Domain II: Art, Culture and History- Blue Cards

*Describe materials used in art from ancient Egypt.

Ancient Egyptians used soft stones such as limestone, sandstone, and calcite for sculpture. Copper chisels and stone tools could be used on these softer stones, and ancient Egyptians used copper alloys on harder stones such as quartzite, basalt and granite. Most statues were painted, as evidenced by traces of paint left on them. For wood carving and sculpting, a variety of native woods was used, including acacia, fig, fir, and cedar. For metalwork, Egyptians used copper, bronze, gold, and silver. Many metal statues were able to cut stones for jewelry with precision. They used many stones in jewelry including lapis lazuli, feldspar, jasper, amethyst, and quartz. The pigments used for painting came from local minerals. They used carbon for black, gypsum for white, iron oxide for reds and yellows, azurite and malachite for blues and greens, and orpiment for bright yellow. Paints were applied directly, or they were layered to create other effects.

What types of art falls under commercial art?

Graphic design and illustration are categorized as this arts.

*Describe materials used in art from the Renaissance period.

Frescoes, that is, murals painted onto plaster walls, were painted during the renaissance period. The pigments were mixed with water and applied to wet plaster, and once the plaster dried, the pigments were visible on the wall. This was a time-consuming process, but it was used for large works of art including the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Artists also painted with oil paints, which became available in the 15th century. The slow drying time allowed artists to blend and paint with greater realism and detail than before. More colors were available, and the transparency allowed artists to use glazing techniques, layering transparent colors from greater depth and richness. Artists during this time also still painted on wood panels or rigid supports with tempera. For sculpting, the most common materials was marble. Michelangelo's famous sculptures, including David, Moses, and other notable works, were carved from marble.

*Identify the major artists of abstract expressionism.

Jackson Pollock is known for his action paintings, or splatter paintings. The term "action painting" was coined to describe Pollock's methods of applying paint to a canvas. Pollock considered this technique to be a way to harness the capabilities of his unconscious, which expressed itself onto the canvas. He saw the drips and splatters not as random paint, but as a balance of chaos and control. Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, and Clyfford Still were all color field painters of the abstract expressionist movement. They were looking to get away from form and representation in artwork, and they did away with the figure/ground convention by turning the figure and ground into one. The color seemed to extend beyond the edges of the painting and was the focus of the artwork. Helen Frankenthaler used a mix of techniques and invented the "soak-stain" technique, which involved creating large color washes by pouring thinned paint onto a canvas. She used Pollock's technique of pouring paint but also used elements of color field painting by incorporating large areas of pure color.

*Explain the unique characteristics and main ideas of art from Central and South America.

Latin American art, from Central and South America, begins with the indigenous people. The first art objects were utilitarian, but eventually, they began to produce artwork that represented the values and religions of the different regions. When South America was colonized by Europe, the art forms began to merge and blend. Latin American art is a blend of three cultures: Indian, African, and European. Prior to colonization, many Indian natives lived in Latin America, but then European settlers arrived and brought African slaves. During colonial times, art was usually religious, and it resembled traditional European artwork. In the 1800s, artists began to develop their own regional styles that departed from European styles and traditions. One important artistic movement is muralism, which began in the 1920s. Hundreds of murals were painted in public places, with social and political messages, ideas of identity, and a unifying theme.

*Describe the main characteristics of Renaissance architecture.

Renaissance architecture occurred in Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. The style followed by the baroque style. The Renaissance style emphasized proportion, geometry, and symmetry, and it included orderly composition of the columns and pilasters they used. These architects used semicircular arches, as well as hemispherical domes. The building plans are square and symmetrical, and facades are symmetrical as well. Church facades would usually be topped by a pediment, as shown in this example of St. Peter's Basilica. Renaissance architectural used Greek and Roman orders of columns, either as structural objects or as purely decorative pilasters. The dome was used often as a large external feature or as a structural internal dome. Doors would have square lintels, and openings without doors would have arches with a decorative keystone. The keystone is the top center stone in an arch that carries the load of the arch structure. Moldings and decorative details were created with great attention to detail because they found it critical to master the techniques of the ancient Romans.

*Describe the main characteristics of Romanesque architecture.

Romanesque architecture is a style of medieval Europe beginning around the 11th century. This style is characterized by semicircular arches for doors and windows, and barrel or groin vaults. Many castles and churches were built in this style. Romanesque churches had large, thick walls and piers with few windows, a large tower where the nave and transept cross, and smaller towers at the western end of the church. An arcade, or row of columns, was constructed in the center of larger churches, separating the nave from the aisles. These buildings, both secular and sacred, give a feeling of solidity and strength by their massive size, thick walls, and Masonry construction. Instead of relying on columns for support as in Greek and Roman architecture, this style, like the Byzantine style, relies more on walls. This example shows the few small arches windows that exemplify the Romanesque style.

Ionic Order Column

You can distinguish this order by its characteristic scrolled capitals, which are said to look like a rolled-up pillow. The fronts and sides are different, unlike the other Orders. The columns are usually fluted, and the frieze may be plain or decorated with sculpted ornament.

Doric Order Column

You can easily recognize this order by its frieze with alternating plain or sculpted metopes and grooved triglyphs. The triglyphs represent the stylized beam ends of a timber roof. The capitals are very simple, and some early examples of the Greek Order have no base.

*Identify the major artists of the mannerism style.

El Greco, a nickname meaning "the Greek," painted in the mannerist style, using elongated and strange proportions and portraying strong, dramatic emotions. The poses are strained and unnatural, heightening the emotion conveyed by the subjects. Rather than using accurate lighting, the lighting in his works seem to come from within the figures or from an unseen source. In his later works, he elongated figures even more, especially on altarpiece works. This work from 1600 shows his odd use of lighting and forced, strained poses that illustrate the mannerist style. Tintoretto, another mannerist painter, created monumental religious works and emphasized the mystical nature of religion. He also used elongated forms and forced poses, but his works show a mastery of lighting along with a better idea of spatial depth. He sought for viewers to experience the divine through his religious depictions. Through lighting and composition, he created a supernatural atmosphere, portraying scenes not from this world.

Content, Context, and purpose of ancient Rome.

*Greece* art later greatly *influenced this artwork* and *borrowed many elements* of their *religion* from Greece. They also *borrowed* art and *architectural styles.* These people used their artworks more for *aesthetics and decoration,* rather than for lofty ideals like the Greeks. Here. Art lost its spiritual quality and was used more to *adorn homes*. They did copy the Greek states *of gods and goddesses*, but they also *created skillful and realistic portrait sculptures.* In addition to sculptures, they *created paintings and mosaics for homes*, showing *scenes of daily life.*

Define the architectural term grotesque.

A carved mythical creature that is used for decoration on a building. These look similar to gargoyles, but gargoyles have a functional purpose as a water spout that carries water away from the side of a building. Stylized and bizarre human or animal figures were a particular decorative feature of Gothic, Romanesque, and Renaissance decorative schemes, although they are also found in other periods. They were often used in multiples, especially as addorsed or affronted pairs, and combined with foliage.

Define the architectural term frieze.

A decorative horizontal band, especially the central component of an entablature.

Define the architectural term astragal.

A half-round molding.

