EAPS Final Exam!

Which of the following is least likely to trigger a mass wasting event from a steep slope?

A drought

Which of the following objects has the highest albedo?

A glacier

_________ gas(es) absorb infrared radiation emitted from Earth's surface and help heat the Earth's troposphere from below.

Greenhouse

Which layer of the atmosphere is where we live and where weather occurs?

Troposphere

In the above photograph is the fault older or younger than the sedimentary rocks?

Younger

A city that is adjacent to a warm ocean current will have ______ mean yearly temperature than a city at the same latitude that is adjacent to a cold ocean current.

a higher

All of the following could trigger a tsunami except?

a light breeze

At low latitudes the ocean is stratified with respect to temperature such that shallow water is ____ and deep water is ____.

warm; cold

What process causes the Hawaiian islands to go from high volcanic mountains to very low-lying, small islands over long periods of time?

Erosion

Alfred Wegener's proposal for continental drift was rejected during his own lifetime (b. 1880, d. 1930) for which of the following reasons?

He did not have a explanation for how the continents had moved

The above fault separates several sedimentary layers. Using the information from the video segments, how would you classify this fault? Hint: Identify the orientation of the fault, the footwall and hanging wall, and the sense of separation of sedimentary layers across the fault.

Normal fault

Which of the following is a way in which ocean waves can cause erosion along coastlines?

Moving sediment away from the coast, fracturing rock, abrading rock

Hurricanes are very large, rotating storms that form in areas of extreme _____ atmospheric pressure.

low

Heating the Earth's troposphere from below leads to a convective instability because hot, ________ air forms near the Earth's surface and is underneath cold, _________ air high in the troposphere.

low density; high density

As ocean waves approach the shore, the bottom of the wave ________ due to friction with the seafloor.

slows down

What is the controversial name for the period of geological history when humans have been able to significantly alter the planet that has been proposed by some Earth scientists?

Anthropocene

In which direction would longshore drift of sediment occur along this coastline?

Bottom left of the photo

What is the reason why faults tend to move intermittently (stick-slip behavior) instead of continuously?

Friction

Which of the following elements was created during the 'Big Bang'?

Hydrogen (H)

The mass extinction that occurred 251 million years ago at the end of the Permian period represents the worst ecological crisis in the history of our planet. Which of the following is the current hypothesis for why this extinction occurred?

Intense volcanism caused large quantities of fossil fuels to be burned over a short period of time, leading to rapid climate change

What magma property listed below would not lead to explosive volcanic eruptions?

Low viscosity (flows with relative ease)

Which location would be the safest place to build a house on the Big Island of Hawaii. Remember, this island has several active volcanoes that produce basaltic lava flows?

On a ridge on a non-volcanically active part of the island

Would you expect a city adjacent to the ocean or a city in the interior of a continent to have larger fluctuations in temperature throughout the year?

The city in the continental interior

The Drake Equation was designed to quantify how many intelligent species may exist in our galaxy. However, estimates using this equation range from 1 (only humans) to millions. Why is there so much variability?

The value of almost every variable in the Drake Equation is poorly constrained

Researchers have documented that magnetic minerals within the seafloor form zones that sometimes point toward the modern north pole and sometimes point toward the modern south pole. These zones form linear belts parallel to mid-ocean ridges. Which of the following is an observation regarding these zones that supports the idea of seafloor spreading?

The zones are symmetrical about the mid-ocean ridge

The discovery of numerous exoplanets indicates that planet formation is a fairly common process throughout the universe.

True

Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface and re-radiated as infrared radiation. This process acts to heat the troposphere from _________.

below

Which of the following words describes the long-term, average state of the atmosphere in a location on Earth?

climate

In the above diagram of a river system where are most sedimentary clasts/grains produced?

1

Continental collisions lead to the development of what type of topographic feature at the surface of the Earth?

A major mountain range

Which of the following techniques could rapidly increase planetary albedo in an effort to cool the climate.

Artificially creating clouds

What is the source of most dissolved solids in the ocean?

Chemical weathering of rocks

In our own solar system, which planet lies within the NASA-defined 'habitable' zone?

