ecology final

Explain the evolutionary arms race between plants and herbivores

Evolutionary arms race- it's a costant running to just stay in the race - constant evolving and changing

4. What are the 4 main tenets of evolution?

Individuals are variable- variation is heritable- survival and reproduction are non-random-organisms differ in survival and reproductive ability

4.How do plants defend themselves? Provide appropriate examples.

Mechanical, phenological, hormonal, biotic, biochemical (Alkaloids- caffeine nicotine•Phenolics-chocolate vanilla •Terpenoidsmenthol, cinnamon cloves) Quantitative - substances consumed in larges quantitites impede digestion Qualitative- deter feeding after a small amount -toxic compounds

5. Define the following terms: threshold, inflection point, asymptote, Q10 Law, zone of tolerance, poikilotherm/homeotherm, ectotherm/endotherm. What is evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration and how are they related?

poikilotherm/homeotherm- body temperature changes with environment temperature/maintains body temperature without external influence- ectotherm/endotherm- regulates body temperature from external

1. What are the 3 main elements of climate? How does climate and geography (topography) interact to influence abundance and distribution patterns of organisms in the biosphere?

the elements are sun, wind, and water. They interact in complex ways. Solar radiation is the basis for the elemental interactions that we consider "climate".

3. What is the scientific method? Know how to apply the scientific method to a question. Why is ecology considered a "science"?

The scientific method is a six-step program (observation, testable hypothesis, experimental design, data, results, conclusion). It is the primary tool of science. It is the critical component to science because it is repeatable!Inductive reasoning is the first part of the scientific method (observations). It uses specific observations to construct general scientific principles, like a hypothesis (instances inductive reasoning general principles deductive reasoning instances)Deductive reasoning is all of the other parts of the scientific method (hypothesis formation, data collection, etc.) Examples: Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, grandfathers are bald. (inductive; specific to broad) ... All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal. (deductive; broad to specific)

10. What is acclimation and how might it be adaptive trait for an organism or species? Why is it that organisms (and species) with greater acclimation abilities are found more often in higher (vs. lower) latitudes? How does adaptation differ from acclimation? What are some adaptations for managing heat and water?

Acclimation- is the change in a single individual- adaptation- are passed down through generations

3. Define Liebig's "Law of the Minimum". How might this principle apply to understanding the relative importance of essential macronutrients in an agricultural field? Can this law apply to both conditions and resources?

An environmental can only maintain maximum quality with the resource that is the limiting factor (the least) - the barrel- if there is only so much nitrogen in a field when all of it is used up its reached its maximum growth even if all the other elements are still abundant- this law only applies to resources because they get used up

4. How do we answer ecological questions?

Answering ecological questions is useful with observational studies in the field, controlled laboratory experiments, and experiments in the field. The descriptive approach describes the conditions of the experiment, and is inductive, helping you develop a specific hypothesis.

12. What are adaptations and provide specific examples. What are not adaptations?

Any change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it better suited to its environment --

2. List the subdisciplines comprising the field of ecology. Basic vs. Applied ecology? How does physiological ecology differ from ecosystem ecology? What do ecosystem ecologists study?

Basic ecology is the study of how nature works, why things are the way they are, etc. Applied ecology is needed to describe nature, solve environmental problems, etc.

14. What are the 3 basic types of photosynthesis? How do they differ in terms of time of activity, water use, and efficiency? Give examples of plants that used each method.

C3 plants- stomata open during the day and photosynthesis takes place in leaves -c4 plants - photosynthesis happens in inner cells PEP - corn and grasses - CAM- stomata open during nights, oxaloacetate builds up during the day and breaks down in early morning light- desert plants

2. What is a "condition"? What is a "resource"? Explain how a condition in one environment could be considered a resource in another (e.g., oxygen in an aquatic vs. a terrestrial environment). What is meant by environmental tolerance?

Condition- factors that can change but aren't used up (weather, oxygen, humidity, pH).Resource- things that become reduced by using them(food, space, sunlight/shade). Environmental tolerance the ability for organism to withstand in unfavorable environments.

2.What are some defenses prey use against predation. What is predator-induced plasticity? Provide some examples.

