Educational Psychology Final
Ethnography
A descriptive approach to research that focuses of life within a group and tires to understand the meaning of events to the people involved.
Range
Distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group.
Social negotiation
Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives.
A correlation near zero tells us that no linear or curvilinear relationship exists between variables.
False
Thorndike's Law of Effect suggested that when a behavior is followed by a pleasurable experience, the behavior will be less likely to be repeated.
False
Equilibration
Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment.
Automated basic skills
Skills that are applied without conscious thought.
Random
Without and definite pattern; following no rule.
Another term for luck would be
chance
Kohlberg believed that moral development results from
cognitive abilities and personal conscience.
One viewpoint in psychology believes that all human beings are unique and people perceive the world in different ways. This branch is called _____ psychology.
humanistic
Philosophy is best thought of as a part of the __________________.
humanities
Which of the following terms is most strongly related to a rigorous interpretation of the scientific method?
quantitative
Which of the following characteristics accurately describes the art of teaching?
the ability to improvise
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 5
Cognitive viewpoint: Jean Piaget cognitive disequilibrium, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
Variability
Degree of difference or deviation from mean.
Goal- directed actions
Deliberate actions toward a goal.
Norm-Reference Grading
Assessment of students' achievement in relation to one another.
Critical thinking
Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.
Seatwork
Independent classroom work.
Which of the following is a FALSE statement related to stage theories?
It is possible to skip a stage.
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 2
These basic needs appear to be genetic in origin, relatively stable over a lifetime, and valid across the range of all human beings. Note the hierarchical structure in the model.
According to Freud, a deep sense of guilt originates from an over dominant superego.
True
Humanistic psychologists often spent considerable time and energy trying to better understand the forces within the human being such as universal human needs and the quest for personal meaning in life.
True
The disciplines of art, music, philosophy, and drama are all part of the humanities.
True
The scientific method relies most strongly upon (objective or subjective) evidence.
objective
Teachers in general should try to make classroom tests more
objective.
Which of the following is a list of exclusively elements of the scientific method?
objectivity is valued, contingencies, extrinsic motivation, reductionistic viewpoint.
Teachers' sense of efficacy
A teacher's belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn.
Social goals
A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group.
An algorithm is where a(an) ,illogical, irrational, or incorrect assumption or logical, rational, and correct assumption, is used to successfully solve a problem.
An algorithm is where a logical, rational, and correct assumption is used to successfully solve a problem.
An androgynous individual is most likely display gender-role characteristics of ,both male and female stereotypes or a more masculine rather than feminine stereotype.
An androgynous individual is most likely display gender-role characteristics of both male and female stereotypes.
The proactive approach to teaching seems to require
An awareness and thoughtful response by the teacher.
An essay exam is likely to be able to test the knowledge of students on a[an] [extremely large range of course content or very narrow range of course content].
An essay exam is likely to be able to test the knowledge of students on a very narrow range of course content.
Learning sciences
An interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning.
Incentive
An object or event that encourages or discourages behavior.
An operational definition is most concerned with, subjectivity or objectivity.
An operational definition is most concerned with objectivity.
Which of the following is an example of an operational definition of a variable?
An operational definition of a variable is an attempt to add precision to measurement according to the scientific method. Is the only option which provides a clue as to how a variable will be objectively measured.
Theory of mind
An understanding that our people are people too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions.
Prototype
A best example or best representative of a category.
Jigsaw Classroom
A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become "expert" on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group.
Body mass index, BMI
A measure of body fat that evaluates weight in relation to height.
Participant observation
A method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group.
Position emission tomography, PET
A method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer- assisted motion pictures of the brain.
The reactive rather than proactive response of a teacher in the classroom is most reflective of the _____ view.
Behavioristic.
Which of the following is an accurate listing of famous psychologists according to their viewpoints?
Behavioristic: Skinner, Pavlov, and Watson
Behaviorists believe that the ,inner nature of human beings or environment, is most critical in predicting behavior.
Behaviorists believe that the environment is most critical in predicting behavior.
Emotional and behavioral disorders
Behaviors or emotions that deviate so much from the norm that they interfere with the child's own growth and development and/or the lives of others- inappropriate behaviors, unhappiness or depression, fears and anxieties, and trouble with relationships.
Appropriating
Being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools.
Entity view of ability
Belief that ability is fixed characteristic that cannot be changed.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 9
Beliefs about ability: entity view and the incremental view of ability
Distributive justice
Beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group; followers a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence.
Classroom Assessments
Classroom assessments are selected created by teachers and can take many different forms- units tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, etc.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 16
Classroom evaluation: art versus science of teaching, process and end product elements of learning, objective and subjective elements
Basic Skills
Clearly structured knowledge that is needed for later learning and that can be taught step by step.
Cognitive psychology is most likely to employ the concept of, intuition or contingencies.
Cognitive psychology is most likely to employ the concept of intuition.
Cognitive theorists believe that the ,environment is most important or complex interaction between the individual and environment, is most crucial in predicting behavior.
Cognitive theorists believe that the complex interaction between the individual and environment is most crucial in predicting behavior.
Divergent thinking
Coming up with many possible solutions.
Restructuring
Conceiving of a problem in a new or different way.
Illustrative Examples
Consider the following correlation coefficients: r=+.13, r=-.92, r=+.54, r=-.63, r=-.09, and r=+.87. Strongest relationship=-.92; Only the value, +, or, - closest to +1.00 or -1.00 works here. Weakest relationship=-.09; Only positive, +, or negative, -, value closest to zero works here. Best test re-test reliability=+.87; Only the highest positive, +, value can be considered here. Please note that -.92 is more powerful, but high reliability demands a positive relationship. Strongest positive relationship=+.87; Only the highest positive, +, values closest to +1.00 will work here. Strongest inverse relationship=-.92; Only negative, -, values can be considered here. Weakest positive relationship=+.13; Only positive, +, values can be considered here. Weakest inverse relationship=-.09; inverse relationships must only include negative values
Attachment
Forming an emotional bond with another person, initially a parent or family member.
Intimacy
Forming close, enduring relationships with others.
Self-actualization
Fulfilling one's potential.
Culture and Diversity 5
Gender Issues: gender-role identity, gender schemes, androgynous (psychological androgyny), gender biases (chauvinistic thinking) Research on gender differences suggest that on average: Females slightly better at: verbal skills such as reading comprehension, production of written and oral language, and math computation skills early in school Males slightly better at: Spatial skills, visual information processing, math reasoning in higher mathematics, mechanical skills NOTE: These differences are not dramatic enough to stereotype students based upon gender into educational and career expectations: such differences appear to be diminishing; explanations for sex differences: heredity and/or environment.
Heuristic
General strategy used in attempting to solve problems.
Anxiety
General uneasiness, a feeling of tension.
Brainstorming
Generating ideas without stopping to evaluate them.
Maturation
Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time.
Gestalt
German for pattern or whole. Gestalt theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes.
Resistance culture
Group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and attitudes of the majority culture.
Flexible Grouping
Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs.
Chunking
Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units.
Peer cultures
Groups of children or adolescents with their own rules and norms, particularly about such things as dress, appearance, music, language, social values, and behavior.
A researcher wishes to generalize the results of a study with a small sample to other subjects is dependent upon the...
If a researcher has a small sample in a study, the wish is usually to generalize the results of such a study to other populations (groups of individuals). This is the situation described in the stem of the question and it represents moving from a specific example to a broader generalization--the inductive process. Remember that the deductive approach describes moving from a generalization to a specific case.
Creativity
Imaginative, original thinking or problem solving.
Scatterplots 2
Important Notes: 1: scatterplots can depict linear and non-linear relationships when correlation coefficients can only accurately represent the linear relationship between two variables. 2: Be on the alert for the negative influences of outliers, points far away from the straight line path, since these cases suppress the overall predictive power and are at odds with the remainder of the cases. 3: Scatterplots often provide additional information not able to be gleaned from the correlation coefficient, both are needed to interpret the data in an accurate manner.
Cognitive Domain
In Bloom's taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives.
Theory of multiple intelligences
In Gardner's theory of intelligence, a person's eight separate abilities: logical-mathematics, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
Commitment
In Marcia's theory of identity statuses, individuals' choices concerning political and religious beliefs, for example, usually as a consequence of exploring the options.