Mars

The unit cell leads to all of the following mineral properties except which one?

Mineral size

Do volcanoes that dominantly erupt basaltic magma tend to pose an acute threat to human life?

No, people can typically get out of the way of lava flows. However, infrastructure might be damaged.

Mid ocean ridges are underwater mountain ranges, where new oceanic crust is produced. If you were to dredge pieces of rock from a modern mid-ocean ridge, which of the rocks below would be most likely?

Pillow basalt

Minerals do not have _________?

Randomly arranged atoms

Rifted margins tend to form ________ coastlines.

Submergent

The smallest repeatable unit in a crystalline sold is known as the _________? Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

Unit cell

Geologists think that hotspots form over what type of feature?

a 'plume' of hot material that has risen from deep within the Earth, potentially from the boundary between the Earth's mantle and core

Heating a package of air will cause its density to ________.

decrease

A single, cold snowy day indicates that the global mean temperature is getting colder and a single, hot day indicates that the global mean temperature is getting hotter.

false

A river requires _______ to transport large pieces of rock (i.e., sedimentary clasts) when compared to smaller clasts. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

faster flowing water

What do we call the circular patterns of ocean currents that is driven by the Earth's rotation?

gyres

Ocean waves can be generated by all of the following processes except which one?

heating sea water through absorption of solar radiation

What source of energy heats the Earth's atmosphere?

solar radiation

An advancing cold front is typically associated with what type of weather.

storms

Which type of fault is least likely to generate a tsunami?

strike-slip fault

Which of the following substances has the lowest albedo?

the ocean

CO2 is a greenhouse gas and absorbs infrared (heat) radiation that is released from the Earth's surface. Higher concentrations of atmospheric CO2 can, consequently, be expected to lead to more infrared radiation absorbed in the Earth's atmosphere and a higher mean global atmospheric temperature.

true

Coal is composed of fossil organic matter and is used as fuel for many of the power plants in the USA. From which organisms did this organic matter originate?

Plants

Which of the following best describes the force that drives plate tectonics?

Plates are pulled by oceanic crust that is metamorphosed into very dense rock during subduction

Earth's rotational axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane. This geometry affects the amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the planet at different latitudes and ultimately leads to which of the following properties of our planet?

Seasonal temperature variations at middle to high latitudes

Hotspot volcanism typically makes linear chains of volcanoes that get progressively younger in one direction. What would best describe the orientation of these features?

The chain of volcanoes lies parallel to the direction of motion for the tectonic plate on which they are built

Locations where tectonic plates slide past one another along a vertical plane are known as what type of plate boundary?

Transform Boundary

The above photograph shows a mountain composed of sedimentary rock. The principle of lateral continuity allows you to assume that a single layer represents ________ as you trace it across the photograph.

approximately the same period of time

Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?

argon (Ar)

Areas that have absolute atmospheric instability will tend to form what type of weather feature?

isolated thunderstorms

The duration of a typical human life is ~100 years. Which of the following planetary climate variables could significantly change on this timescale?

melting of ice

The mid-latitudes experience strong seasonal changes to their average temperatures.

true

The shape of the Earth's orbit around the sun regularly varies from more circular to more elliptical.

true

Will melting ice on a planet lead to planetary warming or cooling due to a positive feedback loop?

warming

Which of the following is not a mineral?

A cubic zirconia (ZrO2) crystal grown in a laboratory

It is trivial to remove large quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere and geologically sequester it.

False

What do we call the atmospheric condition in which a rising mass of air is always hotter and less dense than the overlying air due to an adiabatic lapse rate that is steeper than the environmental lapse rate?

absolute instability

The relative humidity of air increases as air rises and cools. When the air reaches 100% humidity water droplets can begin to form. These water droplets typically nucleate on which of the following?

aerosols

Positive feedback loops will ________ in a system.

amplify change

The environmental lapse rate represents the _________ distribution of air temperature at a give location and is typically measured using weather balloons.

vertical

Warm fronts occur when a _____ air mass is advancing into an area where a _____ air mass had previously been located.

warm; cold

Which of the following processes causes ocean waves to refract as they approach the coastline?

