Developmental Psychology Chapter 11: Attachment

Self-concept in adolescence

Abstract thinking is now a factor; adolescents conceive of themselves in concrete traits and behaviors. Adolescents have multiple selves (one for friends, one for parents, etc.) Young people's concern over social competence/acceptance inteisifies.

Attachment status vs. social-emotional development

Attachment status found to predict later social-emotional development. Securely attached infants experience better adjustment and more social skills. Insecure/avoidant children are likely to learn to inhibit emotional expression, tend to not seek comfort from others.

View on praise in Western society

Believe praise necessary for children to have positive view of themselves.

Disorganized/disoriented infant action

Between ages 3 and 6, disorganized/disoriented infants often try to control mother's activities/conversation. Might try to cheer her up or control her in a hostile/aggressive way.

Gender vs. self-esteem

Boys higher self-esteem than girls everywhere; difference is actually most pronounced in countries where women officially have same freedoms as men.

Rouge test: extras

Children with ASD have significant difficulties with rouge test In other countries, children much older than 2 years failed. Might ignore the mark because they assumed the interviewer put it there if they come from an interdependent culture.

Is attachment fixed?

Children's level of attachment to their parents can change throughout childhood.

Circle of security

Common intervention to improve attachment. Parents encouraged to reflect on their ideas of how parents/children should interact. 20 weeks later, caregivers developed more positive representations.

Social comparison

Comparing oneself to others in terms of characteristics, behaviors, and possessions. Used by children in elementary school to refine their concept of self. Children pay attention to discrepancies between their own and others' performances on tasks (why did that girl do better than me on this test?)

Genetic effect on attachment in adulthood

Continuity depended on variant of oxytocin receptor OXTR, but not on variations in DRD4.

Twin studies: attachment

Demonstrated that nearly all variation in attachments was due to environmental factors.

Secure attachment

Majority of infants fall into this category. Use mom as a secure base; explore, return to her, bring her toys. Happy when mom returns.

Self-concept in middle/late elementary school

More nuanced; know they are not uniformly smart or dumb. Become increasingly based on the evaluations of others.

Cultural differences in strange situation

Most places had similar results as the original study. However, some major differences: ALL Japanese infants were insecure/resistant, likely due to cultural difference with more mother-infant closeness. Also fewer Japanese children in day care; situation might have been extra strange for them.

Results of Harlow experiment

Mother functioned as a source of security! Monkeys would choose comfort provided by the cloth other over food provided by wire mother.

Preattachment

First phase of attachment; lasts roughly from birth to 6 weeks. Infant produces signals that summon caregivers; baby gets comforted.

Reciprocal relationships

Fourth and final phase of attachment; lasts from 1.5-2 years and on. Toddlers' rapidly increasing cognitive and language abilities enable them to understand parents' goals, feelings. Relationship becomes much more mutual as a result.

Effect of low/high self-esteem

High self-esteem: tend to feel good about themselves; hopeful in general. Can be problematic w/ narcissism. Low self-esteem: tend to feel worthless and hopeless. Associated with problems like aggression, depression, substance abuse, etc.

Self-esteem

Incorporates a child's overall subjective evaluation of his or her worth and the feelings he or she has about that evaluation. Does not emerge until 8 yrs or so. Measured by researchers asking children about their perceptions of themselves.

Self-concept in late adolescence/early adulthood

Individual's conception of self becomes more integrated; less determined by what others think. More frequently reflect internalized personal values, beliefs, and standards.

Mothers and babies as separate people

Infant realizes this around 8 months.

Secure base

Infant uses the parent as a "secure base" to explore and improve. Infants are competence-motivated.

Insecure/resistant (Ambivalent)

Infants clingy from the beginning. Choose to stay close to mom instead of exploring. Get very upset when mom leaves the room, but may also rebuff her when she gets back. ~9% of children in this category.

Disorganized/disoriented

Infants in this category have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the situation. Appear dazed and disoriented, simultaneously wanting to approach mom and regarding her as a source of fear. ~15% of middle-class American infants fall into this category.

