Know it: Henry VIII 1529-47

What were the three elements to the Pilgrimage of Grace?

- Lincolnshire Rising, 1st-11th October 1536 - Pilgrimage of Grace, 8th October - 8th December 1536 - Bigod Revolt + Cumberland Rising, 16 January - 10th February 1537. Collectively they're referred to as the Pilgrimage of Grace.

What were the main three reasons for Cromwell's fall?

- religion - Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves - factional politics

What three phases did the Dissolution of the Monasteries occur in?

1) Firstly, Wolsey had dissolved 29 while in power. 2) Then in 1536 the Act for the Dissolution of the smaller monasteries, those with an income of under £200 per year. 3) Then in 1539 the Act for the Dissolution of the greater monasteries, dissolved the rest, with the final house, Waltham Abbey, closed in March 1540.

How did Henry's Regional Council affect religious reform?

A significant number of his Regency Council, established in 1546, were Protestants. Edward's tutor was John Cheke, a Protestant. Yet in 1546, Henry had Anne Askew burnt for denying transubstantiation. Some put Henry's apparent fluctuations in policy down to him wanting to maintain a religious balance + prevent dominance of one group. But the reformists dominated the Regency Council because they had use of the dry stamp + therefore after Henry's death it allowed the Protestant Reformation to occur.

Why was the Conservative faction's victory short-lived?

After 19-year-old Catherine, whom 49-year-old Henry was besotted with ('a rose without a thorn') was accused of having an affair with Thomas Culpepper + she was executed in 1541.

Why did Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves cause Cromwell to fall from power?

After the French + Habsburgs made peace this left England isolated + there were fears of a crusade following Henry's excommunication in 1538. Cromwell persuaded Henry to build an alliance with the German protestant princes + cement this with a marriage in 1539. The marriage was a disaster as Henry found her unattractive. It wasn't long before there were tensions between the French + the Habsburgs so the marriage had been unnecessary.

Why wasn't there more opposition to Henry?

Although the end result of the Reformation was that England became a Protestant country, this was unclear in the 1530s. Henry remained Catholic. The changes carried out were barely noticed by most people. It was also the belief that it was your duty to obey the monarch. Henry bought support by giving land made from the dissolution to gentry + nobility. Cromwell's measures created fear among people. The Treason Act of 1534 meant that people could be put to death for opposing the changes (300 between 1532-40).

What changes once again attacked Catholic practices between 1544-7?

Between 1544-7 there was the introduction of an English Litany (1544), replacing the Catholic use of a Latin Litany. However, Priests did not have to use it. An act dissolving Chantries was passed in 1545 but not enforced. This represented a full-scale attack on the Catholic belief in purgatory.

Who was the Reform faction led by?

Edward Seymour (Earl of Hertford), Jane Seymour's brother + therefore uncle to Henry's son Edward the future king, + his brother Thomas Seymour, plus Archbishop Thomas Cranmer.

What evidence suggests that Henry's marriage wasn't the most important reason for Cromwell's fall?

Even after the marriage Cromwell had been given the title Earl of Essex by Henry.

How did Henry rule after Cromwell's death in 1540?

For the last 7 years of his life he didn't have another chief-adviser. Henry was in charge of day-to-day events. Henry traditionally has been portrayed as becoming more tyrannical after losing touch due to his poor health. It's been felt therefore that he lost control + faction took over. Decisions became increasingly slow or sometimes made too quickly. However more recently this has been challenged. Henry actually used a policy of divide + rule to strengthen his own position + prevent one group from dominating. According to this view, Henry remained in control of events until illness prevented him. Either way the intensity of factionalism at court drove political development in this period.

What were Henry's three main aims for the 1540s?

Foreign Policy, securing his succession + controlling the factions.

How did Henry attempt to secure Edward's safe succession after his death?

He had executed rival claimants to the throne + ensured that the succession of Edward was secure in law. The Succession Act of 1544 named Edward as heir, with Mary, then Elizabeth, as next in line should he fail to survive or to produce children. As Edward was only a boy, only 9 when he became king, Henry made provision for a regency council, which was going to be a group of 16 men, all named by Henry. The reform group dominated this.

Why did Sir Thomas More oppose Henry?

He had replaced Wolsey temporarily as chief adviser to the king + opposed Henry's changes. He didn't agree with Henry's divorce from Catherine, didn't believe the Church should be under lay control + supported papal authority. He resigned as Lord Chancellor, refused to swear the Oath of Supremacy but was executed as a result in 1535.