Reduction of the wave's speed due to its interaction with the seafloor

Why do ocean currents tend to circulate seawater clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere?

coriolis effect

The mid-latitudes have ________ weather due to interactions between high and low pressure systems that are related to the different atmospheric convection cells.

variable

Which of the following areas is most at risk for the development of a debris flow?

D

Ionic bonding occurs when ______? Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

Atoms lose or gain valence electrons to make positively or negatively charged ions that can then bond

_______ is a rock formed from solidification of magma that forms during partial melting of the Earth's mantle? Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

Basalt

The above photograph shows a vertical magmatic dike cutting across horizontal sedimentary layers. Which of the labeled rocks is the youngest based on the principle's of superposition and cross cutting relationships?

D

Within the troposphere both temperature and pressure ________ with increasing altitude (i.e., distance above the Earth's surface).

Decrease

Samples of the Earth's mantle are brought to the Earth's surface through rare volcanic eruptions. One example of this process are kimberlite eruptions, which erupt from deep in the Earth's interior and can breach the surface with extremely high eruption velocities. We have studied these type of volcanic eruptions in detail because they also transport the mineral _________, which only forms at extremely high pressures, to the Earth's surface. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

Diamond

The organisms that produce shells made out of calcium carbonate are utilizing what component of seawater?

Dissolved ions

Which process typically leads to the concentration of elements like gold, silver, and copper into economically viable deposits?

Hydrothermal activity around crystallizing magma

What are the three main types of rock?

Igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary

Chemical weathering is a major process during which rock is broken down through chemical reactions and dissolved ions are incorporated into natural waters. Which of the following parameters will lead to increased chemical weathering if all other variables are kept the same?

Increasing surface area

Heating a magma will ________ crystallization and solidification into a rock. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

Inhibit

Humans try to stabilize coastlines using a variety of methods. One method is to build breakwaters. What is an inevitable consequence of the construction of breakwaters?

The deposition of sediment in calmer waters behind the breakwater and concentration of wave energy and erosion at the breakwater

Why are polar regions colder than equatorial regions?

They receive less solar radiation per unit area than equatorial regions

Both mass extinctions discussed in class happened very quickly (geologically speaking, <100,000 years).

True

If you see a sequence of sedimentary rocks that changes from bottom to top: 1) conglomerate, 2) sandstone, and 3) limestone containing marine fossils, what is a plausible sequence of ancient depositional environments for that area?

1) River bed, 2) Beach, 3) Reef

Use the labels on the above cross section of a delta and associated sedimentary deposits to answer the following question. Where would you most likely find sedimentary deposits composed of the smallest clasts/sedimentary grains?

4

The above image shows all of the different tectonic plates (the boundaries are shown by dark blue and brown lines). Which location is least likely to experience a major earthquake? Note: I'm not asking whether a location has 0% chance of an earthquake, only the location that is least likely to have an earthquake.

A

You walk up to this outcrop of sedimentary rocks. You know from previous observations that they have not been rotated or overturned. Using the principle of superposition, which of the labeled layers is the oldest?

A

How would you characterize this volcano based on its shape and eruptive style?

A composite volcano

About 50% of the solar radiation that enters the Earth's atmosphere is __________.

Absorbed by Earth's surface

Seawater has a high specific heat capacity meaning that it takes large amounts of energy to heat it and it releases large amounts of energy as it cools. In what way will the movement of seawater from tropical regions to higher latitudes via ocean currents affect climate?

Areas adjacent to warm water currents will be warmer than they otherwise would.

Why would artificially creating clouds in the troposphere or injecting aerosols into the stratosphere potentially work to cool our planet?

Both options would increase the planetary albedo

Plate tectonics modulates Earth's climate through all of the following processes except which one?

Burning fossil fuels

The last ~200 years has seen an extremely rapid increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2. This increase corresponds with the timing of global industrialization. Which of the following aspects of industrialization is likely to have had an effect on the long-term carbon cycle?

