes of double counting, you suggest they move the marble to a cup once its been counted to make it easier. Giving hints. *Implications for education*: Setting up activities with peer collaboration, working within ZPDs Gesell: nature, sequence matters, had the one way mirrors and dome observation room Maslow: hierarchy (physiology, safety, love and belonging, esteem, self actualization) Bowlby: bonding is essential, attachment theory, proximity maintenance, safe haven, secure base, separation stress Gardner: multiple inteliigences

Grandparents

Three styles: involved, compassionate, and remote. Styles tend to differ by gender and race. Family relationships provide a great deal of emotional support for people in later life Many retirees find there post-work lives satisfying and involving. Psychologist Nancy Schlossberg has identified six basic paths of retirement; continuers, involved spectators, adventurers, searchers, easy gliders, and retreaters. Financial issues can become challenging in late adulthood. Those who were affluent during their working years usually continue to be so, and those who lived in poverty. Women age 65 and older fare worse than men, being almost twice as likely to live in poverty Living: staying at home, living with family members, participating in adult day care, residing in continuing-care communities, and living in skilled-nursing facilities

Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development

Zone of proximal development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help. Scaffolding: Support for the learner, in tune to the needs of the learner, what can do vs what can potentially do. EX: Preschooler counting marbles with mistakes of double counting, you suggest they move the marble to a cup once its been counted to make it easier. Giving hints. Implications for education: Setting up activities with peer collaboration, working within ZPDs

Identity development theories

according to erickson, children in the middle childhood years are in the industry versus inferiority stage focusing on achieving competence and responding to a wide range of personal challenges. View themselves in terms psychological characteristics and to differentiate their self concept into separate areas. develop sense of strengths and weaknesses. During adolescence, self concept differentiates to encompass others views as well as ones own and include multiple aspects simultaneously. Differentiation of self concept can cause confusion as behaviors reflect a complex definition of the self. *Marcia's approach to identity development*: Crisis (consciously choses between various alternatives and makes decisions) or commitment (investment in a course of action or an ideology). 1. Identity achievement: the status of adolescents who commit to a particular identity following a period of crisis during which they consider various alternatives. 2. Identity foreclosure: the status of adolescents who prematurely commit to an identity without adequately exploring alternatives 3. Moratorium: the status of adolescents who may have explored various identity alternatives to some degree but have not yet committed themselves 4. Identity diffusion: the status of adolescents who consider various identity alternatives but never commit to one or never even conifer identity options in any conscious way.

Schaie's stages of cognitive development

acquisitive stage: according to Schaie, the first stage of cognitive development encompassing all of childhood and adolescence, in which the main developmental task is to acquire information. achieving stage: the point reached by young adults in which intelligence is applied to specific situations involving the attainment of long-term goals regarding careers, family, and societal contributions responsible stage: the stage where the major concerns of middle-aged adults relate to their personal situations, including protecting and nourishing their spouses, families and careers. executive stage: the period in the middle adulthood when people take a broader perspective than earlier, including concerns about the world reintegrative stage: the period of late adulthood during which the focus is on tasks that have personal meaning

Prosocial behavior

actions that benefit other people. empathy and prosocial behavior have strongest link in adolescence factors that increase prosocial behavior: - modeling prosocial behaviors, social learning theory - secure attachment - caregivers have extensive reasoning with children and explain or talk about emotions from behaviors and reasons for them(redirect misbehavior) - exploration of moral dilemmas with peers - years of education, exposure to diversity - emphasis on child's prosocial characteristics

Choosing partners/spouses

although in western cultures love tends to be the most important factor in selecting a partner, other cultures emphasize different factors. According to filtering models, people filter potential partners initially for attractiveness and then for compatibility, generally conforming to the principle of homogamy and the marriage gradient. Gays and lesbians generally seek the same qualities in a relationship as heterosexual men and women: attachment, caring, intimacy, affection, and respect. in young adulthood, while cohabitation is popular, marriage remains the most attractive option, the median age of first marriage is riding for both men and women. Homogamy - the tendency to marry someone who is similar in age, race, education, religion, and other basic demographic characteristics Marriage gradient - the tendency for men to marry women who are slightly younger, smaller, and lower in status, and women to marry men who are slightly older, larger, and higher in status

Information-processing approach to cognitive development

approaches to cognitive development that seek to identify the ways that individuals take in, use, and store information Hardware (structures;sensoty etc.) and Software (processes; store, manipulate, retrieve, encode etc.) Developmental differences: - Structures: differences in capacity, how info is organized - Processes: Speed and efficiency, biological maturation, increased efficiency based on more sophisticated strategies, automatic processes. (ATTENTION)