What did Anne being pregnant in 1533 trigger?

He took the momentous decision to sever ties with Rome + declare, in the preamble to the Act in Restraint of Appeals that 'this realm of England is an empire'. The Act prevented any appeals to any authority outside England (the Pope) on the list of issues mentioned in the Act, such as the divorce.

Why did religion cause Cromwell to fall from power?

He was arrested + charged with treason in June 1540 + executed in July. One of the charges was that of heresy. This was because those who brought the charges against Cromwell claimed that he was plotting to bring in a full Protestant Church to England. It's probable that religion was used as an excuse to remove him, particularly when Cranmer, a married priest, escaped punishment.

What were Cromwell's achievements while in power?

He'd been the architect of the break with Rome + secured the Royal Supremacy. He had therefore allowed Henry the divorce he so wanted + had given the King enormous power. He was responsible for a revolution in government, according to Geoffrey Elton, with a movement away from personal monarchy to bureaucratic government. Unlike Wolsey, Cromwell didn't fail the king, but he still fell from power in 1540.

What was the overall process of dissolving the monasteries, beginning in 1535?

In 1535 the Valor Ecclesiasticus, a census of the Church's wealth was carried out. At the same time Cromwell sent out inspectors to look at the standards + behaviour within the monasteries, which provided him with the evidence he wanted. The visitations showed that spiritually they were in a poor condition, particularly the smaller monasteries which were 'decayed', although the larger monasteries were praised. Many monasteries surrendered voluntarily with the abbots often receiving large pensions in return + on the promise that the wealth generated would be used to establish colleges + other social benefits. Therefore when MPs were voting for the Second, many believed that they were doing so to see funds transferred to other users, + not to the crown. Over 500 religious houses were dissolved, crown income was doubled + the re-sale value of monastic land was estimated to be £1.3m.

What doctrinal changes of 1536-9 saw a swing towards Protestantism?

In 1536 there was the Act of the Dissolution of the Smaller Monasteries, the Act of Ten Articles (which rejected 4/7 sacraments of Catholic belief + confirmed a belief in only three - baptism, Eucharist + penance) + Royal Injunctions (attacked Catholic practice of pilgrimages). In 1537 there was the Bishops' Book (reduced the importance of the priests, mass + purgatory) + Matthew's Bible (a Protestant version). In 1538 were the Royal Injunctions (ordered an English Bible to be present in all parishes within two years). In 1539 the Great Bible was published + there was the dissolution of the greater monasteries. BUT there was still evidence of traditional practices being preserved for example in 1538 John Lambert was executed for rejecting Transubstantiation + in 1539 the Act of Six Articles confirmed Transubstantiation.

How did the Conservatives try to break friendship between Henry + Cranmer?

In 1543 they accused Cranmer of being a Protestant heretic. Henry rejected these allegations + put Cranmer in charge of his own investigation. Henry then married a Protestant sympathiser, Catherine Parr in 1543, who was close to the Seymours. The conservatives tried to accuse her of being a heretic but Henry supported his wife.

What allowed Henry to claim that the Church needed reform?

In the parliament of 1529 MPs attacked what they claimed were widespread abuses in the Church.

Why was it significant that Denny held the Dry Stamp?

It could legalise any document that they chose, including an altered version of Henry's will which they published three days after the news of the king's death. Two clauses were added which allowed the reformists to reward themselves + make Edward Seymour, Lord Protector Somerset, instead of having a balanced regency council supporting Edward VI. Mark Nicholls has described this as a 'bloodless coup'.

Why was Henry's wish for a divorce so important?

It played a crucial role in the decision to break with Rome.

Overall, how Protestant was England by 1547?

It was Catholic without a Pope.

Why was there a return to more traditional Catholic practices between 1539-43?

It was helped by Cromwell's execution in 1540 + Henry's marriage to Catherine Howard, the niece of the Catholic Duke of Norfolk.

What acts were taken to move towards more traditional Catholic practices between 1539-43?

It was seen most obviously in the Act of Six Articles which attacked some reformed beliefs + confirmed traditional practices. The Act for the Advancement of True Religion (1543) restricted access to the Bible to the upper classes + the publication of the King's book (1543) which defended transubstantiation. HOWEVER, at the same time Henry gave protection to his archbishop, Cranmer, against attacks by the Catholic faction. The Act for the Advancement of True Religion still allowed an English bible + the King's Book encouraged the reformed belief in preaching + attacking images.