Burning fossil fuels for energy

One by-product of burning fossil fuels for energy is the release of ________. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

CO2 (carbon dioxide)

The process through which loose sediment becomes a rock is known as lithification. _______ is the process that occurs when fluids precipitate new minerals in the pore spaces between sedimentary clasts/grains and leads to lithification.

Cementation

Clastic rocks are distinguished from crystalline rocks in that they are composed or weathered bits of rock (clasts) that have been transported as sediment and deposited in a location that is different from where their constituent rocks formed. What is one feature of clastic rocks that you could use to distinguish them?

Clastic rocks are typically composed of rounded clasts

You observe the volcanic eruption above. Based on the shape of the mountain and the eruptive style, what tectonic setting are you in?

Close to a subduction zone

Would you expect rocky planets to form closer to or further from a protostar during solar system formation?

Closer to

Coal is a sedimentary rock composed of organic matter and frequently contains plant fossils. Which of the following statements can we infer to be true about the depositional environment in which coal formed?

Coal was originally deposited in a biologically productive terrestrial ecosystem.

In what tectonic setting might you find many reverse faults?

Convergent boundary

The equatorial regions must travel a much longer distance during each full rotation of the Earth (i.e., a 24-hour day) than locations at the middle and high latitudes. This difference leads to which of the following when air is moving across the surface of the Earth?

Coriolis effect

The Earth's mantle is composed of a rock called peridotite. It can begin melting through which of the following processes?

Decreasing pressure, while keeping temperature constant

Tornadoes are ranked according to the Fujita scale. Which of the following categories represents the strongest tornado?

EF-5

Which of the following is not a line of evidence used to support the idea of seafloor spreading?

Earthquakes that occur far from mid-ocean ridges

Toward which direction does the Earth rotate? (Hint: Think about where the sun rises and sets)

East

The Alaska volcano observatory is one of the largest observatories in the United States, despite the fact that Alaska does not have any major cities adjacent to a major volcano. Why is so much effort put into monitoring Alaskan volcanoes?

Explosive eruptions can disrupt international air travel and Alaska lies along a common flight path between North America and Asia

The left photograph was taken by the Curiosity Rover on Mars. It shows what appears to be a conglomerate. A picture of a conglomerate from Earth is shown on the right for comparison. What type of environment are conglomerates typically deposited? (Food For Thought: What does this mean about ancient environments on Mars?)

Fast flowing water in a river or stream

Solar radiation that is absorbed by Earth's surface is re-radiated into Earth's atmosphere as ________ radiation.

Infrared

The above limestone contains fossil shells from marine organisms. What is not a reasonable inference about the environment in which this sedimentary rock was originally deposited?

It was originally deposited high in the mountains.

Referring to the Drake Equation, how would the discovery of ancient (or modern) life on Mars change how unique life is throughout the universe?

Knowing that there is/was life on Mars will show us that life on other planets could be a lot more common than we think it is. If two planets in just our tiny solar system can support life, then there are probably thousands to millions of planets in the whole galaxy that can also support life. Specifically, this discovery would impact the Ne and Fl variables in the Drake Equation: the average number of planets that can potentially support life and the fraction of planets that could support life where life develops. Because we discovered another planet in our own solar system that could both support life and has possibly had life survive on it, this means that the N value we could estimate is much greater. This leads to us discovering that life is a little less unique than we think.

What is the name for a mud flow that is composed of volcanic debris?

Lahar

What process leads to partial melting of the Earth's mantle and the production of large volumes of basaltic magma at mid-ocean ridges?

Melting triggered by decompression as the Earth's mantle flows upward

Please select the best answer choice to complete the following sentence. Elements heavier than iron (Fe) were generated during _________.

Reactions during supernovae

The polar ice caps have a high albedo, meaning that they reflect large quantities of solar radiation back into space. However, they are currently melting and becoming smaller. If this process continues will the Earth's surface absorb more or less solar radiation?

More

What is the name for the clouds of matter that collapse to form stars and planetary systems?