Exploration
In Marcia's theory of identity statuses, the process by which adolescents consider and try out alternative beliefs, values, and behaviors in an effort to determine which will give then the most satisfaction.
Disequilibration
In Piaget's theory, the "out-of-balance" state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understanding a situation.
Functional fixedness
Inability to use objects or tools in a new way.
Voicing problems
Inappropriate pitch, quality, loudness, or intonation.
Incidental or accidental learning is "least" likely to take place when using [Mager-like or Gronlund-like] objectives.
Incidental or accidental learning is "least" likely to take place when using Mager-like objectives.
Vicarious reinforcement
Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior.
Autonomy
Independence.
Self-concept
Individuals' knowledge and beliefs about themselves- their ideas, feelings, attitudes, and expectations.
Complex Cognitive Processes 9
Inductive reasoning ,specific-general, deductive reasoning ,general-specific.
Which of the following is a true statement about Erikson's psychosocial theory?
Industry vs. inferiority comes after initiative vs. guilt.
Cognitive Views of Learning 2
Information Processing Model: human memory (computer analogy); encoding (code creation); decoding (code cracking); retrieval; rehearsal; [3 stages: sensory register, short-term memory, long-term memory] see Figure 8.1 on p. 285 of text; attention is critical; metacognition (thinking about thinking); metamemory (thinking about memory); perception; top-down (start with pattern recognition and work to small features/conceptually driven) and bottom-up (start with small features and discover a pattern/data driven); processing issues; automaticity; organization; context.
Domain-specific knowledge
Information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic.
General knowledge
Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations.
Natural/logical consequences
Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions.
Achievement motivation theory proposes that
Instrinsic motivational factors are important.
Cognitive Objectives
Instructional objectives stated in terms of higher-level thinking operations.
Behavioral Objectives
Instructional objectives stated in terms of observable behaviors.
Effective instruction delivery
Instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and that communicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions.
Students with a high need for achievement in the classroom tend to explain failure by
Insufficient effort if they have the task ability.
Theory
Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions.
Massive Multi-player Online Games (MMOG)
Interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds where the learner assumes a character role of avatar.
Context
Internal and external circumstances and situations that interact with the individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions, to shape development and learning.
Perception
Interpretation of sensory information.
Positive behavior supports (PBS)
Interventions designed to replace problem behavior with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student.
Sensorimotor
Involving the senses and motor activity.
Aversive
Irritating or unpleasant.
The discovery approach to learning
Is often very time consuming.
Which of the following statements is true about the normal curve?
It has the greatest number of frequencies along the moderate point on the continuum.
Maintenance rehearsal
Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself.
Movement management
Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate, and flexible, pace, with smooth transitions and variety.
Scripted Cooperation
Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and criticizing the summaries.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 5
Measures of central tendency: When each is appropriate? Mean: arithmetic average, dangers if outlier scores exist, Median: middle most score in the distribution,50th percentile, [use if outliers exist] Mode: the most frequently occurring score in the distribution. Sometimes distributions can have two or more modes
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 7
Measures of variability: sd is preferred as more precise than the range. Range: the difference of highest and lowest achieved scores. Standard Deviation, sd: an index which indicates spread of scores along the continuum, greater value=greater dispersion or spread of scores
Semantic memory
Memory for meaning.
Chain mnemonics
Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element.
Fluid intelligence
Mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded in brain development.
Schemes
Mental systems or categories of perceptions and experience.
Formal operations
Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables.
Concrete operations
Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations.
Which of the following best illustrates metacognition?
Metacognition involves the active ability to think about our own cognitive abilities. Best represents this attempt to obtain knowledge about knowledge. The preparation of a lesson plan in a "prescribed" manner does not suggest that much thought has been given to process.
Unconditioned response (UR)
Naturally occurring emotional or physiological response.
Educationally blind
Needing Braille materials in order to learn.
Learning preferences
Preferred ways of studying and learning, such as using pictures instead of text, working with other people versus alone, learning in structured or in unstructured situations, and so on.
Prejudice
Prejudgment of irrational generalization about an entire category of people.
Procedures/routines
Prescribed steps for an activity.
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response.
Intermittent reinforcement schedule
Presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses.
Adaptive Teaching
Provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes these supports as students become able to handle more on their own.
Personal Learning Environment (PLE)
Provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations.
Cueing
Providing a stimulus that "sets up" a desired behavior.
Reconstruction
Recreating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge.
John Dewey believed that thinking should be
Reflective rather than impulsive.
Ratio schedule
Reinforcement based on the number of responses between reinforcers.
Shaping
Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior.
You are introduced to a man named "Bob" and quickly decide that you wish to remember this person's name. Your thoughts immediately leap to the fact that you have a cousin named "Bob" and this would be an easy way to remember the person you just met. This memory strategy is best described as...
Relating the name of a "new" person to your cousin "Bob" demonstrates the technique of elaborative rehearsal.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Relative standing in the society based on income, power, background, and prestige.
Complex ideas of reliability and validity
Remember that a valid test is always reliable; however, a reliable test MIGHT OR MIGHT NOT be valid.
Rote memorization
Remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information.
Images
Representations based on the physical attributes-the appearance- of information.
Z Scores
Standard score indicating the number of standard deviations about or below the mean.
T Scores
Standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning.
Positive reinforcement
Strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior.
Negative reinforcement
Strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs.
Instrumental aggression
Strong actions aimed at claiming an object, place, or privilege- not intended to harm, but may lead to harm.
Identity achievement
Strong sense of commitment to life choices after free consideration of alternatives.
Descriptive studies
Studies that collect detailed information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods.
Quasi-experimental studies
Studies that fit most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments.
Cognitive evaluation theory
Suggest that events affect motivation through the individual's perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information.
Dual coding theory
Suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or verbal units, or both.
Overlapping
Supervising several activities at once.
Culture and Diversity 3
Supreme Court Case: Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka (1954), "separate but equal" concept was declared unequal, segregation, prejudice, authoritarian personality, stereotypes, discrimination, "with all deliberate speed".
The best test to use in order to determine the innate creative potential of your student is a[an] [diagnostic or achievement or aptitude] test.
The best test to use in order to determine the innate creative potential of your student is an aptitude test.
Human agency
The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals.
Inclusion
The integration of all students, including those with severe disabilities, into regular classes.
Cognitive science
The interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge creation, and the brain.
Automaticity
The result of learning to perform a behavior or thinking process so thoroughly that the performance is automatic and does not require effort.
Pragmatics
The rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture.
True Score
The score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error-free.
The purpose of the sensory register is to...
The sensory register maintains information briefly ,2-3 seconds, and attention is required if such information is to be further processed. Information to be further processed moves from the sensory register to short-term memory.
Preoperational
The stage before a child masters logical mental operations.
Object permanence
The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence.
Academic tasks
The work the student must accomplish, including the content covered and the mental operations required.
Cognitive Views of Learning 5
Theories of Forgetting: decay, interference, disuse, neural decay, repression (unconscious process-see Freud for this concept), reconstruction.
Formative Assessment
Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis.
Informal Assessment
Ungraded, formative, assessments that gather information form multiple sources to help teachers make decisions.
Reflective
Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.
Measures of Correlation and Scatterplots 3
Three basic types of relationships exist in the correlational format: 1, positive, +, relationships where higher on one variable predicts higher on the other variable, moderate on one variable predicts moderate on the other variable, and lower on one variable predicts lower on the other variable; 2, negative, -, or inverse relationships where higher on one variable predicts lower on the other variable, moderate on one variable predicts moderate on the other variable, and lower on one variable predicts higher on the other variable; and 3, no linear relationships where the variables are unrelated or randomly related. Please note that if the variables are related in a non-linear manner such as in a curvilinear pattern, the correlation will not provide useful interpretive information, r value will be near zero-- correctly indicating no linear relationship exists.
Academic learning time
Time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task.
Sensitive periods
Times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences.
Identity
To complex answer to the question: "Who am I?"
Social Domain
To explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual imagined or implied presence of other humans.
Discrimination
Treating or acting unfairly toward particular categories of people.