Define the architectural term metope.

A plain or decorated slab on a Doric frieze; it alternates with triglyphs.

Define the architectural term balustrade.

A series of pillars, or balusters, that support a rail to form a low wall or barrier. This could also be used for an ornamental parapet or balcony.

Define the architectural term volute.

A spiral curve or scroll.

Define the architectural term obelisk.

A tall, four-sided structure that is freestanding and tapers to a pyramid point. These were often found at the entrances to Egyptian temples, and they continue to be used in Western architecture. One well-known example is the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C.

Define the architectural term acanthus.

A type of plant with deeply divided leaves.

*Explain the ideas and significance of abstract expressionism.

Abstract expressionism refers to an art style from the 1940's and 1950's. The artists grouped under this style sought total freedom of expression through their artwork. They shared an outlook, rather than a specific style, and this is thought to be the first truly American art movement. Abstract expressionism is also called the New York School, because the movement was centered in New York. Its influence extended into the 1970's. Abstract expressionist artists were influenced by the surrealist idea of expressing the subconsciousness in artwork. Abstract expressionism includes color field painting and action painting, and mixes of these two, among other techniques. Color field painting uses solid areas, or fields of color, on a large scale that extend to the edges of the canvas. The extension to the edges suggests the colors continuing to infinity, and the large scale helps to envelop the viewer in the colors. Action painting includes dribbling, splashing, and dripping paint onto a canvas using gestures and movements, while emphasizing the unconscious.

*Explain the unique characteristics and main ideas of art from Africa.

African art includes painting, sculpture, pottery, masks, textiles, body decoration, jewelry, and rock art. Some African art is aesthetic, some is political or ideological, and some is used for rituals. Characteristics of African art include stylized realism, emphasis on sculpture, geometric forms, and an emphasis on the human figure. African artists will tend to visually abstract, or stylize, figures rather than represent them in a naturalistic way. Sculpture is a preferred art form rather than working in two dimensions. African artists use geometric forms and symmetry, with repeated geometric shapes throughout an artwork. This example of a mask is symmetrical and includes geometric shapes. The human figure has often been a main subject for African art, depicted in masks, painting, and sculptures. Human figures tend to show youthful characteristics because of an emphasis on health and physical strength as well as youth.

Define the architectural term apse.

Also called a chancel, this is a vaulted semicircular structure at the end of the center aisle. This is where the altar would be located. The curved east end of a church.

*Identify the major artists of pop art.

Andy Warhol was a commercial artist who became a significant pop artist. He created video art, installations, performance art, and paintings, and in 1961 he began producing pop art paintings, including the iconic 'Campbell's Soup Cans'. He also painted portraits of many celebrities in bright and vivid colors. Roy Lichtenstein was a pop artist who is known for his comic book imagery. He altered images from comic books, added a different text, and painted them on a large scale. He used Benday dots, the dots produced by mechanical means in printing, to create these images. One of his well-known works is 'Drowning Girl' (1963), which depicts a comic image of a drowning girl and her boyfriend in a boat, along with text. Jasper Jones was a pop artist known for his American imagery, especially the American flag. His 'Three Flags' (1958) is a painting of three American flags layered upon each other. 'Flag', from 1954-1955, is a faithful representation of an American flag using encaustic.

What is applied art?

Art that serves a purpose. These are useful objects with artistic design, fashion design, decorative arts, and architecture. Graphic design and illustration are also categorized as commercial arts, which can be this type of art. This can also be used in fine artworks, so the line between these art types can be blurred, depending on the creator and their intent.

What is fine art?

Art with no purpose other than being aesthetically pleasing. This includes drawing, painting, sculpture, and other media.

Analyze how visual art is used to express political ideas.

Artists can use their artwork to support or criticize ideas. A protest is an often-used theme in artwork. The imagery in artwork can show the devastation caused by decisions and the harm they can cause to innocent people. A great example of this is Pablo Picasso's 'Guernica' (1937). One of the best-known antiwar paintings in history.

*Describe how visual art reflects social ideas.

Artists will often reflect the social climate surrounding them through the subjects that they portray in their artwork. They can choose to portray marginalized populations, bringing social issues to the attention of a large population. Romare Bearden is an African-American artist known for capturing the social and cultural climate of African-American neighborhoods in his colleges. During the civil rights movement in the 1960s, he began to cut use cut paper and magazine clippings to portray the culture and community in African-American neighborhoods and to celebrate themes such as jazz music, the rural South, blues musicians, religion, and spirituality. He focused on unity and cooperation within the African-American community. Another example of art reflecting society and culture is the social realism movement. Social realism artists sought to highlight the "forgotten" members of society, such as the poor, immigrants, and racial minorities. During the 1920s and 1930s, these artists portrayed the common worker as the backbone of society, and their artwork showed political corruption, materialism, joblessness, and poverty, among other social and political issues at the time. This example by Ben Shahn is a mural called The Meaning of Social Security, and it is an attempt to depict Franklin D. Roosevelt's speech on the upcoming Social Security legislation and the ambition of the new Deal programs.

*Identify the major artists of Dada and surrealism.

At part of the Dada movement, Marcel Duchamp began creating artwork called "ready-made," made from items that were already created and he just declared them to be art. One well-known example is his 1917 'Fountain', which is an already-made urinal that he signed as R. Mutt. Another Duchamp artwork from 1919, L.H.O.O.Q., shows the departure from and irreverence toward traditional artwork. He took a postcard depicting the Mona Lisa and drew a mustache and face on the portrait, then labeled it L.H.O.O.Q. With this artwork, he challenged artistic conventions of that the past, and the value of traditional artwork. Salvador Dali, a well-known surrealist artist, created his best-known work, 'The Persistence of Memory', in 1931. The painting depicts melted pocket watches on a dreamlike landscape. Reme Magritte, a Belgian surrealist artist, created thought-provoking artwork by juxtaposing ordinary objects in unusual ways. In 'The Treachery of Images (1928-1929) he depicts a pipe with the words, in French, "This is not a pipe." The viewer is faced with a challenge of reconciling these words with the fact that this is a representation of a pipe, not an actual pipe.

*Identify the major artists of feminist art.

Barbara Kruger uses mass communication and advertising techniques, pairing black-and-white photos with Helvetica or Futura text, to explore identity and gender issues. The text and slogans she uses challenge the viewer, and her phrases often include pronouns such as I, you, we, or they. She often appropriates images for magazines and adds text to frame the images in a new context to make the viewer think. The image shows her artwork 'Belief + Doubt' from 2012 and its iconic and recognizable style of text. Cindy Sherman is a feminist artist who is known for her self-portraits. She used makeup, wigs, and props to transform herself to represent various female stereotypes in her for photographs. Her artworks question ideas of authenticity and identity. Faith Ringgold is an African-American feminist artist who worked in themes of racial and gender identity and equality. She told stories through quilts, and she recognized a need for equality in the art world. Ringgold would often insist that 50% of the artists included in prominent art shows should be women.

*Describe the main characteristics of neoclassical architecture.