What opposition to Henry was there other than the Pilgrimage of Grace + Thomas More?

John Fisher believed in the powers given to the papacy, opposition was a mortal sin. He refused to swear the Oath of Supremacy + was executed in 1535. Carthusian monks + Franciscan Friars disagreed with the break with Rome + refused to accept the divorce. They resisted the changes. As a result houses were closed, imprisoned + 18 were executed. Others died of starvation rather than surrender. Elizabeth Barton opposed the divorce. She had acquired local fame for having visions since her teens. She prophesied that Henry would lose his throne. She was executed.

Was there a large scale move towards Protestantism in the countryside?

No, because there was little clear direction from the centre. This is supported by many local county studies that have been carried out in places such as Gloucestershire. Studies of wills show that most were still Catholic + in their wording, with testators making reference to the Virgin Mary + putting their trust in salvation through Christ's death, rather than putting their trust in God or simply asserting that they were assured of salvation.

For Cromwell, what was the most important reason for dissolving the monasteries?

RELIGIOUS REASONS. Monasteries were seen as the upholders of traditional religion with support for purgatory through offering prayers for the dead. Protestants did not believe in the value of monasteries + they had been dissolved in Germany + Scandinavia, while thinkers like Erasmus had also criticised them. Monasteries also challenged the Act in Restraint of Appeals as they owed allegiance to the Pope. Many of the vociferous opponents of the Reformation were monks, particularly Carthusians + Franciscans.

Why was the Reform winning notably 'winning' at the end of Henry's reign?

Reformers like Sir Anthony Denny was made Chief Gentleman of the King's Privy Chamber, in charge of the king's private apartments at a time when due to bad health, Henry rarely left. William Paget, another reformer, was appointed as Henry's Private Secretary + through this post controlled the written information that reached the king.

What was the difference between the Conservative + Reform faction?

Religion, as Conservatives accepted the break from Rome but opposed any further doctrinal (teachings of the church) changes as they were Catholic. The Reform faction accepted the break with Rome + wanted to introduce Protestant doctrines into the Church.

What caused the Pilgrimage of Grace?

Religion, as the timing of the rebellion happened in the same year as key religious changes. Aske claimed that the dissolution was 'the greatest cause'. The rebels also restored some monks to their monasteries + wanted the Royal Supremacy to end. However there had also been poor harvests in 1535 + 1536, enclosures were an issue, rebels also complained about the scale of rents + entry fines (payment to inherit land), taxation, complaints about Cromwell, + supporters of Catherine of Aragon + Princess Mary.

What was the most significant religious change during Henry VIII's reign?

The 1534 Act of Supremacy which recognised Henry was head of the Church in England. By the end of the year, Thomas Cromwell was appointed the king's deputy, or vicegerent, in church affairs.

How did factional politics contribute to Cromwell's fall?

The Catholic faction, led by the Duke of Norfolk, Thomas Howard, + Bishop Stephen Gardiner, were able to entice Henry with Catherine Howard, Norfolk's niece. Howard was only 19 + Henry became infatuated with her. As a result of this infatuation, he believed in the stories about Cromwell + rushed through the process of Attainder, which saw Cromwell executed. Henry married Catherine on the same day that Cromwell was executed.

What were the two rival factions at court?

The Conservative (Howard faction) + the Reform (Seymour faction). The king was fully aware of the factions + even encouraged them due to sheer egotism. He enjoyed playing one off against another but also it prevented one view of politics dominating + encouraged debate.

What was the most significant opposition to religious changes?

The Pilgrimage of Grace, which lasted from October 1536 to February 1537. Dissolution of the smaller monasteries, the Ten Articles + Injunctions were issued in 1536, which suggests these were the causes of the rebellions.

Why was the Conservative faction failing at the end of Henry's reign?

The conservative group was finally broken apart by the arrests of the Duke of Norfolk + his son the Earl of Surrey after Surrey had spoken openly about his family's claim to the throne + put part of the royal coat of arms of his ancestor King Edward I onto his own family emblem. He was arrested for treason + executed a week before Henry's death. Norfolk was also arrested but escaped execution because Henry died before giving the order.

Which faction was dominant in 1546?

The reform faction was dominant. Edward Seymour had built his position at court as Prince Edward's uncle + a successful military commander in the war against Scotland. In contrast, Gardiner's career was in decline. He was accused of challenging the act of supremacy + was removed from Henry's inner circle of royal advisers.