According to Piaget, teachers who wish to motivate students should try to create at least some cognitive disequilibrium.
True
For most right-handed people, the first language learned is stored in the left brain and a second language learned is stored in the right brain.
True
In K-12 school settings males tend to be slightly better than females at visual manipulation of objects in space, mechanical skills, and calculus.
True
In traditional approaches to learning in contrast to mastery learning, traditional approaches focus upon competition in a situation where only a few students can earn high grades in the class.
True
Inductive reasoning allows us to start with a specific premise and form a generalization.
True
Positive and negative reinforcement both increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.
True
Presentation and removal punishment both decrease the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.
True
Presentation punishment and positive reinforcement both involve the administration or giving of a response by a teacher or parent.
True
Sternberg suggested that intelligence is composed of contextual, componential, and experiential (creative) elements.
True
The behavioristic view in psychology requires an operational definition of variables whereby precise measurement increases the scientific rigor in an experiment.
True
The behavioristic view in psychology tends to focus upon overt behavior that can be objectively measured.
True
The cognitive viewpoint in psychology includes the concept of constructing or building knowledge.
True
The disciplines of modern history, geography, and cultural anthropology are all part of the social sciences.
True
The humanistic view in psychology proposed that human actualizations occur when people realize their potential in a mental healthy manner.
True
Whenever possible a "true" scientist attempts to study problems in a quantitative rather than qualitative manner.
True
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 8
Two theoretical characteristics of a good test: reliability and validity. Reliability: consistency of results/scores, Are results similar for subjects over time? Validity: test measures what it is supposed to measure, A philosophical ideal. Note: A test that is valid must also be reliable; however, a test that is reliable—may or may not be valid. Desirable test-retest reliability requires a high positive correlation. correlation coefficients and scatter plots
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 11
Types of tests: achievement tests; diagnostic tests; aptitude, ability, tests; high-stakes tests; readiness tests; minimum-competency tests; culture-fair/free tests; authentic assessment, test bias, distinctions between published and teacher-made tests
Identity diffusion
Uncenteredness; confusion about who are one is and what one wants.
Perspective-taking ability
Understanding that others have different feelings and experiences.
Declarative knowledge
Verbal information; facts; "knowing that" something is that case.
Gifted and talented students
Very bright, creative, and talented students.
Constructivism
View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.
Constructivist Approach
View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.
Operants
Voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal.
Cooperation
Way of working with others to attain a shared goal.
Geology is best thought of as part of the ___________________.
natural sciences
Bob works long and hard on a task that he really likes, such as math. He sets reasonable goals and when given a choice selects a task that is not too difficult and not too easy. Bob is usually successful at what he chooses to tackle. ___________________________
need for achievement (n-Ach), intrinsic motivation Evidence: Bob seems to value mathematics. He also sets realistic goals and selects a moderately difficult task. Bob's love of math could be explained by intrinsic motivation.
According to Bandura's theory, student self-efficacy is most similar to the
need for achievement.
identity diffusion or confusion, unhealthy
no crisis and no commitment
foreclosure
no crisis, but a commitment made, unhealthy
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 3
norm-referenced testing: scores are compared with the average performance of others, Norm group: a carefully selected group to be used for comparison
Foreclosure is best described as when a person has
not experienced a personal crisis and made a commitment.
Unhealthy Achievement
orientations are similarly related: fear of failure, motive to avoid failure, learned hopelessness.
Healthy Achievement
orientations are similarly related: need for achievement, motive to approach success, learned hopefulness, and self-efficacy.
Behaviorism has traditionally chosen to focus upon ___________ elements of behavioral explanations.
overt
Constructivism requires the use of __________ as a tool to learn new knowledge.
prior knowledge
If you wanted to provide a remedy for students with a low self-concept, you would want to
promote success at a relevant and challenging task.
Interactionism
proposes that both internal and external, environmental, factors are involved in understanding human behavior.
Blank Slate Theory
proposes that students at some point in time arrive with "empty" minds ready to be filled-up with knowledge by teachers.
Cognitive Theory and Constructivism
proposes that you build on information already stored in long-term memory when you learn.
Emotional insulation
protecting oneself from emotional contact after a hurtful experience Example: Susan decides never to date men after a painful relationship.
It is believed that students should be given a longer wait-time by teachers in the classroom. The rationale for this extended time delay is to
provide the students with more time to think.
David works for hours one night sorting his coin collection and finally finds a 1931S to complete his collection. The next day he visits a nursery in order to landscape his lot. He doesn't understand why, bur he purchases several date palms that will be delivered next week. David's strange urge to but date palms can be explained by the ______ view.
psychoanalyic
Define crisis and commitment
psychological crisis involves personal reflection and soul searching that could last years, reflection & experimentation are critical here
Elements of the Art of Teaching
qualitative measurement human relationships intuitive decision making gut-level responses enthusiasm and excitement affective domain values and belief systems non-verbal clues subjective judgment personal approach
Elements of the Science of Teaching
quantitative measurement empirical evidence (proof) logical decision making precise documentation careful recording of information (data) testing of a theory systematic approach actual verbal message objective judgment impersonal approach
Scientific aspect of teaching is most related to _____ as artistic aspect of teaching is mostly related to _____.
quantitative qualitative
Which of the following represents the strongest relationship between two variables?
r=+.96
Which of the following represents the weakest relationship between two variables?
r=-.31
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 10
raw score, achieved score, vs. percentage correct score; Note differences
Sublimation
redirecting repressed motives and feelings into outlets that are considered more socially acceptable Example: A person discovers that football is a perfect way to redirect one's aggressiveness.
The teacher tells his/her students, "I will not accept any student's answers until 2 minutes have passed." Such a teacher is most likely trying to help students become more
reflective
Behaviorists tend to focus upon
reinforcement
You would be better off calculating the median instead of the mean if
a few scores stood out at end of the distribution.
Constructivism is best thought of as
a form of student- centered learning.
Convergent is to ____________ as divergent is to ______________.
a single solution; multiple solutions
Kounin suggested that one problem with a teacher asking questions around the classroom based upon alphabetical order include how much
a systematic order allowed students to anticipate being called upon.
Synonym
a word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word in the language Example: The following words might be considered synonyms: joyful, elated, and glad.
The mastery learning approach
allows for students to learn from their mistakes.
Negative reinforcement is
an action that increases the likelihood of a response
The two most serious weaknesses of easy test items are
reliability of grading and limiting coverage.
When you are dealing with a measure of central tendency for a distribution with outliers, extreme high or low scores, it is advisable to
rely upon the median.
Constructing human knowledge (requires thinking or is automatic).
requires thinking
Academic success according to Erik Erikson is most related to
resolution of the industry versus inferiority stage in favor of industry.
Regression
returning to an earlier stage of development Example: A seventh grader while under extreme stress carries around a pacifier on his/her key ring and uses it when others are not looking.
Which of the following options correctly lists Piaget's stages in the proper order?
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations
When Kohlberg studied moral development, he
studied what people thought about moral dilemmas.
Mastery Learning
tends to motivate a larger number of students in the classroom than traditional approaches to learning. The average grades are higher in mastery learning while grades in traditional learning mimic the normal distribution depicted by standardized IQ test results.
Stacy does well on the practice exams when she takes them in a quiet room. Her performance on the actual exams are 30 percentage points lower than her scores on the practice exams. ___________________________
test anxiety Evidence: It seems that the pressure of the "actual" exam limits Stacy's ability to retrieve information from LTM and make logical choices.
Grading based upon the normal curve means that
the majority of student will earn average or mediocre grades such a "C" or 70%-75%.
According to Freud, the superego contains
the moral standards
Creating Learning Environments 1
classroom management vs. discipline; proactive vs. reactive; allocated time; engaged time; time on task; self-management; rules; procedures; consequences; action zone in the class; Effective Management in the Classroom: general rules, physical domain, teacher behaviors, planning, reflection
Adjacent
close to, lying near, next to Example: The real estate agent sold adjacent lots for $20,000 each.
Piaget is best considered a/an __________ as Skinner is best considered a/an __________________.
cognitive psychologist; behavioristic psychologist
One major influence of humanistic psychology upon constructivist theory is in the area of
the teacher/student relationship needed learning.
moratorium
currently in state of crisis, commitment not yet made since a time delay for exploration may be needed, likely a healthy commitment will be made
Cognitive disequilibrium is best described as
the use of constructivism.