Classical architecture of ancient Greece and Rome was revived later with neoclassical architecture in the mid-18th century. This style began as a reaction to the excessive ornamentation of the rococo style. This international movement was characterized by a return to the clarity, restraint, and balance, as well as subjects and motifs, of classical styles. Neoclassical architecture used columns, especially the Doric order, and it showed a desire for blank walls rather than decorations. The roof would be flat, sometimes with a pediment, and the facade would be flat and long, with a wall of columns across. No domes or towers were used in this style. Examples of the style include the National Mall and the Lincoln Memorial (shown) in Washington, D.C. The Lincoln Memorial exemplifies the long, flat faceted with a row of columns and the flat roof used in this style of architecture.

*Identify the major artists of Impressionism.

Claude Monette is the most well-known impressionist painter, and some of his subjects include cathedrals, haystacks, landscapes, water lilies, and his garden in Giverny, France. The paintings of his garden included a Japanese footbridge that spanned over water lilies. His paintings became increasingly abstract in later years due to his failing eyesight. Edgar Degas was an impressionist painter best known for his paintings of ballerinas and dancers. He captured his impression of dance lessons and performances, showing the movement of the moment with visible brushstroke. This example from 1873-1876, 'The Dance Class', shows a dance class being instructed by the man in the center. He did not capture outside light like other impressionists, but he still captured fleeting moments in time. Mary Cassatt was the best-known female impressionist painter, and she often painted domestic scenes with a child and mother as the subjects. Cassatt was invited to exhibit with the impressionists by Degas, and she began to be influenced by their work. Augustus Renoir captured stunning landscapes and beautiful portraits in the impressionist style. The visible brushstrokes, soft edges, and pure colors follow the patterns of the impressionist painters, and he shows a masterful understanding of how light affects his subjects.

*Explain the ideas and significance of cubism and futurism.

Cubism is an early-20th-century art movement in which several viewpoints are shown simultaneously, and simple geometric shapes or interlocking planes are used to construct a scene. Cubism began in 1907 and ended around 1915. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque pioneered this movement, influenced partly by the three-dimensional representations in works by Paul Cezanne. Cubist artists would analyze a form, break it apart, and reassemble it visually in a more abstracted format. Futurism, an early-20th-century movement that began in Italy in 1909, emphasized movement, technology, speed, and violence. The artwork included objects such as cars, airplanes, and industrial elements. Like cubists, these artists expressed dynamic elements in artwork. They also praised originality, admired technology over nature, and sought to convey movement through space. Futurist artists praised war and valued nationalism, and they would depict urban scenes such as riots and construction in the city.

*Describe how visual art is used to express emotions and communicate ideas.

Emotions and ideas can be expressed through artwork in many ways, including the imagery, subject matter, or colors used. Frida Kahlo is in a Mexican artist who used the subject matter and imagery in her artwork to express her physical and emotional pain and frustration. Throughout her life, Kahlo experienced abuse as well as a near-fatal bus accident that caused many physical problems. She began to paint self-portraits and explore ideas related to her pain and injuries, including emotional pain from her divorce with artist Diego Rivera. In her paintings, she often depicted her physical problems as well as open wounds to portrayed her pain. She sometimes included imagery of roots, to symbolize growth and a feeling of being trapped. Kahlo would also depict issues of childbirth and miscarriage, to communicate her frustration over her own failed pregnancies. She would often mix reality with elements of fantasy and paint scenes related to pain in death. She used self-portraits to communicate her emotions and ideas relating to her pain as well as to explore her identity.

*Explain the unique characteristics and main ideas of art from Europe.

European artwork began with prehistoric rock painting and carving, and it was developed over the centuries through many different artistic movements. Beginning in the middle ages, art would be commissioned by a patron, usually by the church or state. This artwork mainly showed historic, biblical, and religious scenes and religious and political leaders. Secular artwork included landscapes and still lives. Academies trained artists in methods, materials, and anatomy; attempted to evaluate art from a craft to fine art; and began to exhibit artwork. Art was created in workshops by master artists and their apprentices. As the importance of the church and royalty declined, the subject matter changed. The Industrial Revolution brought changes in technology that included premade, portable paints. Artists became independent and could use their own creativity. Because the academies resisted these changes, innovative artists became Avant-garde while academic art stuck to traditions.

*Identify the major artists of fauvism and expressionism.

Henri Matisse was a fauvist artist who pioneered the movement. He applied large, flat areas of color to his paintings and worked with bright colors directly from the tubes to convey emotions. He's also considered a leader in defining the 20th-century modern art movement. One of his best-known works of this period is called 'Woman with a Hat' (1905). He used unusual colors, including green on the woman's face. Expressionism began with works of artists such as Vincent van Gogh and Edvard Munch, and then in 1905, German artists formed a group called Die Brucke that began the main wave of expressionism. This group includes artists Erich Heckel, Fritz Bleyl, and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, and they were later joined by Otto Muller, Emil Nolde, and Max Pechstein. Wassily Kandinsky was a notable Russian expressionist painter, and he went on to work in abstract art.

Define the architectural term entablature.

In Classical architecture the entire horizontal structure above the capitals (in a Classical Order), including the lintel and any decoration above it. This includes the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice below the roof. This can also be used by itself as a form of decoration.

What artist used both applied art and fine art in there work?

In the 1960s, Andy Warhol began to blur the division between the two. Warhol used commercial art techniques to mass-produce works that were considered fine art.

*Identify the major artists of the Renaissance art period.

Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Rafael are a few of the best-known artists of the Renaissance period. Leonardo was a "Renaissance man," with knowledge of math, astronomy, architecture, art, inventing, literature, anatomy, and more. His well-known works included the Mona Lisa in The Last Supper. He pioneered a technique called sfumato, which uses subtle gradations to create a smoky look. Michelangelo showed a mastery of anatomy in his artworks. His best-known works are his David statue and his painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Unlike many artists, he achieved fame as an artist during his lifetime. He was accomplished in art, sculpture, and architecture, and he inspired the artist Raphael. Raphael is known for his skillful composition, as well as his serene depictions of the greatness of human nature. One of his best-known works is the School of Athens, a monumental work from 1509-1500 depicting many ancient Greek philosophers (shown). This artwork also shows a mastery of perspective, as well as natural poses and lighting.

*Describe how Art is used to express themes and ideas.

Many themes and ideas are expressed in artwork. Themes are universal ideas explored and represented in artwork. One popular recurring example is identity. Identity includes the characteristics and behaviors that put an individual in a certain group. Some of the factors for identity include race, religion, culture, and language. Photographer Cindy Sherman explored identity by photographing herself in different roles in costumes, especially erasing her own identity and taking on the identity of other people. In doing this, she forced on the stereotypes of these female roles, addressing feminism, youth, aging, and obsession with status, ultimately questioning identity. Kara Walker, an artist working with silhouettes, explores ideas of identity through race and gender. She portrays racism and historic scenes of slavery, getting past the romanticized notions of the past and exploring its reality. Her silhouette simplify forms and focus on the topic at hand. She seeks to get past misconceptions and portray the true nature and identities behind tough subjects.

Define the architectural term flying buttress.

Masonry support that transmits the thrust of a vault or a roof into the outer support. This is usually an inclined bar on a partial arch that extends, or flies out, from the wall and carries the weight of the vault or roof. This architectural element developed in Gothic architecture, from prior hidden supports in previous styles. This helped architects create the high ceilings characteristic of Gothic-style churches.