Nebulae

The San Andreas fault marks a transform boundary between the North American and Pacific tectonic plates. Los Angeles lies to the west of this fault and is part of the Pacific plate. Based on the lecture materials, where will Los Angeles be transported over the next ~50 million years?

Northwest towards Alaska

Oil is composed of organic matter that has been buried in a sedimentary sequence and has experienced elevated temperatures during lithification. Which organism produced the organic matter that goes on to make oil?

Plankton

Which electromagnetic radiation wavelength is efficiently observed using ground based telescopes?

Radio waves

Which of the following processes is not an example of mechanical weathering?

Rainwater infiltrating a crack and dissolving rock

As the Earth warms and major continental ice sheets (Greenland, Antarctica) melt, the sea level will rise. Current projections indicate 0.3-1.2 meters of sea level rise before the year 2100. Why is this concerning?

Rising sea levels could displace large numbers of people, a significant proportion of Earth's population lives close to sea level, the land in coastal areas will lose significant value as it becomes unsustainable to live there

A cooling magma begins to grow crystals. We can say that this magma is ________ the crystallizing mineral. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice below.

Saturated with respect to

The above photograph was taken by the Curiosity Rover on Mars. They appear to be layered and flat lying. Fossil mud cracks were photographed within these rocks. What type of rocks are they?

Sedimentary

If you are at the beach, feel a major earthquake, and the ocean rapidly recedes as if it is entering a low tide, what should you do?

Seek high ground

All of the following, except which answer choice, might indicate that magma is moving beneath a volcano?

Several consecutive sunny days

What is the most common class of mineral within the Earth's crust? Hint: Remember the most common elements in the Earth's crust.

Silicate Minerals

What are the two most common elements in Earth's crust?

Silicon (Si) and Oxygen (O)

The concentration of wave energy and erosion on headlands and the dissipation of wave energy and sediment deposition in bays tends to __________ through time.

Straighten coastlines

Diamonds are made from carbon with an isotopic signature that is consistent with an origin as ancient life-forms. What process could have brought organic carbon deep into Earth's interior to provide the carbon needed to create diamonds?

Subduction

Which type of seismic wave is most damaging to human infrastructure?

Surface waves

Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents had once been joined into a super continent and then drifted apart. Which of the following was a line of evidence that he used to make this proposal?

The coastlines of continents look like they fit together in the past, Fossils of certain species seem to form continuous habitat zones if continents were once joined, Locations where there is evidence for tropical or glacial environments could be restored to low and high latitudes, respectively, if the continents were once joined together and had drifted apart

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock largely composed of sand-sized sedimentary clasts/grains. Which of the following environments is not a place where you would expect sand to be deposited and eventually form sandstone?

The deep ocean far from any land

You observe the sequence of sedimentary rocks in the above photograph. Using the principle of original horizontality, what can you infer about the history of this location?

The sedimentary rocks have been rotated from their original orientation.

What is the name for the density driven circulation of seawater from shallow to deep depths (and back) within the ocean?

Thermohaline circulation

Changes in Earth's orbital parameters can change the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed by Earth's surface and have a major effect on the global, mean climate.

True

Coastlines are dynamic areas and this constant change should be considered when developing coastal areas for human use.

True

Ocean tides are generated because of gravitational attraction of the ocean to the moon and the sun. In what situation would the largest tidal range (i.e., highest high tide and lowest low tide) occur?

When the gravitational pull of the sun and moon are aligned

Can the interaction of ocean waves with the coastline lead to erosion?

Yes

Headlands are areas where land projects into the ocean. Do these areas concentrate wave energy and erosion due to wave refraction?

Yes

You work at the a volcano observatory. Over the past several days you have monitored GPS data indicating that the volcano is inflating. Over the same period of time you have monitored numerous small earthquakes. Another scientist at the observatory reports that the gases emitted from several hot springs have changed to different chemical compositions. Do you recommend that the government evacuate the towns that are adjacent to the volcano?