Intellectualization
thinking abstractly about problems as a method of distancing oneself from the problem Example: A parent sits down to talk to his/her child about problems at school and eventually ends up talking about educational philosophy.
The concept of achievement is most similar to
to performance
The concept of natural ability is most similar
to potential
You are interested in selecting a test to remediate certain reading problems with your students. The demands of such a teaching task would suggest that a competent teacher should select a _____ test to perform this task.
diagnostic
Bloom and his colleagues suggested that the synthesis level relies heavily upon
divergent thinking skills.
Carl does not understand why he can't seem to get up out of bed at 6:00 a.m. in order to get ready for school. _________________________________
unconscious motivation Evidence: Carl doesn't understand why...
According to Freud, the unhealthy personality is most controlled by ______________.
unconscious process
A teacher who views teaching as both an art and a science is likely to
use methods that have been demonstrated to be ineffective.
According to achievement motivation theory, a person who clearly demonstrates fear of failure is most likely to
experience failure on a given task
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory suggested that the use of insight and creativity was most related to the _________ type of intelligence.
experimental
Distinction Between Situational, State, and Personality, Trait
explanations of human behavior. State explanations are used to describe human differential responses while trait explanations tend to explain consistency of human responses.
Reaction Formation
expression of exaggerated ideas and emotions that are directly opposite of the person's repressed thoughts and feelings Example: A man might cover up jealousy by extending great verbal praise to his fellow worker.
The behavioristic view focuses upon ___________ motivation.
extrinsic
Behavioristic view is to _____ as humanistic view is to ______.
extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation
Robert decides to take a statistics class in college without taking the recommended prerequisite of algebra. He struggles in his statistics class and receives an Early Alert. ______________________
fear of failure Evidence: Robert seems to have set himself up for this failure based upon his own choices. The class might be too difficult for him without algebra.
If you decide to engage in formative evaluation, you should
give tests periodically in order to find out how well students are progressing and to offer feedback.
The most unconscious part of personality according to Freud is the
id.
According to Freud, the inital experience of the Oedipal and Electra complexes reault in the
identification with the opposite sex parent.
According to Piaget, which of the following is NOT an impediment to logical thought in the preoperational stage?
identity diffusion
Seventeen-year old Sarah always enjoyed scoence, particularly biology and chemisrty. She dreams of enrolling in pre-veterinary medicine in college. Her mither was a housewife who never had any vocational ambitions, and her father always felt that women should focus on teaching or nursing careers. Since her parents don't encourage her in the field of veterinary medicine, Sarah eventually becomes ambivalent about her college plans, and ends up enrolling in a teacher's college. Sarah's situation is an example of
identity role confusion
Humanistic Viewpoint
includes the ideas of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow where empathy, understanding at the feeling and cognitive level, prevails and a mentally healthy state such as self-actualization is the goal.
Which of the following most accurately lists areas of multiple intelligence as identified by Howard Gardner?
intrapersonal, musical, interpersonal, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, and logical/ mathematical
The humanistic view focuses upon ___________ motivation.
intrinsic
Susan plays the violin because she loves music and claims that, "Hearing myself play the violin makes me practice even more in order to master this instrument." We are likely to conclude that Susan's primary motivation is
intrinsic.
Piaget believed that students were most highly motivated to learn when students are
intrinsically motivated to learn the content of the lesson.
Kounin's concept of withitness means that a teacher
is alert and watchful in the classroom for trouble to start
Achievement Motivation Theory
is an expectancy/value theory. Student expectations of success and failure are crucial to predicting performance. The value element implies that students may or may not see a particular activity as valuable or important.
Canter's assertive discipline approach to classroom management
is derived from behavioral psychology.
Transference
is projection from client or student onto the therapist or teacher.
Countertransference
is projection from the therapist or teacher onto the client or student.
Vicarious Learning
is second-hand learning rather than learning through first-hand, personal, experience.
Norm-referenced grading
is used to compare one student to another.
Correlational studies and the correlation coefficient values tell us about (linear or curvilinear) relationships.
linear
Displacement
misdirecting repressed motives and emotions from an original subject to a substitute object Example: After an argument with the boss, a worker comes home and kicks the dog lying in front of the fireplace.
What is the typical nature of the correlation coefficient that is likely to be found between the height and weight of adults?
moderately positive
According to the behavioristic view, the concept of successive approximations is most related to the
molding process.
You are interested in predicting Susan's overall success in high school next year. Without any additional information, the best predictor of her school achievement would be
Academic self-concept.
Vicarious experiences
Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else.
Withitness
According to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom.
Humanistic interpretation
Approach to motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth.
Action zone
Area of a classroom where the greatest amount of interaction takes place.
Mirror systems
Areas of the brain that fire both during perception of an action by someone else and when performing the action.
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 3
1st level: The most basic need is for human physical survival: needs for food, liquid, shelter, sex, sleep, and oxygen. Since these needs are related to other human needs and there are many ways to satisfy such physiological needs, some methods of satisfying needs can be unhealthy, e.g., smoking, stealing.
If the scores on an IQ Test, Mean=100; sd=15, are normally distributed, what percentage of the normal population would you expect to find between the IQ scores of 70 and 130?
95%
Which of the following correctly identifies the concepts with the designated points of view in psychology?
Cognitive View: divergent thinking, intrinsic motivation, disequilibrium, constructivism.
Cognitive Views of Learning 1
Cognitive Viewpoint of Learning: forms of knowledge: general, domain-specific, declarative, procedural, conditional, information processing.
Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 4
Cognitive behavior modification, Donald Meichenbaum, self talk, Four Views of learning Table 11.3, p. 423
Universal Design
Considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or Web sites.
Reliability
Consistency of test results.
Complex Cognitive Processes 2
David Ausubel's advance organizers & meaningful reception learning
Complex Cognitive Processes 13
David Ausubel's advance organizers & meaningful reception learning.
Presentation punishment
Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior; also called Type 1 punishment.
Removal punishment
Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior; also called Type 2 punishment.
Which of the following best represents deductive thinking?
Deductive thinking move from a general statement to a more specific statement based upon logic. Option a is the best choice here. Bob's specific behavior of wearing a $500 suit is predictable based upon the general premise that rich people wear expensive clothing. Note that option d describes the inductive approach (specific findings are used to form a broader generalization).
Psychosocial
Describing the relation of the individual's emotional needs to the social environments.
Attribution theories
Descriptions of how individuals' explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior.
Reciprocal teaching
Designed to help students understand and think deeply about what they read.
Microgenetic studies
Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds over a several-day or several-week period of time.
Epilepsy
Disorder marked by seizures and caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain.
Culturally relevant pedagogy
Excellent teaching for students of color that includes academic success, developing/maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo.
Pygmalion Effect
Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for mythological king, Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life.
(Correlational or Experimental) studies best depict "true" cause and effect relationships between variables.
Experimental
Transfer
Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive ,not reproductive, uses of cognitive tools and motivations.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 20
Item-analysis techniques, difficulty and discrimination, established psychometric techniques can be used to objectively judge individual test items, e.g., multiple-choice items, item-analysis techniques can answer questions like: Which m/c items do I keep, modify, or discard?
Behavioral Views of Learning 4
Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning): CS conditioned stimulus, CR conditioned response, UCS unconditioned stimulus, UCR unconditioned response, reflexive response, famous dog experiment, generalization and discrimination, extinction.
Creating Learning Environments 2
Jacob Kounin's ideas about successful managers: with-it-ness, overlapping, managing several ongoing activities, ripple effect, movement management, pacing the lesson, group focusing, avoiding satiation, students believe they are full of knowledge and no longer need to learn, good managers are proactive
Kohlberg was hopeful that moral development could be improved in society with stronger social authority components rather than promoting a situation where each person learns to think critically about moral dilemmas and live by such personal beliefs.
False
What makes defense mechanisms unique is the fact that they function only at the conscious level and have no unconscious basis.
False
Which of the following statements is true?
Free recall is normally thought to be more difficult than recognition, since the correct answer is right in front of the person in a recognition task. Free recall requires that a person draw upon an unlimited number of possible options.