Defenses against predators- Chemical- physical- barriers eg. Shells - crypsis- camouflaged- aposematism - warning colors/sounds- mimicry- looking or sounding like another animal - induced plascity - prey alter behavior

6. List and describe the critical elements in a well-designed experiment?

Defined experimental unit, measurable variables (quantifiable and measurable discrimination), controls, replication (can show variation and provide statistical analysis), interspersion (randomly apply treatments), and randomization (samples)

1.What are demographics, what is its basic principle, and list/describe common factors influencing the demographics of a population.

Demographics- study of the size structure and distribution of population: Birth, movements, aging, death

9. Differentiate among the 3 types of selection. Use frequency distributional graphs to illustrate how natural selection might operate to produce population changes over time. What are the ultimate outcomes of the different types?

Directional selection - favors one extreme (mimicry or camoflauge) - stabilizing selection- extremes aren't favored - disruptive selection- mean phenotype is at disadvantage - leads to speciation

1.Define "ecology" and "science". How do these two terms differ, and how are they similar? What is NOT ecology? What were the 'seeds' of ecological thinking?

Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment across different spatial and temporal scales (ex. fine spatial scale is micro). It comes from the Greek word "oikos", meaning "house". Ecology is NOT recycling, saving the animals, green peace, tree hugging, etc. Science is what ecologists use to study these interactions.

6.Differentiate between discrete exponential vs. continuous exponential vs. logistic growth in terms of graphical relationships. Be able to identify the formulae and associated terms and calculate growth given pertinent values. What are the assumptions of each? Provide some real-world examples of exponential and logistic growth. What are the 3 phases of logistic growth?

Exponential growth produces a J-shaped curve, while logistic growth produces an S-shaped curve.

5. What influences differential reproductive success?

Fitness genetic variation-ecological factors

1.What is a community? How is it different from a population? What is an assemblage? What are common community ecology questions? -

Group of species that occupy given area, interacting directly or indirectly ---Assemblage- subset of species in a community

What are the ecological effects of herbivores? Provide pertinent examples.

Herbivores affect plant fitness - reduce growth rate, reduce reporoductive output - control distribution and abundance

-How does succession take place, i.e., what are the mechanisms? Give examples of each. Which type is considered short term? Which type(s) involve(s) primarily sessile organisms and which type(s) also include mobile species? Which type relates only to the influence of abiotic factors on communities?

Heterotrophic succession- degradation of the resource- flys breaking down poop- then dung beetles- then its gone autotrophic succession- does not lead to degradation(breakdown)- the habitat continually occupied by living organism allogenic- separate systems drives succession- external forces physical environment changes autogenic- succession is driven from within driven by biological process primary -in an area that did not support a community- volcanic- ligands forming on rocks- grass in concrete secondary- in an area that previously did support a community -occurs because of floods fire field abandonment

16. Describe the Hutchinsonian niche. Be able to graphically represent one in a 2 and 3 dimensions. How does a fundamental niche differ from a realized niche? What drives this difference?

Hutchinson niche- total range of conditions under which organism can live and reproduce - fundamental is the total set of conditions which organisms can live VS realized- which are the actual limits where niches exist that include predators

6.What is a life-history "trade-off" and list and discuss several examples of tradeoffs. How is it that strongly contrasting life-history strategies may both be evolutionary advantageous (adaptive) to populations? Define semelparity/iteroparity.

Life history tradeoff - reproductive effort, somatic effort (growth/survival), total expenditure, -- two classes of possible reproductive strategies available to living organisms. A species is considered semelparous if it is characterized by a single reproductive episode before death, and iteroparous if it is characterized by multiple reproductive cycles over the course of its lifetime—

2.Define the key parameters that are measured when constructing a life table. How are life tables useful in describing populations? Why are human life tables so vital to life insurance companies?

Life table- age class, cohort, survivorship, annual survival rate , deaths, annual mortality rate,fecundity—determine the value of their life

5.What are the different types of biochemical defenses? What are some familiar compounds associated with each type? What do they typically do to herbivores? What are some trait generalizations regarding plants with quantitative defenses. Qualitative defenses?