*Explain the unique characteristics and main ideas of art from the Middle East.

Middle Eastern or Islamic art includes artwork created by countries in the Middle Eastern region by Muslim and non-Muslim artists. This includes architecture, mosaics, calligraphy, manuscript illustration, metalworking, textiles, and more. Religion is the most important aspect of Islamic art, and the artwork will often include patterns that could be repeated into infinity. This concept is important to Muslims, contrasting the experience of infinity with man's finite existence on earth and disregarding this temporary presence. Another important concept is the dissolution of the matter, which can be achieved by applying patterns and decoration to surfaces. Floral patterns were often used for patterns and decorations, and they could be highly intricate and ornate. Calligraphy was integrated into artwork and decorations as an important element, and the inscription is often a quote from the Qur'an. This image is an example of a repeated infinity pattern as well as dissolution of matter by covering it with a pattern.

*Describe the visual characteristics and purpose of art from ancient Egypt.

Much of the artwork created in ancient Egypt was not meant to be seen; rather, it was mostly created for tombs, and it emphasized life after death. Tombs in ancient Egypt were packed with furniture and food, as well as art and jewelry. The more important and wealthy the person, the more precious artifacts were found in their tombs. These items were meant for the person in their afterlife. Egyptians use a hierarchy of scale to depict people, leaders, and Gods: The larger the figure, the more important they were. Kings and deities might be shown on the same scale. Another common element of Egyptian artwork was hieroglyphs, or images that were symbols for sounds in words. These were the writing system of ancient Egypt, and they often accompanied the artwork. Two-dimensional scenes were organized in registers, or parallel lines that separated scenes and served as ground lines. People were depicted with a simultaneous profile view in front view.

*Identify major artists of the neoclassical style.

One significant artist of the neoclassical style is Jacques-Louis David. His painting 'Oath of the Horatii' is a prime example of the neoclassical movement. This painting (shown) tells a story from classical times, from a Roman legend in which the Horatii brothers take an oath to defend Rome. In this carefully organized composition, three arches with columns span the background, whereas all the figures and action are pushed into the foreground as if creating a sculptural relief. John-Auguste-Dominique Ingres was a student of David, and he also created works in the neoclassical style. Unlike David, he began to favor more sensuous subjects and became known for portraits. His work 'Oedipus and the Sphinx' (1808) was completed while Ingres worked in Rome. This scene is from the Greek myth of Oedipus was guessing the riddle of the Sphinx. Ingres won the prestigious Prix de Rome for this painting. Keeping with classical standards, Oedipus depicted as a beautiful and ideal young man.

*Describe materials used in art from prehistory.

Paleolithic artists used five main colors: black, white, yellow, red, and brown, as shown in this example from the Lascaux cave art in France. Color pigments were used for body and face decoration long before creating artwork. Some would mix earth or charcoal with animal fat for blacks and browns, and many paintings like this most likely vanished over time. Later rock art that has been discovered used materials such as iron oxide, kaolin, hematite, and manganese. Crayons were developed from solid pieces of pigment, and brushes were formed from animal hairs. Artists would also apply paint with their fingers or a pad made from lichen or moss. Later in the Stone Age, artists used ochre for yellows, browns, and reds and used manganese or charcoal for black. White was ground calcite or kaolin. The artist would grind the pigment into a powder and mix it with water, blood, animal fat, juice, or other materials to help the pigment stick to cave walls or other surfaces.

*Explain the ideas and significance of pop art.

Pop art was a British and American movement in the 1960s that used items from popular culture and incorporated them into artwork. This was partly inspired by the readymades of Dadaism. The artists of this movement went against the disengagement of abstract expressionism and celebrated popular culture and consumer items. They used bright, flat colors from advertising and imagery from comic books as well. As a response to and departure from abstract expressionism, pop art used hard edges instead of painterly techniques and impersonal, everyday reality instead of personal symbolism. Some of the significant artists of the pop art movement used commercial imagery such as Campbell's Soup cans, imagery from comic books, and even a direct representation of the American flag. They were inspired by everyday objects and mass consumerism, and they combined objects, text, and images to create new meaning in their artwork.

*Explain the ideas and significance of post impressionism.

Post-impressionism was a French art movement from 1886 to 1905 that followed impressionism and proceeded fauvism. Post-impressionism sought to explore the emotional response of the artist and depart from the naturalism of impressionism. These artists still used bold and pure colors as well as real-life subject matter, but they also leaned towards more geometric shapes, distorted forms, exaggerated or arbitrary colors, and sometimes heavy outlines. Neoimpressionist Georges Seurat departed from the spontaneous nature of impressionism for a more planned approach that included the optical blending of spots of color. This is now known as pointillism, but it falls under the post-impressionist movement. Paul Signac carried on Seurat's ideas; he helped Seurat develop the pointillism style. This work by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec from 1889, titled Monsieur Fourcade, shows several major ideas of post-impressionism. Although the artworks and artists of this period are fairly varied, this work does show the bold, arbitrary colors and outlines used in postimpressionists artwork.

*Explain the ideas and significance of postmodernism.

Postmodernism is a mid-to-late- 20th-century art movement that departed from modernism. Since the beginning of the 20th century, modernism had led art practice and theory and had promoted the ideas of progress, reason, and idealism. Postmodern and this movement was skeptical and antiauthoritarian. This "anything goes" style cast aside all rules of style and included elements of confrontation, tongue-in-cheek humor, and ludicrousness. Postmodernist artists built on the ideas of previous movements such as pop art and feminist art, but they questioned the ideas and subjectivity, authorship, and originality in previous art movements. This movement also questioned the commodification of art production. Postmodernism is a cross-disciplinary term with philosophical origins, and it was highly influenced by French philosopher Jacques Lacan. Lacan added a contemporary intellectual significance to the ideas of Freud, and he suggested that the unconscious is just as complex and sophisticated as the conscious mind.

*Describe the content in context of art from pre-history.

Prehistoric art is art that was produced in pre-literate times, prior to writing or record keeping. The first known art is from the Paleolithic era, and it consisted of petroglyphs, cave paintings, and sculptures and carvings in bone. Humans were making art to express ideas and to represent their beliefs and surroundings visually. One of the earliest representational artworks from prehistory is the Venus of Wellendorf (shown), from roughly 28,000 BC. In China and Japan, prehistoric pottery has been found, as well as bronze figures. In Europe, cave paintings were found in Lascaux and Chauvet, France, and in parts of Spain. Aboriginal painted rock art has been found in Australia, and engravings and paintings on stone and walls have been found in African caves. A large percentage of known prehistoric art is attributed to hunters and foragers. Repeated motifs include animals, humans, tools, maps, and symbols. Portable objects, such as rocks and bones, and stationary surfaces such as cave walls, were used for art creation.

*Explain the unique characteristics and main ideas of art from North America.