Legitimate peripheral participation
Genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small.
Intellectual disabilities/ Mental retardation
Significantly below-average intellectual and adaptive social behavior, evident before age 18.
Which of the following INCORRECTLY lists a field of study with its categorical name?
Social Sciences: modern history, philosophy, and economics
Social learning theory suggests that...
Social learning theory suggests that we learn from interpreting and understanding the social environment. In many ways this perspective borrows from behavioristic and cognitive psychology. Option d offers the best blending of the cognitive interpretation of the social environment as a tool to understand human behavior. Note that it is possible for psychologists to be interested in cognition and the environment (Piaget was known as an interactionist).
Social reconstructivism suggests that...
Social reconstructivism proposes that we should consciously work to change and modify (reconstruct) society in ways that are more meaningful and equitable to people in today's society. Strengthening superego development is a psychoanalytic construct. Social reconstructivism could be though as reinventing society rather than government.
Sustaining Expectation Effect
Student performance is maintained as a certain level because teachers don't recognize improvements.
The cognitive theorists, Piaget and Kohlberg, see the topic of motivation in terms of
Student self-motivational factors.
Vicarious learning is best described as a situation where
Students learn best through observing others.
Production deficiency
Students learn problem-solving strategies, but do not apply them when they could or should.
Self-handicapping
Students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability.
Complex Cognitive Processes 1
Students need to understand the application and transfer of knowledge. Metacognition and self-regulation as learning strategies.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving. The support would be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problems down into steps, providing an example or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner.
Task analysis
System for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills.
Token reinforcement system
System in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward.
Keyword method
System of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images.
Within-class Ability Grouping
System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences.
Sensory memory
System that holds sensory information very briefly.
Behavior modification
Systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior.
Direct Instruction/Explicit Teaching
Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information.
Single-subject experimental studies
Systematic interventions to study effects with one person, often by applying and then withdrawing a treatment.
Action research
Systematic observations or test of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students.
Learning Management System (LMS)
Systems that deliver e-learning, provide tools and learning materials, keep records, administer assessments, and manage learning.
Culturally responsive management
Taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students.
Self-instruction
Talking oneself through the steps of a task.
Authentic task
Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom.
Teaching Every Student 4
Taxonomy: cognitive domain, affective domain, psychomotor domain: social domain
Test experts vs. teacher made tests
Test experts, psychometricians, who understand statistics and test theory create standardized tests. Most classroom teachers who make teacher-made tests are not so well trained in these areas. One serious problem is that the content covered on standardized tests often fails to match the local curriculum or what students have learned in the classroom. Teachers often create weak psychometric tools.
Criterion-Referenced Testing
Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard.
Norm-Reference Testing
Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others.
Top-down
Making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the situation; sometimes called conceptually drivien perception.
Accountable
Making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with high-stakes tests.
Teaching Every Student 9
Mary Budd Rowe's concept of "wait-time", students should be reflecting and thinking during this delay between when a question is asked and the response is given
Deficiency needs
Maslow's four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first.
Maria struggles in 3rd grade because she recently arrived in New York City from Puerto Rico and the other students refer to her as "different." ____________________________
Maslow's love and belongingness needs Evidence: Maria is called "different" and this could mean that she is not accepted as a person
Hierarchy of needs
Maslow's model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization.
Being needs
Maslow's three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs.
Grade-Equivalent Score
Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade.
Standard Deviation
Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean.
Event-related potential, ERP
Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp.
Problem-based learning
Methods that provide students with realistic problems that don't necessarily have right answers.
Multiple-choice test items can tap [only lower level retrieval skills or easily memorized material and also higher level thinking skills].
Multiple-choice test items can tap easily memorized material and also higher level thinking skills.
distinctions [strengths and weaknesses] between essay and multiple-choice tests [think about issues such as depth of coverage, breadth of coverage, ease of scoring, etc.]
Multiple-choice tests CAN measure higher levels of reasoning.
Objective Testing
Multiple-choice, matching, true/false, short-answer, and fill-in tests; scoring answers does not require interpretation.
Premack principle
Principle stating that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.
Identity
Principle that a person or object remains the same over time.
Conservation
Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 18
Psychometrician, psychometric, psychological measurement, characteristics of tests, validity and reliability, content validity, issue of a match between class/book coverage and content of exam
Erikson versus Freud
Psychosocial versus psychosexual development
Response cost
Punishment by loss of reinforcers.
Verbalization
Putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words.
Assessment Bias
Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students' gender, SES, race, ethnicity, etc.
Defining attribute
Qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept.
Culture and Diversity 4
Schools are microsocieties; multicultural education; cultural pluralism; social reconstructivism (re-shaping or reconstructing society); cultural compatibility in classrooms is a major goal here; respect for cultures; recognition of individual differences such as; ethnicity, racial backgrounds, religious beliefs, languages, social classes, SES, abilities/disabilities, nationalities, gender, geographical differences, etc.
Different teacher behaviors related to the science and the art of teaching
Science is related to objectivity and empirical measurement. Art is related to subjectivity and often defies empirical measurement.
Science of teaching is to [objective or subjective] elements as art of teaching is to [subjective or objective] elements.
Science of teaching is to objective elements as art of teaching is to subjective elements.
Science of teaching is to [qualitative or quantitative] elements as art of teaching is to [quantitative or qualitative] elements.
Science of teaching is to quantitative elements as art of teaching is to qualitative elements.
Deviation IQ
Score based on a statistical comparison of an individual's performance with the average performance of others in that age group.
Intelligence quotient, IQ
Score comparing mental and chronological ages.
Which of the following distributions would require that you use the median rather than the mean?
Scores of 63, 51, 101, 87, 23, 301, 43, 52, 93
Propositional network
Set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held.
Which of the following statements is true about sex differences in cognitive abilities?
Sex differences appear to be getting smaller. Boys appear to be superior in spatial skills and math reasoning. Girls appear to be superior in verbal skills.
Gender identity
The sense of self as male or female as well as the beliefs one has about gender roles and attributes.
Lateralization
The specialization of the two hemispheres, sides, of the brains cortex.
Mid-stream adjustments
These are corrections or changes made somewhere near the middle of a task or process in an attempt to positively influence the outcome.
A high negative correlation indicates that the variables are strongly related in an inverse fashion.
True
A student who responds to a teacher's question very rapidly without thinking is best thought of as being impulsive rather than reflective.
True
According to Freud, the healthy resolution of the Oedipal and Electra complexes results in the identification with the same-sex parent.
True
Albert Bandura believed that reciprocal determinism or interactionism provided the best approach to understanding behavior.
True
Albert Bandura eventually believed that behaviorism was inadequate for fully explaining behavior and later in his career became a cognitive psychologist.
True
Albert Bandura started out as a behavioristic psychologist with his Bobo Doll study and eventually became a cognitive psychologist by studying self-efficacy.
True
An operational definition of a variable or behavioral event is strongly related to the scientific viewpoint.
True
As an interactionist, Piaget believed that the individual and the environment were both crucial for development.
True
Behavioristic psychologists believe that extrinsic factors are more powerful predictors of behavior than intrinsic factors.
True
Behavioristic psychology suggests that behavior can be best modified through the control of rewards and punishments in the environment.
True
Cognitive behavior modification (CBM) is distinctive from behavior modification, because CBM relies upon interactionism and reciprocal determinism.
True
Correlational studies do not indicate cause and effect relationships, but rather how two variables are related to one another.
True
Erikson's identity crisis and Piaget's formal operational thinking are both typically and theoretically found at about the same point in the human life-span.
True
Fear of failure tends to promote the use of defensive behaviors.
True
The ideals of multicultural education and social reconstructivism celebrate individual differences and promote equity and respect for all people.
True
The motive to approach success promotes success, since in this personality mode a student is less defensive and able to learn from his/her educational experiences.
True
The motive to avoid failure and fear of failure are two terms for the same theoretical construct of personality that leads to repeated failure rather than success.
True
The use of statistics to make decisions is based upon the objective scientific method.
True
When a psychologist employs a survey scale to measure test anxiety, he/she is essentially trying to measure a subjective human characteristic in the most objective manner as possible.