Mechanical, phenological, hormonal, biotic, biochemical (Alkaloids- caffeine nicotine•Phenolics-chocolate vanilla •Terpenoidsmenthol, cinnamon cloves) Quantitative - substances consumed in larges quantitites impede digestion Qualitative- deter feeding after a small amount -toxic compounds

3.Given a formula, be able to calculate and interpret mark/recapture data.

N/M= C/R N = CM/R

5.What 4 life history parameters affect population growth (i.e., the basic population growth model)? Which parameters contribute to negative population growth and which to positive growth?

Natality( birth) mortality ( death) immigration emigration

-Be able to explain the two fundamental concepts of a community, including their originators.

Organismic concept- federick clements - community is a superorganism in which species are connected like parts of the body Continuum concept - henry gleason - species coexist due to similiariteis in tolerances

5. What is a "chi-square test", an "alpha-level", a "p-value", a "test statistic", and a "critical value", and how are they useful in ecology? What's the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

P value - probability of obtaining a result equal or more extreme than the observed result Alpha - probability of a Type 1 error, or rejecting the null when it's true (ex. the probability of stating a differences when there's not)Beta - the probability of a Type 2 error, or accepting the null when it's false (ex. the probability of stating no difference when there is one)

-What is community structure? Physical structure?

Physical structure- Vertical profile assemblages

7. What are the 2 different kinds of traits? Provide examples of each.

Polymorphism - multiple alleles maintined in a population—plasticity - one genotype is capable of producing multiple phenotypes

1.What is a "population," and what is the difference between "population size" and "population density" as measures of the abundance of organisms? Why are the previous terms usually considered only 'estimates'? Why is defining your temporal and spatial scale critical when studying populations? What are some unique properties of populations?

Population- Group of interbreeding organisms found in the same space or area- density is the number found in a certain area - size is the whole --

10. What is a species? Be familiar with several different definitions. What is the difference between sympatric, allopatric, and parapatric speciation? What are the conditions for each?

Species- organism that can reproduce and have viable offspring (typological, Biological, ecological, cohesion, phylogenetic) allopatric- divides into isolated group, sympatric- development of multiple species in a single habitat, paroapatric- two subpopulations of a species evolve reproductive isolation from one another while continuing to exchange genes.

What is a "survivorship curve"? Define the 3 types of survivorship curves and give an example of a type (species) of organism displaying each type of curve. From the life table examples discussed for the 2 species in lecture, which type of curve is displayed by which species? How can both extremes be adaptive?

Survivorship curve- traces the decline of a group of newborns over time—the probability of surviving to a certain age for a representative member of the population Type 1 curve- convex curve- individuals live to adulthood with mortality occurring during old age - humans Type 2 curve- a straight line- chances of dying is independent of its age - small birds Type 3- concave curve- few individuals live to adulthood with the chance of dying decreases with age—redwood trees

5. Describe the basic relationship between temperature and precipitation patterns across the Earth. Why is atmospheric humidity so much more uncomfortable in summer than in winter?

Temperature is evidently warmest (and increasingly becoming warmer than average) near the equator (due to sun example from earlier), on both land and ocean areas. Relative humidity is temperature-dependent, making it more intense during the summer months.

7. What is a thermoneutral zone? How is it different from the performance breadth and the tolerance range of an organism? Be able to graph and understand the meaning of CTmin, CTmax, and Topt. Be able to graphically represent a eurytherm, mesotherm, and stenotherm.

Thermoneutral zone- range of environmental temperatures that can be regulated by blood flow to skin. Slide 10 pp 11 shows graphs for eurytherm, meso and steno

2.What is dispersion, what are the 3 types, what leads to these patterns, and what are some pertinent examples?

Uniform(DESERT BUSHES)-often due to competition/behavorial interactions random- don't interact well with the environment or other clumped-due to uneven distribution of resources (ELK)

3. What is the Greenhouse Effect and how does the atmosphere influence heating of the Earth's surface? How do (and which) human activities accelerate the rate of increase of "Greenhouse Gases" in the atmosphere?

Water, dust, and gases absorb sunlight, heat up, and cause a radiating effect. The radiation is reflected (stays on Earth/in atmosphere), and H20, CO2, CH4, and NO2 cause retention of heat and serve as a temperature buffer. Factors like transportation, electricity production, burning fossil fuels, commercial and residential building, etc.