Prior to colonialization, traditional Native American art dominated North America. Early colonial art was based on European traditions, and artists mainly painted portraits and landscapes. In the 18th century, artists such as Benjamin West, John Singleton Copley, and Gilbert Stuart became some of the first significant American painters. Starting in 1820, the Hudson River School produced romantic landscape painting artists. The American Revolution brought a demand for patriotic artwork, and artists began to document rural America. Prominent 19th-century painters created portraits and painted a wide range of subjects including pioneers, soldiers, and sailors. American impressionism flourished in the 19th century, and in the 20th century, European art continued to impact America. The influence gave rise to the abstract art scene. Many art genres have risen in North America since the beginning of the 20th century, including pop art, minimalism, and photorealism.

*Identify the major artists of romanticism.

Several significant artists worked in the romanticist style. Eugene Delacroix was at the forefront of the French school of romantic artwork. In 'Liberty Leading the People', he depicted the female figure of Liberty leading the French Revolution of 1830. It is a history painting, showing a violent, dramatic, catastrophic scene. Theodore Gericault was another French romantic artist. His work 'The Raft of the Medusa' is a significant romantic painting. This work is larger than life size, and it shows the aftermath of the wreck of a French naval frigate, with people escaping on a makeshift raft. It shows men dying and struggling to survive against nature, with strong emotions and an unfolding drama. Thomas Cole was an American painter who portrayed the American wilderness in the romantic style. One of his well-known works is called 'The Oxbow', which shows a bend in the Connecticut River, in a valley is a juxtaposition of broken trees, violent cliffs, and dark rain clouds beside blue skies and a tranquil bend in the river.

*Identify the major artist of postmodernism.

Sigmar Polke, a German artist whose artwork pioneered a post-modern approach, departed from coherence in his art as well as the idea that art comes from the artist's personality. In his 12 canvases is collectively called 'The Fifties' (1963-1969), he portrays a combination of cynicism and nostalgia while commenting on German culture. The grouping of paintings goes against the concept of stylistic coherence because he used different styles throughout the works. Gerhard Richter's photo paintings of the 1960s combined photography with Painting. In doing this, he combined high and low art into one technique. Richter would project a photograph onto a canvas, then paint it in natural shades of gray, leaving out the black and white tones. He then used a dry brush to soften the edges, degrading the image to give a blurry effect. He assigned natural titles to his works. This method of mechanical reproduction took any artist style out of the equation, as well as any emotion express through the artwork.

*Explain the relationship between technology and art.

Technology is used in conjunction with art in many different ways. Some artists use technology within their art, such as video artists. Others use computers, digital cameras, and scanners to create art, such as electronic artists or graphic designers. This art can be printed repeatedly, and multiple copies can be shown or sold. For those who do not use a form of technology to create their art, they might use it to compose a scene. An artist can use digital photography to capture images to work on, or he or she could use computer software to compose the artwork before drawing or painting it. An artist might draw or paint from life with no assistance from technology, but then he or she may use technology to document the work and put it online on a website for others to view. Technology can also be used to keep records of work or to submit artwork to art competitions across the world.

*Describe the main characteristics of Beaux arts architecture.

The Beaux-arts architectural style was taught from the 1830s to the end of the 19th century at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. From there, it strongly influenced architecture in the United States. Beaux-arts architecture drew from Greek and Roman styling and included arched and pedimented doors, arched windows, flat roofs, columns, and symmetry. Beaux-arts may also include sculptural details as well as classical details such pilasters, garlands, and balustrades. Interiors often have grand stairways and marble floors, with arched doorways and large rooms. Government buildings may have domes and high, vaulted ceilings. The San Francisco Opera House (shown) built-in 1932 is an example of the Beaux arts style in the United States. The bottom floor is rusticated, with rough-cut stones. The top floor features columns in archways, as well as a low-pitched roof.

*Explain the ideas and significance of Dada and surrealism.

The Dada art movement began around 1915 in Zurich, New York, Germany, and Paris. The movement came about as a reaction of disgust and revolt to the horrors of World War I, and the movement was also anti-bourgeois. They sought to depart from traditional values of art and create a new kind of art. It is considered anti-art, challenging the definition and conventions of art. Dada techniques include readymades, which involves presenting a premade object as art, and the photomontage, using scissors and glue to assemble images from images printed in the press. Surrealism began in the 1920s in France, and the movement included paintings of strange, dreamlike, and unnerving scenes with realistic accuracy. Surrealism sought to express unconscious thoughts and resolve contradictions between reality and dreams. This movement eventually affected literature, music, and film in many countries as well. This art movement drew heavily on Freudian theories of sexuality, fantasy, dreams, and irrationality.

*Describe the main characteristics of Gothic architecture.

The Gothic architecture style in Europe spanned from the mid-12th to the 16th century. Architects sought to solve problems created by simple, dark, damp buildings from previous styles and instead create light, airy, beautiful structures. Gothic architecture is characterized by grand tall designs with upward visual movement. New building techniques allowed builders to create taller towers. The flying buttress is a defining element of this style, and it helped to allow these new heights. The pointed arch is another characteristic of medieval architecture, along with the advent of vaulted ceilings and gargoyles. Gargoyles serve a practical purpose as a drainage spout, but they also serve as decorations with evil or menacing features. The medieval style is known for being ornate, as seen in this example of the Amiens Cathedral in France. Beauty and aesthetic considerations are shown in the designs for these highly decorative buildings.

*Describe the materials used in art from ancient Greece and Rome.

The Greeks and the Romans use marble and bronze for sculptures. Roman artists used encaustic (pigment mixed with hot wax) and tempura for painting seems on panels, and they created fresco paintings on architectural surfaces. For mosaics, Romans used small cut pieces of glass, tile, pottery stone, and shells. The pieces were called tesserae, and they were stuck to the surface with mortar. The ancient Greeks also created wood sculptures in their early period, although few of these have survived. The preferred sculpture materials were marble and limestone, as well as cast bronze. They created figurines from terra-cotta and bronze. The Greeks also painted on panels with encaustic and wax, and they painted their sculptures as well as part of their temples. Most of the paintings that have survived are on pottery. Their pottery had a high iron oxide content, giving it a red color. This example is of the Greek red-figure pottery.

*Describe the significance of the Hudson River School.

The Hudson River School was an American art movement in the mid-19th century that included landscape painters intent on painting in a romantic style. The paintings of this movement depict the Hudson River Valley and areas surrounding it. The themes reflected in these artworks are exploration, discovery, and settlement. These landscapes are detailed and somewhat idealized, often showing a juxtaposition and harmony of settlers and agriculture with nature. They were also showing their belief in nature as a revelation of God. This movement was the first native art movement in America. Thomas Cole is credited as the founder, and the movement spanned two generations of painters. The second generation was not as tied to a geographical location as the first, but rather follow the style. Albert Bierstadt was a notable artist of this second generation. This painting by Bierstadt, A River Landscape, Westphalia (1855), shows the accord of man with the beauty and grandness of nature.

*Describe the main characteristics of the Prairie School movement of architecture.

The Prairie School was a style of architecture prevalent in the midwestern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Most architects associated with this movement were employed by Frank Lloyd Wright or Louise Sullivan, but Sullivan himself is not considered an architect in this style. The Prairie School style was used on some public buildings, but it is mostly known for home design. Common features include an emphasis on horizontal lines, overhanging eaves, low pitched or flat roofs, an open floor plan, clean lines, strings of windows in a row, built-in cabinetry, and the use of natural material such as stone and wood. Wright favored geometric shapes as decorative designs in his buildings, whereas some other Prairie School architects used floral and circular geometric decorations. This example, Wright's Frederick C. Robie House in Chicago, Illinois, shows the clean lines, horizontal emphasis, overhanging eaves, and emphasis on geometric shapes prevalent in this style.