Yes, the risk of eruption is elevated

What bathymetric (underwater topographic) feature is associated with subduction zones?

a deep sea trench

The equatorial region receives the most direct sunlight throughout the year. Consequently, it has _______ mean temperature in comparison to mid-latitude and polar regions.

a higher

Broad, flat areas of the seafloor adjacent to mid-ocean ridges are called ____________ and reflect subsidence of oceanic crust as it moves away from the mid ocean ridge, cools, and becomes more dense.

abyssal plains

When air is heated near the surface of the Earth it will become less dense and begin to rise. As it rises, it will cool according to the __________.

adiabatic lapse rate

Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapor a package of air can hold. For example, a package of air that has 100% relative humidity cannot hold additional water vapor and will begin to form droplets of liquid water. Would heating a package of air cause its relative humidity to rise or fall?

fall

Lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars are all different types of volcanic hazards. All of these hazards will ________ to minimize their gravitational potential energy. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.

flow downhill

Sinking cold are near the poles creates a persistent _____ pressure system that leads to limited precipitation in these areas.

high

Wind will flow from areas of ______ atmospheric pressure towards areas of ______ atmospheric pressure.

high; low

The amount of dissolved solids (i.e., salinity) at any point in the ocean is determined by the balance between delivery of fresh water (river discharge, rain) and evaporation. Where would you expect the highest level of dissolved solids (i.e., highest salinity)?

in the tropics

The thickness of sedimentary rocks on the seafloor _________ with distance from mid-ocean ridges. This observation indicates that the seafloor gets progressively older with distance from the mid-ocean ridge and is one of the lines of evidence for seafloor spreading. Please fill in the blank with the most appropriate answer choice.

increases

Warm water _________ as cold water.

is less dense

Hot air rises near the equator as part of Earth's system for atmospheric convection. This process results in equatorial and tropical climates that have which of the following properties?

lots of rain

Seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges is a mechanism that produces new oceanic crust. This process also allows adjacent tectonic plates to __________. Please select the best answer choice to fill in the blank.

move apart

As CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere go up, the rate of weathering increases and more dissolved solids are delivered to the oceans. Dissolved solids can subsequently be incorporated into carbonate minerals and geologically sequester carbon. Would this process be considered a positive or a negative feedback?

negative

Earth's climate has been fairly stable for much of the planets history (certainly for the last 500 million years). Does this indicate that the planet has many positive or negative climate feedbacks?

negative

Will air near the surface of the Earth tend to rise during conditions of absolute atmospheric stability?

no

In order to sequester organic carbon in sediments at the bottom of the ocean, production of organic carbon through _________ must be greater than consumption of organic carbon through ________. Please fill in the blanks with the best answer choice.

photosynthesis; respiration

Low pressure systems form where air is ___________.

rising

Which of the following locations on the surface of the Earth has the lowest gravitational potential energy? Hint: Where is most sediment ultimately deposited?

the bottom of the ocean

Hot air tends to form in the equatorial and tropical regions because these latitudes receive the most solar radiation. We might expect convection cells to form in which hot, low density air rises from the Earth's surface to the upper troposphere near the equator and cold, high density air sinks from the upper troposphere to the Earth's surface in the polar regions. However, the Earth has a more complex convective system that includes three convective cells on either side of the equator. Why?

the planet rotates

Nevertheless, tsunamis still claim many lives despite the fact that some areas can receive hours of warning. What are some of the factors that lead to our limited ability to save lives during a tsunami event?

the suddenness in the speed that a tsunami starts, the inability to distribute warning information to an entire area's population, and the lack of infrastructure that allows for quick evacuations of thousands of individuals.

What is the name for the transitional zone between warm water at shallow depths and cold water at great depths in low latitude oceans?

thermocline

Extinction rates today are much, much higher than the rates of extinction prior to global industrialization and there is some discussion as to whether we are currently at the beginning, or in the midst, of a mass extinction.

true

One of the main lessons from studying mass extinctions is that ecosystems have trouble adapting to extremely rapid changes to Earth's climate.

true

Which of the following words describes the short-term state of the atmosphere in a location on Earth?

weather

Air moving across the surface of the Earth from middle latitudes toward the equator will always be deflected to the _______ by the Coriolis effect.

west