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What is the Red Queen Hypothesis? Provide a parasite model for this idea. Where else can this hypothesis be applied (other systems, interactions, etc.)?

6. What is wind? What is a "Westerly"? A "Trade wind"? What is the "Jet Stream? Coriolis effect?How do Westerlies and Trade winds influence global water circulation and precipitation patterns?

Wind is air moving on the Earth's surface due to hot air rising from high to low pressure. A westerly wind travels west to east, originating from the horse latitudes and moving towards the poles. A trade wind blows east to west and towards the equator. The jet stream is a narrow band of strong winds several miles above the earth and are important because they move weather patterns around the world and prevent them from staying in a single area. The Coriolis effect is caused by the earth's rotation, and objects deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere

3.Describe several examples of studies of predator-prey interactions. What influences predator-prey coexistence? Why should predators lag behind prey? What are some reasons predators don't totally extirpate prey? Explain the marginal value theorem and optimal foraging theory. What are some different strategies regarding optimal foraging?

cyclical patterns of densities—predators don't make prey go extinct because of habitat complexity - optimal foraging theory- predators shift their prey to what is most abundant - food type avalaibility- moving- is it worth the time trade off - defensive cost- risk exposure to predators

7.Differentiate between an "early" versus a "late" successional species in terms of life history characteristics. Which type of species is typically the better competitor? The better disperser?

k species are the later successional species- these are better competitiorsr-species are the early successional species and are better at dispersing nutrients-

What are the Lotka-Volterra predation models, and what factors influence the densities of a predator and prey species within these models? Given equations, be able to calculate and interpret L-V models.

lotka-volteraa - populations of predators and prey change throughout time according to two equations- regular oscillations look at equations Lotka Voltera Competition equation—competition coefficte is alpha (alpha 21=beta )

3.Differentiate between the following symbols: mx vs. dx; dx vs. qx; ax vs. mx; lxmx vs. Sum of (lxmx). What is an "age-class"? Be able to fill out and interpret a life table given partial information. Be able to calculate and interpret Ro and T from life table data.

mx- average number of offspring per female—dx number that die in each interval, qx- proportion that dies from age x to x+t - ax- proportion surving from age x to x=1 = nx+1-nx+1 lxmx= reproductive expectation at x age class- a group of persons of the same sex and approximately the same age who have been initiated together or have passed through other social experiences together- age structure is used to determine and plan for the future.

2. What is a niche? What factors define the difference between the fundamental and realized niche? Illustrate an example of a 2-dimensional niche and explain how it can be influenced by another species.

niches- barnacle example

1.What is "predation" and how does it differ from competition, parasitism, and the other types of symbiosis? Compare and contrast the different types of predators in terms of their typical prey. What is the significance of predation to prey population-

predation- interaction where one organism consume part of another one—true predators- grazers/herbivores-parasites- parasitoids—predatiation keeps the prey population under control.

What is r - and K-selection? Compare and contrast several life-history features in terms of having either r - or K-selected traits.

r vs. k mice versus elephant—competitive ability- number of times reproduce, body size, offspring

8.Define community stability and its components. What is disturbance? How does it influence communities?

resistance to change the community and resilience to return to prior state after disturbance -disturbance- any event that changes the community structure or resource- fire weather catastrophic- kills all residents disturbances reset the system

4.What is dispersal (as opposed to dispersion)? What are the different types, mechanisms, and drivers? Provide examples of each.

the movement and establishment of individuals into a new area or habitat- jump dispersal - over water - diffusion - spreading out - active and passive

3. Explain the competitive exclusion principle and the principle of limiting similarity. What are the predictions of each? Do these always occur? Why or why not? Competitive exclusion principle (aka Gause's law) -

two species cannot coexist if their niches are the same vx. Principle of limiting similarity - there is a maximum level of similarity between competing species that will allow them to coexist—dominant species with exclude other species—one or both species will adapt to reduce competition

1. Define competition and list/discuss its fundamental features. What are the 'rules'? Would interspecific or intraspecific competition be expected to have the greatest impact on an organism? Why? What are the evolutionary implications of competition?

use or defense of a resource by one individual that reduces the availability of the resource to other individuals- rules - resources, morphology serves a function, environment determines advantages