*Describe the content in context of Renaissance art.

The Renaissance was a revival of classical learning during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries in Europe. Renaissance artists sought to capture the value of the individual and the beauty of the natural world. This revival of drawing, painting, sculpture, and architecture was partly driven by humanism, which is a philosophy that attached importance and worth to the individual. Increased prosperity led to an increase in commissioned artwork from wealthy patrons (especially the Medici family). At the same time, the church was conflicted on spiritual and secular issues, which helped the spread of humanism. The church was also a big patron of the arts, and it sent a great deal of art and architecture at the time. In addition to the wealth of Italy, Italy also contained a lot of Roman architecture and artifacts, which contributed to the beginning of the Renaissance in this area.

*Describe the characteristics of the art deco movement.

The art deco movement, taking its name from the Exposition International des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925, began in Paris with architecture and decorative arts in the 1920s. It later became a major style in the 1930s throughout America and Western Europe. The art deco style is characterized by streamlined forms, symmetry, geometric shapes, smooth lines, and bright vibrant colors. This movement was influenced by the geometric forms of cubism, the industrial components of futurism and constructivism, and the bright colors of fauvism. The style was used during the roaring 20s as well as the Great Depression in the 1930s. Art deco was used to improve the style of mass-produced objects, and it was also used for posters and some fine arts. This poster from 1925 is an example of the art deco style, with hard lines, streamlined forms, and geometric shapes with vibrant colors. The style was meant to be pleasing to the eye.

Define folk art.

The art of peasants or a native culture. This art is generally characterized by simple or naive subject matter, and it is utilitarian or decorative in purpose. This art is not influenced by art movements or styles, and it will not include the work of professional artists. This type of art shares and expresses the values of a community as well as their cultural identity. Pottery, jewelry, painting, sculpture, needlework, and costumes can all be this type of art.

*Describe the visual characteristics and purpose of baroque art.

The baroque art style is characterized by exaggerated motion and attention to detail. The scenes are created to enhance a sense of drama and grandeur. The chiaroscuro technique is often used in baroque art. This is the use of strongly contrasting tones of light and dark, usually in a dramatic, high-contrast scene. Another technique used is tenebrism, which consists of keeping an area black, while a portion of the subject is brightly illuminated, as shown in this painting from 1636. To set their artwork apart from the Renaissance artworks, artists departed from tranquil scenes and expressions of that time and instead showed intense emotion and movement in their work. Instead of the even lighting of Renaissance artwork, they used more dramatic lighting and they used asymmetry to enhance the sense of instability and movement. Clothing would be moving by wind or the motion of the person instead of draped and resting motionlessly.

Content, Context, and purpose of ancient Greece.

The beginning of the *great classical art period* started here. They used art to *express noble ideas and emotions.* They wanted to highlight the great accomplishments of man and *honor their gods* through their artworks. Sculptures included *nude athletes in realistic poses*, as shown, as well as *gods and goddesses.* The artwork was mostly *sponsored by the government* and made for the *public to see*, and it was a *great source of pride* for the people. Art from here includes *stone and wood statues and pottery* in *red-figure and black-figure styles.* They also *painted on panels and pottery.*

Define the architectural term temple-fronted rotunda.

This is a building that is round inside and out and is topped with a dome. These can also be large interior space topped with a dome. An example of this is a classic Palladian building, the Thomas Jefferson's University of Virginia rotunda in Charlotteville. The central temple front has Corinthian columns, passes create a symmetrical oval plan, and the central rotunda is articulated by a dome, but the two stories of windows make it clear that this is a modern, building. A circular room.

*Identify the major artists of Constructivism and de Stijl.

The constructivism movement began with artist Vladimir Tatlin in 1913. Tatlin was a Soviet architect and Painter, and he constructed three-dimensional "counter-reliefs" of wood and metal. His intention was to question the traditions of art. His main constructivist work was the "Monument to the Third International (Tatlin's Tower), which joined the dynamic components of technology with the aesthetics of the machines. This construction included searchlights and projection screens, and it was criticized for being a combination of functional items and art. This tower sparked an exchange of ideas between Russia and Germany on the ideas of revolutionizing art. The main artist from the de Stijl movement is Dutch painter Piet Mondrian. He sought to create pure abstractions with horizontal and vertical lines, as well as primary colors. He wanted to reduce his artwork to the most basic elements, using them to represent the essence of the energy and focus of nature. The pure abstraction and minimal palette was meant to express an ideal and universal harmony in the art world. His idea of neoplasticism, which guided his work, relied on color, line, and form to express universal ideas.

What is decorative art?

The creation of jewelry, metalwork, ceramics, embroidery, carpets, furniture, and more.

Define the architectural term coffered rotunda.

The exterior of a pure Palladian building is clean-lined, with the emphasis placed on proportion and key details, but the interior decoration is in a richer Roman style. The central domed rotunda at Chiswick House, London, was coffered, with elaborate door, window, and picture surrounds to designs that were recommended by Palladio. This is a building that is round inside and out and is topped with a dome. These can also be large interior space topped with a dome. A circular room.

*Explain the ideas and significance of fauvism and expressionism.

The fauvism movement, from about 1905 to 1908, followed the post-impressionism movement and included some similar ideas. Fauvism emphasized strong and unusual colors, using color to express mood without being representational of actual colors. Fauvism also emphasized the flatness of the canvas, and it valued individual expression over naturalistic representation. The leaders of the fauvism movement were Henri Matisse and Andre Derain. Expressionism began in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, and it spanned from roughly 1905 to 1920. Artists of this movement used strong colors and distorted forms to express their feelings in their artwork. Artwork came from within the artist, rather than being copied from what they observed. They used swirling and exaggerated brushstrokes and sought to evoke emotional responses to their works. Edvard Munch's The Scream (1893) is an example of the Expressionist style, with its unusual, nonrepresentational colors, distorted form, and desire to express a strong feeling of despair or agony.

*Describe the visual characteristics and purpose of renaissance art.

The ideas of humanism brought greater attention to detail and greater realism, as well as a focus on virtue. Artist began to use linear perspective foreshortening, bringing a natural realism to faces and figures. Sculptures, drawings, and paintings showed increased knowledge of anatomy. Most painters began to use oil paint rather than Tempera at this time, which contributed to this realism. Christianity was still the main subject of artwork at this time, reflected in the paintings and sculptures of many prominent artists including Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael. Stories from mythology were depicted, too, to promote the idea of humanism. During the Renaissance, artists were creating artwork for patrons and their statue was raised to a level above craftsman. Because of the Renaissance movement, Western art developed from the ideals of classical artwork. Altarpieces were commissioned often, and these were would be the focal point of the space they occupied. Frescoes were often created in churches and in private buildings. This painting method was time-consuming, with a prominent example being Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling (shown). Patrons also commissioned portraits of themselves and artworks for their homes.

*Explain the ideas and significant of impressionism.