Beginnings of self-concept

Infants start to realize hands are present; recognize that they're part of their body. Learn they can affect the environment. By 2 to 4 months of age, infants have a sense of their ability to control objects outside themselves.

Ways children understand themselves

1. Physical activities and abilities 2. Physical attributes 3. Psychological traits

Susan Harter's 6 dimensions of self-esteem

1. Physical attractiveness 2. Athletic competence 3. Social acceptance 4. Scholastic ability 5. Appropriateness of behavior 6. Global self-worth

Criticisms of strange situation task

1. Requires substantial resources. 2. May state that attachment security should be measured along multiple continuous dimensions. 3. Situation is no longer strange! Many (most) children now in day care.

Age at which children can distinguish themselves and others based on gender and age

15 months

Age at which children can look at a mirror and recognize themselves

18-20 months; requires that infants have memories of their appearance.

Parental sensitivity

Key aspect of parenting that has been consistently linked with attachment styles. Caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth as well as contingent and consistent responsiveness to children's needs. Insensitive mothers have 38% securely attached children, which is half the normal rate.

Transitional objects

Objects that help the child realize that the world exists beyond their bodies and that they exist separately from objects. Example: stuffed animals.

Joint attention

Occurs around the 1st birthday.

Recognizing oneself in photographs

Occurs by age 2; roughly 63%. 90% at 30 months.

Development of Self-Awareness among Children with Autism

Often refer to themselves in 3rd person; often have difficulties differentiating themselves from other people. Interventions designed to help improve their self-awareness!

Insecure/avoidant

Children avoid mom. Fail to greet her during reunions; ignore her/turn away when she's in the room. Approx. 15% of children in this category.

Van Gogh study

Children drew Van Gogh painting; either told painting was beautiful or incredibly beautiful. Result: children praised as incredibly beautiful likely to try to draw easier pictures in the future. Inflated praise harmful as children do not want to risk failure after being praised.

Insecure attachment

Children have less positive attachment to their caregivers than do securely attached children. Two sub-categories of insecure attachment.

Body-as-obstacle task

Children stand on mat; try to move car attached to mat. Do they realize they need to move? Children from Zambia do best on this task.

Most at-risk children

Children with insecure attachments to BOTH parents are most at risk.

Attachment and Behavioral Catch-up (ABC)

Developed for mothers at risk for maltreating children. Trainers teach 3 goals: - Provide nurturance - Follow child's lead - Avoid frightening behaviors. Children were then much more likely to be securely attached.

Mary Ainsworth

Extended ideas posited by John Bowlby with attachment theory; tested them.

Cultural differences in self-esteem

Western cultures: self-esteem related to individual accomplishments and self-promotion. Asian cultures: self-esteem more related to contributing to group welfare. Self-esteem scores tend to be lower in Asian countries where they place more emphasis on modesty and self-effacement. European/African American adolescents more comfortable with being praised. Asian societies: people more comfortable acknowledging discrepancies in themselves.

Parental contribution to child self-concept

Parents contribute to the expanding self-concept by providing descriptive information about the self.

Parental effect on self-esteem

Parents who are accepting of and involved with their children tend to have children with higher self-esteem. Parents using belittlement instill a sense of worthlessness in their children. Social comparison as a motivational tool can also impair self-esteem.

Purpose of attachment

1. Enhances the infant's chance of survival 2. Attachment helps the child feel emotionally secure 3. Serves as a form of co-regulation helping children manage their levels of arousal and their emotions.

Does childcare interfere with attachment?

15-month-olds in daycare were just as likely to be securely attached to their mothers as were children not in childcare. Maternal sensitivity was a very strong predictor of attachment security. Attachment security was only at risk if they had both poor-quality care AND unresponsive/insensitive parenting. High-quality childcare can even serve a compensatory function.

Can maltreated children develop secure attachments?

Yes; 23% of maltreated children had secure attachments. Biological drive to be securely attached is powerful.

Does strange situation task correlate to behavior at home?

Yes; securely attached children are more likely to exhibit enjoyment of physical contact.