What happened during the rebellion?

The rising occurred in most of the northern counties of England, involved 40k rebels + outnumbered the forces the King could raise by 5:1. Rising began at Louth + spread across Lincolnshire, involving both the gentry + commons, although gentry support disappeared as a royal force drew near. News of the rising in Lincolnshire soon spread to Yorkshire + other areas of the north, + groups of regional armies or 'hosts' under the leadership of Robert Aske, a lawyer, soon assembled. The rebels seized York + Lord Darcy handed over Pontefract Castle. Demands were drawn up + given to the Duke of Norfolk, who had been sent by Henry to negotiate with them. Henry offered a general pardon, a parliament to discuss the issues + a truce. Aske insisted that the monasteries must not be dissolved before parliament met. An agreement was reached + the rebels dispersed. Some were still suspicious + Sir Francis Bigod raised another force in January 1537. This collapsed very quickly though + he was arrested in Cumberland. Henry used this as an excuse to round up + executed 178 people, including Aske + Darcy. Pilgrimage of Grace was serious because rebel forces outnumbered those of the king, they had control of the major city in the north, York, they controlled Pontefract Castle, seen as the gateway to the south, they were well-organised under the leadership of Robert Aske, + the rebellion attracted support from all classes. However, the rebellion did not move south towards London + directly threaten the king.

What impact did attack on traditional practices have?

There was a decline in the number coming forward for ordination (training to become a priest) + there was less church building or money being left to the local parish church than had been the case before 1529. Confidence in the Church had declined + would be hard to restore. Most importantly the translation of the Bible into English + its availability mean that things would never be the same again.

Was London + Kent Protestant by 1547?

There were some signs of Protestantism in London + Kent but even when numbers were large Susan Brigden's study of London has suggested that only 20% were Protestant by 1547. In general terms, the further north + west one travelled from London, the fewer Protestants would be found.

Why did the Conservative faction appear to be 'winning' in 1540?

They were satisfied + confident with three victories: Cromwell's death, the Six Articles Act + Henry's marriage to Catherine Howard, Thomas Howard's niece.

Who was the Conservative faction led by?

Thomas Howard (Duke of Norfolk) + also included Bishop Stephen Gardiner, + Thomas Howard's son the Earl of Surrey.

How did Parliament abolish papal authority between 1534-6?

Through a series of statutes: Direct payments to Rome were stopped (Act in Restraint of Annates). Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, had the power of dispensation + exemption that had previously been the Pope's (Dispensation Act). The pope's role in the appointment of churchmen ended (Act of the Submission of the Clergy).

Why has it been suggested that the visitations exaggerated corruption + scandals of monasteries?

Traditional accounts point to the behaviour of the monks though, although more recently it has been suggested that the visitations exaggerated the corruption + scandals. This is so that Cromwell would be able to persuade parliament of the need for the dissolution, as many valued monasteries for religious + social reasons.

How Protestant was England by 1547?

Traditional historians like Dickens argued that England had been largely Protestant by Henry's death but that was because they believed that the English Church before the Reformation was in a bad condition. However that view has been largely discredited as most were still happy with the Church. Many of the changes weren't doctrinal but legal. Also although England was moving in a more Protestant direction, there were others like the Act of Six Articles of 1539 that reversed these changes. Therefore, legally England wasn't a Protestant country + key Catholic beliefs, like transubstantiation, were still upheld by the king. However Henry confused matters by marrying Anne of Cleves, a Protestant, then a Catholic, Catherine Howard, + then a Protestant, Catherine Parr.

For Henry, what was the most important reason for dissolving the monasteries?

WEALTH. Cromwell promised to make him the 'richest prince in Christendom'. Henry needed money as he had already spent his inheritance on way, + by the 1530s England was under threat of invasion from a Catholic crusade following the break with Rome, particularly after Henry was excommunicated + Francis I + Charles V signed a peace treaty in 1538. Many of the larger monasteries had incomes of over £1k per year + this money was often used to build fortifications on the south coast. Henry also wouldn't have to ask Parliament for money which often led to unrest. Henry also acquired lots of land which could be sold to build up crown income or used as patronage or reward for loyalty, such as Catholics like the Duke of Norfolk. Very little of the money was spent on society + a significant number of monks were left in poverty. The wealthy gained the most as they could buy the land.