True
Which of the following statements is true?
Validity guarantees reliability.
Metamemory
a more narrow term, thinking about our memory processes
The socio-emotional, attitudinal, and non-verbal elements of behavior are most associated with the _____ domain.
affective
Constructivism is best thought of as
an individualized process of acquiring new knowledge.
Which of the following statements is true about the Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain?
analysis comes before synthesis
According to the behavior modification approach to classroom discipline, misbehavior should be punished
after minor instances have been disregarded and appropriate behavior has been highlighted
Kounin
discovered that successful teachers were more proactive, than reactive, and had students spending greater time on educational tasks in the classroom. He also found that good and poor managers often lacked the ability to handle serious behavioral disruptions in the classroom.
Reliability is
easier to determine statistically than validity.
The study of self-esteem is most related to the ______ domain.
effective
Behavior Modification
employs all of the concepts from the behavioristic viewpoint: reward, punishment, shaping, manipulation of the environment, S--R, conditioning theory, etc.
Product is most similar to _____ as process is most similar to ______.
end result; procedure
Sue believes that she lacks the ability to learn French in the 7th grade. "Either you have this language skill or you don't," she says. _____________________________________
entity view of ability Evidence: Sue seems to believe in the entity view [you either have such intelligence or you do not] in contrast to the incremental view where such "smarts" can increased over time.
A true cause and effect relationship between variables can only be determined by carefully controlled
experimental studies.
Scientific advancements such as landing a human being on the moon have been made possible through the use of (existentialism or experimentalism).
experimentalism
The six levels of the Taxonomy developed by Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues best describes the _____ domain.
cognitive
Identity
occurs around adolescence and is the reinvention of one's unique self; a healthy personality is created by keeping, tossing out, and modifying childhood identifications
Student Attributions
include the causal explanations given for success or failure, Relevant Question: Why did I succeed or fail?. Most common explanations include: ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty. Remember on the exam you might have to identity words or phrases that come close to the meaning of ability, effort, luck, & task difficulty.
The best alternative and synonymous term for mainstreaming students in the schools would be
inclusion.
One traditional view of intelligence, mental age divided by chronological age, proposed that
increased age requires more correct responses to maintain the same level of intelligence.
Cognitive psychology maintains the principle of reciprocal determinism where the
interaction of the person and the environment is most important
Intuition
is a deeply personal and often at best poorly understood decision making or judgment making approach that is usually accurate or appropriate.
Seligman suggested that achievement is likely to be greatest when a person adopts the ____________ mode.
learning hopefulness
Accidental or incidental learning
learning that is unplanned or unanticipated, but might be very important
PL 94-142 speaks of the need for students being able to learn in the
least restrictive environment.
General objectives like Gronlund suggested seem to lead to
more incidental learning than specific objectives.
Imagine that you examined the scores of two students who took the same test using different/ equivalent forms one month apart. Jim scored 85% on the first test and 49% on the second test. Jane scored 64% on the first test and 87% on the second test. If you were willing to assume that the scores of other students followed this pattern, which of the following could be verified from this pattern?
low reliability
The mastery approach to learning tends to create a grade distribution that contains
mostly high grades.
Rationalization
providing what might appear to be a logical or plausible reason for behavior when the underlying motives have been repressed. Example: A person's violent action is explained by the fact that the victim really deserved to be beaten.
Which of the following options make the best match? Motive to approach success is similar to __________ as motive to avoid failure is similar to __________.
self efficacy/ learned helplessness
The cognitive dimension of self-perception is best called
self-concept.
Your high school decides to develop a cumulative exam so that students must pass this exam in order to earn their high school diploma. This exam would be best thought of as an example of _____ evaluation.
summative
Ripple effect
"Contagious" spreading of behaviors through imitation.
The concept of level of aspiration is most associated with the idea of
"What do I want to accomplish in school?"
Summary of Erik Erikson's Identity Formation from his Original Writings
"identity...is not the sum of childhood identifications, but rather a new combination of old and new identification fragments" (Erikson, 1964, p. 90). Identity "is the accrued experience of the ego's ability to integrate all identifications with the vicissitudes of the libido, with the aptitudes developed out of endowment, and with the opportunities offered in social roles" (Erikson, 1963, p. 228).
Reward
An attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a behavior.
Incremental view of ability
Belief that ability is a set of skills that can be changed.
Self-efficacy
Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation.
Epistemological beliefs
Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned.
Measurement
An evaluation expression in quantitative, numbers, terms.
Theory-based
An explanation for concept formation that suggests our classifications are based on ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things.
Triarchic reciprocal causality
An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other.
Motivation
An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior.
Stimulus control
Capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors.
Physical development
Changes in body structure and function over time.
Personal development
Changes in personality that take place as one grows.
Taxonomy
Classification system.
Teaching Every Student 6
Classroom questions: convergent; divergent: Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain applied to questions; inability to recall information from LTM, mental blocks, can create anxiety
Instructional Objectives
Clear statements of what students are intended to learn through instruction.
Assertive discipline
Clear, firm, unhostile response style.
Articulation disorders
Any of a variety of pronunciation difficulties, such as the substitution, distortion, or omission of sounds.
Cognitive psychology is most likely to employ the concept of, shaping or constructivism.
Cognitive psychology is most likely to employ the concept of constructivism.
Service learning
Combines academic learning with personal and social development for secondary and college students.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 21
Comparison and contrast: multiple-choice items versus essay exam items; quality multiple-choice items take a great deal of time to develop and field test, machine scoring of exams is quick and easy: quality essay items are relatively quick to generate, scoring is often subjective, time consuming, and depends upon intervening variables such as prose format, choice of examples, writing skills, etc.: one method of improving the scoring of essay items is to create a response or rubric sheet that lists acceptable answers, this needs to be constantly updated as you discover new student answers that are acceptable; Remember that m/c items can tap higher-ordered thinking.
Teaching Every Student 8
Competition versus cooperation in the classroom, need for balance in the classroom
Short-term memory
Component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds.
Cerebral palsy
Condition involving a range of motor or coordination difficulties due to brain damage.
Domain-specific strategies
Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem.
Multiple representations of content
Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors.
Creativity is most related to the idea of...
Creativity is most strongly related to divergent thinking. Functional fixedness refers to a mental state where the person experiences a creative mental block. Convergent thinking is in many ways antithetical to creative thinking.
Distinctions between criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests
Criterion-referenced tests demand a clear-cut, well-established standard of excellence.
Reprimands
Criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes.
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, ADHD
Current term for disruptive behavior disorders marked by overactivity, excessive difficulty sustaining attention, or impulsiveness.
Autism/Autism spectrum disorders
Developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3 and ranging from mild to major.
John Dewey
Dewey attended college in his hometown and graduated with Phi Beta Kappa honors from the University of Vermont (UVM) with a Bachelor of Arts degree. After teaching high school in Pennsylvania and Vermont, he decided to enter a doctoral program at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.
Industry
Eagerness to engage in productive work.
Multicultural education
Education that promotes equity in the schooling of all students.
The motive to achieve success is most related to _____ as the motive to avoid failure is most related to_____.
Facilitative, debilitative.
An operational definition of a variable or behavioral event is most strongly related to a highly subjective judgment.
False
Behavioristic psychology relies upon depth psychology or the psychoanalytic concepts of unconscious motivation to explain behavior.
False
Convergent thinking and creative thinking describe the same cognitive events.
False
One of the major goals of a scientist is to approach a problem from a subjective rather than objective viewpoint.
False
Operant conditioning theory relies upon the actualizing of one's potential rather than the change of behavior.
False
Operant conditioning theory relies upon the shaping of the affective domain rather than behavior.
False
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, ADA
Federal legislation prohibition discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, transportation, public access, local government, and telecommunications.
The enactive mode of learning proposed by Jerome Bruner suggests that people learn best as a result of
First-hand involvement in the learning process.
Assimilation
Fitting new information into existing schemes.
Integration
Fitting the child with special needs into existing class structures.
Attention
Focus on a stimulus.
Decentering
Focusing on more than one aspect at a time.
Define the following in terms of crisis and commitment
Foreclosure: Crisis: No Commitment: Yes Moratorium: Crisis: Yes Commitment: No Identity: Crisis: Yes Commitment: Yes
Collective monologue
Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate.