The impressionism movement began in the late 1800s as artists in Paris began to practice plein air painting together. The artist included Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. Impressionists departed from a faithful depiction of a scene, and instead they attempted to capture their impression of it, or the momentary effect of lighting and on the scene. Artists used small brushstrokes and pure color. They tried to capture the optical effects of light, and the differences that weather and sun position create in a scene. The recent invention and availability of paint in a tube helped spur on this movement. Artists were able to paint outside more easily and capture scenes as they saw them. The emphasis in the painting was as much on the artist's perception of the scene as it was on the scene itself. The painting by Claude Monet, Haystack, End of Summer, Morning, from 1891, shows how Monet used color and brushstrokes to capture the lighting or of a summer morning on the haystack.

*Describe the main characteristics of the international style of architecture.

The international style of architecture developed after World War I in the 1920s and 1930s, and emphasize modern design. This was the dominant style of architecture until the 1970s, and it was influenced by the de Stijl and Bauhaus movements. This style is characterized by industrial materials, linear, geometric forms, an absence of ornamentation. Glass, steel, and reinforced concrete were the main building materials. The style grew from a desire to get away from eclectic and mixed architectural styles and decorations, the development of new construction technologies, and a growing need for office buildings and other industrial structures. These architects took advantage of the inexpensive mass-produced iron and steel, and sheathed the buildings in glass, creating a new, modern look for the era. Prominent architects of the style include Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, and Philip Johnson. A notable example (shown) is van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York, built-in 1958.

*Identify the major artists of realism.

The main realist artists in France were Gustave Courbet, Jean-Francois Millet, and Honore Daumier. Courbet would paint ordinary scenes on vast canvases that were normally used for history paintings. Two of his well-known works included The Stonebreakers (shown) and A Burial at Ornans. The Stonebreakers was painted in 1849, and it shows ordinary workers in his native region of France. He uses natural color and lighting to portray his subjects. In the United States, Thomas Eakins and Winslow Homer were significant realism painters. Winslow Homer began as a commercial illustrator, but then he was inspired by Courbet, Millet, and Daumier and began to paint ordinary subjects in America. Eakins painted his friends and local people in outdoor sports, including his work Max Schmidt in a Single Scull, from 1871. His most well-known work is The Gross Clinic, which showed a scene from a surgical operation, and this was received unfavorably by critics due to its subject matter.

*Explain the significance and ideas of the mannerism style.

The mannerism style is art and architecture emerged as a reaction to the high Renaissance. From the end of the Renaissance in the 1520s to the beginning of baroque art in 1590, mannerism focused more on style and technique than the meaning of the subject. Mannerism arose partly from new scientific discovery that man was not the center of the universe, but, rather, the earth revolves around the sun. At the same time, the Reformation movement highlighted a need for church reforms, bringing turmoil and religious uncertainty. Mannerist artists reflected this uncertainty, attempted to solve artistic problems by changing proportions and portraying people in new and strange ways. These included elongated limbs, small head, and dramatic, unnatural, contrived poses. Departing from the linear perspective and depth used in Renaissance art, mannerist flattened the composition and arrange the figures on a flat plane, as shown. Mannerism artists experimented with form, portraying emotions, and bright and unusual colors.

*Describe the content in contacts of medieval art.

The period of medieval art spans more than 1,000 years, from the fall of the Roman empire to the Renaissance period. Subjects explored during this time include mythology, Christian themes, and biblical stories. The medieval period can be separated into Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic. Byzantine art was from the Eastern Empire called Byzantium, and it was highly stylized. Byzantine art favored symbolism over realism, and the subject matter included imperial and religious subjects. This example of Byzantine painting shows religious subject matter. Romanesque art included massive churches built with stone arches, similar to Roman architecture. Romanesque painters created frescoes and used encaustic on panels. Gothic art began in Paris and spread throughout Europe. Its greatest contribution was the cathedral and elaborate architecture with complicated decoration. Painting during the Gothic period included animated figures and expressions, painting painted small in relation to their backgrounds.

*Explain how visual art is used to document and share experiences.

The realism movement began in France in the 1850's, and it attempted to document people and ordinary life faithfully, rather than avoiding unpleasant subjects or romanticizing them. Realist artists depicted laborers and ordinary people engaged in everyday life activities, realistically documenting and preserving life and culture at that time. This example by Gustave Courbet is called 'The Grain Sifters' (1855). It shows a mundane scene of workers sifting grain, using dark and natural colors to portray the scene realistically. Courbet led the realism movement in France. The realism movement challenged the narratives and depictions of history paintings, which was an academic style with posed action scenes. Realism artists documented manual labor and the plight of everyday people, using dark, serious tones to show serious-looking people. Realism artists were not interested in depicting history or anything that they did not personally see or experience; they were only documenting the present-day struggles of the common man.

*Describe the main characteristics of rococo architecture.

The rococo style of architecture began in Paris in the early 18th century. It then spread throughout France and other countries. The rococo style first developed in interior design and decorative arts; then it expanded to architecture and other arts. This architectural style is characterized by pastel colors, serpentine lines, and excessive, elaborate ornamentation. The exterior of a rococo building will be simple, and the interior is filled with ornament and decoration, with the intent to wow the viewer. Floor plans of churches were complex, sometimes with interlocking oval shapes, and the stairways of palaces became ornate, central focuses. This style was meant to be highly theatrical and have something for a visitor to see at every turn. One example of rococo architecture is St. Andrew's Church in Kiev, Ukraine (shown). This façade shows a simplicity with a pastel blue and some ornamentation, but in keeping with the style, the interior is much grander and more elaborate.

Define outsider art.

This art is artwork created by untrained artists who learned their craft and methods on their own. These artists are not part of an artistic establishment and can include the mentally ill or even rural artists outside of urban areas. This art is sometimes called "naive art." An increased interest in this art is in line with the general rejection of traditional values and methods of art by modernist artists.

*Identify the architectural term spire, facade, caryatid, and entablature.

The spire is a tapering structure that comes to a point at the top of a building. These are often found on skyscrapers and church towers. A spire can function as a symbol of the power of religion, giving a sense of strength and reaching towards heaven. The architectural term facade comes from a French word meaning "face." The facade of a building is its front or face, and this is often the most important design aspect when planning a building. A caryatid is a stone carving of a female figure, draped in clothing, used to support an entablature. This caryatid, as shown, was used in place of a column in a Greek building. The entablature is the upper section of a classical order, and this is divided into the architrave, frieze, and cornice. The architrave is the lowest section of the entablature, which rests on the columns. The frieze is the middle section, in which relief sculpture might be found. The cornice is the crowning molding that will be found directly under the pediment.

Define the architectural term plinth.

The square slab at the bottom of a column. This term can also refer to a flat block at the base of a door, or a projecting course of brick or stone at the base of a wall. A plain projecting support at the bottom of a wall, column, or other upright.

Define the architectural term capital.

The top of a column.

Define the architectural term pediment.

The triangular gable used in classical Greek temples, as well as Renaissance and neoclassical architecture. It is found under the roof of the building and above the entablature. This would usually be on top of a portico or columns. The triangular area within the pediment is called a tympanum, and this was usually decorated with relief sculptures.

Define the architectural term keystone.

The wedge-shaped stone at the top of an arch. This stone locks the arch pieces in place; it is the last piece placed in the arch to give stability to the structure.