Promoting health and wellness (e.g., diet and exercise)

breast feeding is best, an unhealthy diet has negative affects on the social and emotional functioning of school age children. to encourage children to extend their food choices they should be provided with a variety of healthy foods and allowed to develop their own preferences. even moderate exercise of at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity at least 5 days a week can lead to healthy benefits and increases in longevity. regular exercise helps make people feel stronger and more able to compensate for any losses due to aging

Visual cliff

depth perception The "visual cliff" experiment examines the depth perception of infants. Most infants in the age range of 6 to 14 m. cannot be coaxed to cross the cliff, apparently responding to the fact that the patterned area drops several feet.

Death and dying across the lifespan

functional death - the absence of a heartbeat and breathing Brain death - a diagnosis of death based on the cessation of all signs of brain activity, as measured by electrical brain waves Infancy and childhood - SIDS, miscarriage, accidents, The death of an infant or a young child is among the most devastating experiences for parents largely because it seems unnatural and entirely incomprehensible. Adolescence have an unrealistic and entirely invulnerability that makes them susceptible to accidental death. Denial often makes it impossible for terminally ill adolescence to accept the seriousness of their condition. For young adults, death is virtually unthinkable. Young adults who are terminally ill can be difficult patients because of their strong sense of injustice of their fate. In middle adulthood, disease becomes the leading cause of death, and awareness of the reality of death can lead to a substantial fear of death. People in late adulthood begin to prepare for death. Olde people generally prefer to know if death is near, and the main issue they have to deal with is whether their lives continue to have value

Friendships throughout the lifespan

preschool: trust and endure over time. engage in more associative and cooperative play than younger who do more parallel and onlooker playing. middle childhood: teach how to communicate and interact with others, provide emotional support. (1) basing friendship on others behavior (2) basing friendship on trust (3) friendship based on psychological closeness. Increasingly sex-gendered friends. Males; groups, status hierarchies, and restrictive play. Female; one or two close relationships, equal status, and a reliance on cooperation Adolescence: greater reliance on friendships which helps them define who they are. segregation increase between race and ethnicity

Prejudice and discrimination

p: a negative (or positive) evaluation or judgment of members of a group that are based primarily on group membership d: the negative (or sometimes positive) actions taken toward members of a particular group because of their membership in the group - self-fulfilling prophecies Adolescence use group membership as a source of pride and self-worth, but the danger is that they will conclude that their group is better than others Roots: social learning view - the theory that suggests people develop prejudice and stereotypes about members of various groups in the same way they learn other attitudes, beliefs, and values Social identity theory - the theory that adolescents use group membership as a source of pride and self-worth

Passionate and companionate love

p: a state of powerful absorption in someone c: the strong affection for those with whom our lives are deeply involved Labeling theory of passionate love (hatfield and berscheild) - the theory that individuals experience romantic love when two events occur together: intense physiological arousal and situational cues suggesting that the arousal is due to love

Learning disabilities

specific learning disorders: difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - inattentive and impulsive Dyslexia - reading disability

social identity theory

the theory that adolescents use group membership as a source of pride and self-worth

Erikson's

the theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others' and their own behavior Trust-versus-mistrust: (birth - 1 year) infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers Autonomy-shame and doubt: toddlers (1 year - 3y) develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and doubt if they are restricted and overprotected initiative- guilt: children 3-6y experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action industry-inferiority: 6-12y focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges presented by parents, peers etc and other complexities of the world identity- identity confusion: teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves(12-19, adolescence) Intimacy- isolation: post adolescence and into 30's that focus on developing close relationships with others (19-25 or 20-40, early adulthood) generativity- stagnation: middle adulthood where people consider their contributions to family and society (25-50 or 40-65, mid adulthood) ego integrity- despair: looking back over ones life evaluating it and coming to terms with it (50+ or 65+, late adulthood)

Early childhood education (e.g., preschools)

three quarter enroll in some form of care outside the home. - Child-care centers (all day) - family child-care centers (run in private homes) - Preschools (designed for intellect and social experiences, more limited in hours, negotiated curriculum ->joint participation of child and teacher) - School child care in some local school systems, often of higher quality) those in preschool are often more verbally fluent, show memory and comprehension advantages. Its a good investment for future success High quality is important 10:1 ratio etc. Head Start program - parental involvement, "whole child", immediate not lasting IQ gains, better prepared for future schooling