Piaget's stage that best fits adolescence or preadolescence is called
Formal Operations
Concepts of formative and summative evaluation
Formative evaluation always occurs prior to summative evaluation. Summative evaluation always occurs at some established "end-point" in time.
Formative evaluation occurs during the [middle of the semester or end of the semester] as summative evaluation occurs during the [middle of the semester or end of the semester].
Formative evaluation occurs during the middle of the semester as summative evaluation occurs during the end of the semester.
Personal Learning Network (PLN)
Framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions.
John Dewey 6
Frederick Mayer (1973) offered an excellent summary of one of Dewey's contributions to education: Traditional education had been teacher-centered. The teacher was the basis of the educative process. Dewey advocated that the interests of students should be liberalized in order to avoid departmentalization... In the traditional school, the student would be submissive and subordinate his individuality to that of the class...Dewey attacked the schools of his time because they discouraged active investigation and intellectual inquiry.
The type of forgetting which is most linked to unconscious origins is termed _____.
Freud believed that some forgetting could be understood by examining the unconscious process of repression.
Grades
Grades that are normally distributed match the normal [bell-shaped] curve where mean=median=mode and most students earn mediocre grades. Grades that are earned under a mastery approach are represented by a skewed distribution [non-normal distribution] where the median is greater that the mean and most students achieve at high levels.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 15
Grading issues: fairness, defensible judgments, equity
Cognitive development
Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated.
Transition programming
Gradual preparation of students with special needs to move from high school into further education or training, employment, or community involvement.
Classification
Grouping objects into categories.
Lee Shulman's 7 areas of professional knowledge
1. The academic subjects they teach their content knowledge is deep and interconnected. 2. General teaching strategies that apply in all subjects, classroom management, effective teaching, evaluation. 3. The curriculum materials and programs appropriate for subject and grade level. 4. Subject specific knowledge for teaching: teaching different students and concepts. 5. The characteristics and cultural backgrounds of learners. 6. The settings in which students learn. 7. The goals and purpose of teaching.
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 6
4th level: Self Esteem needs include self respect and esteem from others. Healthy self esteem is the result of deserved respect from others rather than unwarranted or universally given rewards. Please note that this level can only be satisfied after previous needs have been satisfied, e.g., Someone [at least a few, but not everyone] must love you before you can love and respect yourself--humans are social beings.
Means-ends analysis
Heuristic in which a goal is divided into subgoals.
Analogical thinking
Heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one at hand.
Working-backward strategy
Heuristic in which one starts with the goal and moves backward to solve the problem.
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 7
5th level: Self actualization is a mentally healthy growth state that includes reaching one's potential, seeking truth, beauty, justice, individuality, goodness, etc. Maslow also offered some descriptions of what this person might be like: respect for self, self understanding, humanitarian nature, peak experiences, healthy sense of humor, democratic character, search for justice, problem-centered not self-centered, etc. This is probably a process rather than a consistent state of being, so a person is always striving to reach this level.
Virtual Learning Environments (VLE)
A broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual or online systems.
Concept
A category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people.
Reversibility
A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations- the ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point.
Portfolio
A collection of the student's work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement.
Intersubjective attitude
A commitment to build shared meaning with others by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations.
Sexual identity
A complex combination of beliefs about gender roles and sexual orientation.
Contingency contract
A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to learn a particular reward or privilege.
A diagnostic test tells you about a student's [strengths only or weaknesses only or strengths and weaknesses].
A diagnostic test tells you about a student's strengths and weaknesses.
Handicap
A disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability.
Concept map
A drawing that charts the relationships among ideas.
READS
A five-step reading strategy: Review headings; Examine boldface words; Ask, "What do I expect to learn?"; Do it-Read; Summarize in your own words.
Differentiated Instruction
A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs.
First wave constructivism
A focus on the individual and psychological source of knowing, as in Piaget's theory.
Second wave constructivism
A focus on the social and cultural sources of knowing, as in Vygotsky's theory.
Overt aggression
A form of hostile aggression that involves physical attack.
Section 504
A part of civil rights law that prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in programs that receive federal funds, such as public schools.
Exhibition
A performance test or demonstration test or demonstration of learning that is public and usually takes an extended time to prepare.
Prompt
A reminder that follows a cue to make sure the person reacts to the cue.
Generalized seizure
A seizure involving a large portion of the brain.
Absence seizure
A seizure involving only a small part of the brain that causes a child to lose contact briefly.
Immersive Virtual Learning Environment (IVLE)
A simulation of a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum.
Developmental crisis
A specific conflict whose resolution prepares the way for the next stage.
CAPS
A strategy that can be used in reading literature: Characters, Aim of story, Problem, Solution.
The ripple effect is most like
A subtle influential force that radiates in a social environment.
Which of the following does not provide an example of why with-it-ness is so important in the classroom?
A teacher would like to see students "agree with" his/her points of view on the classroom topic.
Teachers' sense of efficacy
A teacher's belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.
Pervasive development disorder, PDD
A term favored by the medical community to describe autism spectrum disorders.
Culture-Fair/ Culture-Free Test
A test without culture bias.
Triarchic theory of successful intelligence
A three-part description of the mental abilities, thinking processes, coping with new experiences, and adapting to context, that lead to more or less intelligent behavior.
Sometimes problems are vaguely stated and the solution is likely to be arrived at through unclear procedures. This type of problem is most likely a (an)...
A vaguely stated problem without clear references as to how to proceed is best termed an ill-structured problem. All the other options refer to problem situations with considerable more structure and agreed upon methods to interpret the solution to the problem.
Which of the following best matches the description of a correlation value of r=+.83?
A very high predictive relationship exists between these variables.
Self-regulated learning
A view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out.
Intelligence
Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world.
Empiric
Based on systematically collected data.
Cloud computing
Allows computer users to access applications, such as a Google document or Microsoft Web Mail, as well as computing assets such as network-accessible data storage and processing to use online applications.
Accommodation
Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI
An MRI is an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field along with radio waves and a computer to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body. A functional MRI uses the MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during the activity.
Exemplar
An actual memory of a specific object.
An actualizing behavior is a ,humanistic or behavioristic, concept meaning to make more real or genuine in the present moment.
An actualizing behavior is a humanistic concept meaning to make more real or genuine in the present moment.
Abby carefully observes other students when they are making a speech in front of the class. She uses this information to improve her own public speaking. _____________________________
vicarious experiences Evidence: Abby learns by watching others, thus this is a form of second-hand learning rather than first-hand experience.
A scatterplot can display the relationship between two vaiables
whether the variables are linear or non- linear.
An item analysis preformed on exam items can be used to determine
which items should be revised, discarded, or retained.
A criterion-reference test should be used when you
wish to compare individual performance to stated criteria which are highly measurable.
Student Aspirations
would include goal setting and expectations for the anticipated level of achievement in a classroom setting.
If grading was done strictly according to the normal curve,
you could predict in advance the distribution of grades.
Which of the following is true?
Humanistic psychology is most related to existentialism.
Standard Error of Measurement
Hypothetical estimate of variation in scores if testing were repeated.
Approximate percentage of the population represented by specific IQ scores based upon the normal distribution
If the given conditions of a normal distribution include mean=100/sd=15 points, you should be able to determine the approximate area under the normal curve for different IQ score ranges.
The achievement of the "melting pot" concept suggests that...
If we were to ever achieve the "melting pot" concept, there would be little or no human uniqueness represented in society as represented by the term "cultural pluralism." Remember that our society could most accurately be described as a situation where the "contents of the pot in many respects never melted."
Mental age
In intelligence testing, a performance that represents average abilities for that age group.
Speech disorder
Inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking.
Case study
Intensive study of one person or one situation.
Complex Cognitive Processes 12
Jerome Bruner's discovery learning-inquiry method, intuition, structure of knowledge in a field or subject, inductive reasoning is valued over deductive reasoning, enactive mode (learning by doing), vicarious learning, spiral curriculum deductive (general--specific), inductive (specific--general) strengths and weaknesses of discovery learning.