Positive attributes of securely attached children

Seem to have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers. Higher in self-regulation, sociability, and social competence with peers. Less anxious, depressed, or socially withdrawn. Able to understand others' emotions better, display more helping, sharing, and concern peers. More positive emotion; normal reactivity to stress.

SLC6A4

Serotonin transporter gene; might affect behavior. Children with a particular variant were more vulnerable to attachment disorganization.

Romanian adoption study

Showed that institutional deprivation hinders optimal social, emotional, and cognitive development

Disorganized/disoriented mothers

Sometimes exhibit abusive, frightening, or disoriented behavior and may be dealing with unresolved loss or trauma.

Strange situation procedure

Study conducted by Mary Ainsworth. Children experienced seven episodes including separation from mom. How did the child react? Especially important was the child's reaction when mom returned. Results were used to identify 3 (5 including sub-categories) categories of attachment.

Self-concept

System made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself. Can include thoughts about one's physical being, social characteristics, and internal characteristics. Understanding of how the self changes; development is important.

Development of attachment

Takes place in 4 phases

Insecure/resistant mothers

Tended to be inconsistent with early caregiving, sometimes responding to cries and sometimes not. These mothers are often highly anxious/overwhelmed.

Insecure/avoidant mothers

Tended to be indifferent and emotionally unavailable. Sometimes reject baby's attempts at physical closeness.

Securely attached mothers

Tended to read their babies signals accurately and give positive signs.

Factors affecting adolescent self-esteem

Tends to be low during transitional periods; also living in impoverished/violent neighborhoods associated with lower self-esteem among adolescents in U.S.

Clear-cut attachment

Third phase of attachment; lasts roughly from 6-8 months to 1.5 years. Infants actively seek contact with caregivers. Happily greet mom and may suffer separation anxiety.

Harry Harlow

Worked on attachment theory; worked with rhesus monkeys.

Behaviorism

Argues that food is the basis for the bond; mothers essentially become the conditioned stimulus linked to the pleasure of eating.

Paternal sensitivity

Association between father's sensitivity and security of children's attachment also exists, weaker.

Measurement of attachment security

Attachment encompasses how a child thinks and feels about a caregiver.

Imaginary audience

Adolescents assume all eyes are on them and that others are just as concerned about their appearance as they are.

Sources of individual differences in self-esteem

Age (self-esteem high in childhood; low in adolescence; rebound adulthood) Physical attributes Gender (boys higher self-esteem than girls) Approval/support received from others.

Attachment Q-sort

Alternative measure of attachment security. Adults/observers sort cards into nine equal piles depending on how well they describe the target child. Characterizes children on a continuum from secure to insecure.

DRD4

Dopamine system; associated with disorganized/disoriented attachment when an infant is in a stressful environment.

Rouge test

Experimenter puts a dot of rouge on the child's face; observed reaction. Children under 18 months: do nothing or touch mirror. Children 18-24 months: touch rouge on own face; recognize themselves in the mirror.

Personal fable

Present in adolescent self-concept; adolescents overly differentiate their feelings from others and regard themselves as unique/special.

Attachment theory

Proposed by John Bowlby. Posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival.

Harlow's influence on Bowlby

Proposed that attachment process is rooted in evolution; viewed as having an innate basis

PEGASUS

Psycho-educational groups for Autism Spectrum Understanding and Support. Teaches high-functioning children with ASD about their diagnosis. Participants have significant gains in ASD self-awareness while avoiding a decrease in self-esteem.

Terrible twos

Refers to the fact that two year olds often seem to make their own plans.

Internal working model of attachment

Result of attachment. A mental representation of the self and relationships in general. Guides the individual's expectations about relationships throughout life.

Attachment-in-the-making

Second phase of attachment; lasts roughly from age 6 weeks to 6 to 8 months. Infant begins to respond preferentially familiar people and form expectations about how caregivers will respond to their needs.

Effect of caregivers on infant expectations

The way the caregiver acts affects the way children view relationships and the types of relationships that they seek. Positive? Expect interpersonal relationships to be gratifying. Negative? Develop negative perceptions of relationships and of themselves.