Name and describe the Roman column orders.

These people adopted all of these column styles *(Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian,)* and they later added two of their own. Their *Tuscan order is very plain,* and it is a *simplified version* of the *Doric order.* The *composite order* is a *blend of the Ionic and Corinthian orders,* using the *scrolls of the Ionic order* and the *floral motifs of the Corinthian order.*

Define the architectural term triglyph.

These were a distinctive part of the Doric Order. A three-grooved panel on a Doric frieze; it alternates with metopes.

Composite Order Column

This Order is a particularly Roman invention, and it is the richest and most elaborate of the Orders. This Order is a cross between the Corinthian and the Ionic, with both acanthus leaves and scrolls. The frieze and entablature of the Order are also richly embellished with relief sculpture.

Name and describe the Greek column orders.

This ancient architecture has *three distinct column orders.* These styles and distinguished by their *proportions and their unique characteristics. The Doric order* is the *simplest design,* with a *flat and unadorned design* for the top and bottom of the column. This order is *four to eight times its diameter.* *The Ionic order* consists of *spiral scrolls, or twin volutes*, at the tops of the columns. This column's *height is nine times its bottom diameter. The Corinthian order* is much more *ornate,* as shown, with *floral designs.* This column is *taller, at 10 times its diameter.*

Define the architectural term stringcourse.

This is a projecting horizontal course, or band, of bricks or stonework on a building. It can be thin and under course or larger and ornate. Above the window, runs along with the building horizontally and has a decorative pattern. A raised horizontal molding that visually divides stories; also called a platband.

Define the architectural term pilaster.

This is a tall, upright, flat strip with capitals and bases that are attached to the wall, giving the impression of columns, but performing no structural function. They give the appearance of a column inset in the wall. There only function as decoration, not as support.

Define the architectural term oculus.

This is the Latin word for "eye." In architecture, it is a circular opening in the center of a dome, and it is a feature in Roman, Byzantine, or neoclassical buildings. This can also be found in a wall. These in the Roman Pantheon is open and allows rain in, which leaves the building through drains in the floor. A round window.

Identify the traits of minimalism art.

This movement is characterized by an extreme form of abstract art. In the 1960s, artists began to reduce artwork to its barest form, not wishing it to represent anything. They used geometric shapes and challenged the previous conventions of creating and viewing artwork. These artists wanted their artwork to exist simply as its own form and material, not as a representational form. The artwork shows traits of simplicity, harmony, and purity. Although this art can be two-dimensional, it is often three-dimensional, using simple, sometimes repeated, geometric shapes. Early abstract ideas, as well as the constructivist ideas of reducing artwork to its simplest and most essential form, inspired these artists. This example from 1991 by Solomon "Sol" LeWitt is called 'Open Cubes', and it shows white repeated geometric forms. These forms exist only as themselves and are not meant to be representational. The viewer should only accept the artwork as its purest form of geometry and simplicity.

Corinthian Order Column

This order has capitals covered in rows of acanthus leaves, with those at the corners curling over to become volutes. There are both Greek and Roman versions: the shaft of a Greek column is usually fluted, while that of the Roman version is plain.

Tuscan Order Column

This order, a mainly Italian type, is not dissimilar to the Doric Order, but the frieze is plain and the capitals are a little more complex, with convex astragal moldings. This Order was popular in the Renaissance, and a large-scale version is called Gigantic Order.

Define the architectural term transept.

This part of the church that lies across the main body and forms the cross shape and projects at right angles from the nave.

Discuss the significance of Warhol's Factory concept.

This refers to a *studio in New York City*. This location became a *hangout for artists and celebrities*, and it was known for its *raucous parties*. This artist *decorated* this location *with aluminum foil, mirrors, and silver paint*, and it was also *called* the *Silver Factory*. The Factory later occupied two other locations. The artist's time at this Factory location was *referred to as the Silver Era.* In addition to the *artistic experimentation and musical performances* at The Factory, *assembly-line production of artwork* also occurred. This artist *questioned the idea of artist and art production by mass-producing artwork* with his *silkscreen method* and having a group of *helpers* create his work for him. These helpers included *musicians, free thinkers, drag queens, socialites, and celebrities*, among others. He paralleled and reflected the concept of *mass-produced commercial objects* by creating his own artworks in this way.

Define the architectural term nave.

This runs from the entrance or vestibule of the church to the apse. The area of a church reserved for lay people.

What is the painting 'Guernica' (1937) by Pablo Picasso about?

This was created to *depict the violence, chaos, and suffering of war*. The artist *focused on how War affected innocent civilians*, and he depicted this in his work, *showing the pain and suffering inflicted by the Spanish Civil War*. The imagery and title reflect the *bombing of a town by German and Italian warplanes*. The painting was *painted in black, white, and gray,* and it depicts a *woman holding a dead child, a wounded horse, and a woman with her arms raised in horror*, among other imagery. The woman's hand suggests the shape of an airplane. The *color scheme* allows the *viewer to concentrate on the imagery* without being distracted by other colors. To many, this painting has become a *symbol of the devastation and horrors of war.*

Define the architectural term basilica.

This was originally a type of Roman building, but this later became the basis for the design of the Christian church. In ancient Rome, this was a public building in which courts were held, and other public functions were held there as well. This would be centrally located in town, near the main forum. In it a rectangular building divided by rows of columns, or colonnades into three aisles. and the center aisle is called the nave.

*Identify the major artists of post impressionism.

Vincent van Gogh, a prominent Dutch post-impressionist artist, exhibited many of the ideas of this movement. He is bold colors, sometimes arbitrarily or in odd ways, as well as bold lines to express his emotion through his paintings. In this 1890 painting, Portrait of Dr. Gachet, van Gogh expresses emotion through the pose, facial expression, and colors. Bold colors and brush strokes, along with heavy outlines, are visible in this artwork. Paul Gauguin used bold and unusual colors, sometimes in flat planes and flattened spaces. This French artist's work includes many paintings of landscapes and people of French Polynesia, where he lived for 10 years. Paul Cezanne was another French post-impressionist painter, and he is known as the father of postimpressionism. His exploration of geometric shapes and bold colors prompted Picasso and others to eventually experiment with multiple views of forms. He sought to reduce nature to geometric shapes and find new ways of modeling space and volume.

What were Andy Warhol's helpers known as at Warhol Factory?

Warhol Superstars

*Describe the visual characteristics and purpose of art from prehistory.

Whereas some think that cave art was purely decorative, others think it was created for other reasons. Some of the cave walls used were remote and inaccessible, so it is thought that they were used for religious ceremonies or to summon better hunting conditions. Animals and other figures were generally depicted from a simplified side view. Artists painted and drew animals, hunting scenes, landscapes, maps, and many different symbols. Petroglyphs have also been found, which are prehistoric rock carvings created by removing parts of the rock. Some show real subjects, whereas others are abstract. They might have been used to convey information or for religious purposes. Some might even be a form of rewriting or a way to map the stars. The Venus figurines from prehistory are women with exaggerated features, and they are thought to be fertility idols, good luck statues, or a symbol of a mother goddess. The 'Venus of Willendorf is one of the earliest examples of a female nude.