John Dewey 4
John Dewey was a revolutionary thinker who had and continues to have influence upon education, psychology, and philosophy. It has been said by some that Dewey started out as a psychologist and became a philosopher. Dewey's influence on the field of psychology can be seen as the historical foundation for the theories developed by Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Carl Rogers, and many others. During his lifetime of 93 years, Dewey wrote some 40 books and over 700 articles. In his day, Dewey promoted what was known as progressive education.
Complex Cognitive Processes 3
John Dewey's "learning by doing" and inquiry learning, early origin of constructivism, complex ideas, see Appendix I
Coactions
Joint actions of individual biology and the environment- each shapes and influences the other.
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common.
Elaborative rehearsal
Keeping information in working memory by associating it with something else you already know.
Conditioned response (CR)
Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Massed practice
Practice for a single extended period.
Distributed practice
Practice in brief periods with rest intervals.
Evidence-based practice in psychology, EBPP
Practices that integrate the best available research with the insights of expert practitioners and knowledge of the characteristics, culture, and preferences of the client.
Overlearning
Practicing a skill past the point of mastery.
Positive practice
Practicing correct responses immediately after errors.
Internalize
Process whereby children adopt external standards as their own.
Interference
Processing new information interferes or gets confused with old information.
Convergent Questions
Questions that have a single correct answer.
Divergent Questions
Questions that have no single correct answer.
Confidence Interval
Range of scores within which an individual's particular score is likely to fall.
One way of avoiding satiation is for the teacher to
Rely upon the use of more intrinsic motivation.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 7
Self-Efficacy: Albert Bandura: efficacy is described as competence or effectiveness in a given area; mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion and feedback; efficacy, effectiveness, of teachers has also been studied
Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 2
Self-efficacy applies to teachers as well as students
Which of the following is true regarding Maslow's Hierarchy?
Self-esteem comes after love and belongingness.
Generativity
Sense of concern for future generations.
Moral dilemma
Situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right.
Achievement Tests
Standardized tests measuring how much students have learned in a given content area.
High-Stakes Testing
Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions.
The fact that Jim learns well in drawing class, but performs poorly in sculpture class suggest that
State motivation is at work here.
Advance Organizer
Statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows.
Rules
Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don'ts.
Correlations
Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related.
Algorithm
Step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; prescription for solutions.
Neutral Stimulus
Stimulus not connected to a response.
Which of the following is not a strength of the cooperative learning approach as proposed by Robert Slavin?
Students of similar ability levels learn how to work with students who are mostly like they are.
Failure-avoiding students
Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance.
Failure-accepting students
Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it.
Work-avoidant learners
Students who don't want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work.
Mastery-oriented students
Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable.
Reciprocal questioning
Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material.
Structured controversy
Students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a particular controversy.
Shared regulation
Students working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance.
Insight
Sudden realization of a solution.
Which of the following best captures the issue of accountability in education?
Teachers must be able to demonstrate evidence that students have learned during the year.
Standardized Tests
Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures.
The ability to detect the unique characteristics of two objects is most associated with, discrimination or generalization.
The ability to detect the unique characteristics of two objects is most associated with discrimination.
Group focus
The ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities.
Automaticity
The ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort.
The situation where your need to remember a person's name from all of the names that you have ever heard is best called...
The ability to recall one name from a multitude of different possible options is best termed free recall. The free recall task is often compared and contrasted with recognition task which ask you to select the correct answer from only a few options.
The ability to see a similarity between two objects is most associated with,discrimination or generalization.
The ability to see a similarity between two objects is most associated with generalization.
Semiotic function
The ability to use symbols- language, pictures, signs, or gestures- to represent actions or objects mentally.
The actual mechanical scoring of multiple-choice tests is very [objective or subjective] while deciding which answer is best by the teacher might allow for some [objectivity or subjectivity].
The actual mechanical scoring of multiple-choice tests is very objective while deciding which answer is best by the teacher might allow for some subjectivity.
Applied behavior analysis
The application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior.
Manipulation
The artful, skillful, or expert handling of an implement or situation for some particular purpose.
Plasticity
The brain's tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible.
Learned helplessness
The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one's efforts will lead to failure.
Learned helplessness
The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all one's efforts will lead to failure.
The expected goals or outcomes of negative reinforcement and punishment are, the same or different.
The expected goals or outcomes of negative reinforcement and punishment are different.
Stereotype threat
The extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you.
Importance/Attainment value
The importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs.
Disability
The inability to do something specific such as walk or hear.
The term reciprocal determinism is closest to the concept of
The individual being most influential
The information processing model is best understood as a representation of the _____ viewpoint and employs the _____ as a metaphor.
The information processing model is most directly related to the cognitive perspective or view in psychology and this model uses the computer as a metaphor for taking in, storing, and retrieving information. Note that the fact that the information processing model refers to stimuli entering the system from the environment is only a minor portion of the model. This model is much more concerned with what happens to the stimulus after it has entered the system.
Working memory
The information that you are focusing on at a given moment.
A popularly used mnemonic device might help a student remember that the color _____ is located between colors of orange and green on the spectrum.
The mnemonic device "ROYGBIV" helps you remember that the color yellow lies between orange and green on the spectrum.
Normal Distribution
The most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean.
Central executive
The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.
Context
The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event.
Episodic buffer
The process that brings together and integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory under that supervision of the central executive.
Neurogenesis
The production of new neurons.
Stem
The question part of a multiple-choice item.
Cultural tools
The real tools, computers, scales, etc., and symbols systems, numbers, language, graphs, that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge.
Intrinsic cognitive load
The resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli.
Extraneous cognitive load
The resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task.
A student who is taking a course in educational psychology for the first time scans through the information processing theory chapter in this test and notes the word "metacognition," which is unfamiliar. In information processing terminology, the student's selective focusing is known as...
The student's selective focusing--noting that the word metacognition is unfamiliar is a signal that the student has paid attention to this new word. Elaborative rehearsal could be used after paying attention to the word as important and unfamiliar.
Sociolinguistics
The study of the formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and how long to speak in conversations within cultural groups.
Motivation to learn
The tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them.
Belief perseverance
The tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence.
Serial-position effect
The tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of a list.
Moral reasoning
The thinking process involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong.
Synapses
The tiny space between neurons- chemical messages are sent across these gaps.
Self-esteem
The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors.
Cognitive load
The volume of resources necessary to complete a task.
Goal structure
The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal.
Parenting style
The ways of interacting with and disciplining children.
Decay
The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time.
Glial cells
The white matter of the brain. These cells greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating around axon fibers.
Levels of processing theory
Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed.
Reversible thinking
Thinking backward, from the end of the beginning.
If you ask students the same question by offering two different examples and you find that they correctly answer each question, you are likely to conclude that...
This situation describes when transfer or application has taken place. The use of a particular cognitive strategy or the meaningfulness of the content cannot be inferred from the information provided.
Allocated time
Time set aside for learning.
Engaged time/Time on task
Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand.
According to Freud, logical reasoning and effective problem solving comes from ego strength.
True
According to Freud, the healthy personality is based upon an awareness of unconscious motives without being dominated by unconscious motives.
True
An algorithm is a logical and rational step-by-step solution to a problem.
True
Need for achievement (n-Ach) is another term in achievement motivation theory for the motive to approach success and such a personality trait usually leads to success experiences.
True
Neutral transfer is when the first learning experience has no direct impact upon the second learning experience.
True
Operant conditioning theory relies upon the shaping of behavior through rewarding successive approximations to a goal.
True
Central Tendency
Typical score for a group of scores.
Low vision
Vision limited to close objects.
Stanine Scores
Whole number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores.
Covert
Why you pull the lever on the slot machine at the casino.
Antonym
a word having the opposite or nearly opposite meaning as another word in the language Example: The following pairs of words might be considered antonyms: up and down, in and out, and black and white.
In order to reduce the effects of the self-fulfilling prophecy outcome in evaluation, a competent teacher should
ask students to put their names on the back of essay exams.
The best synonym for evaluation is
assessment.
Bill claims he did well on the test because he wore his "lucky" socks. _______________
attribution theory—luck Evidence: Bill employs luck as an explanation of success which is uncontrollable and external.
Nature is to _____ as nurture is to ____.
biology; environment
A psychological theorist who claims to be an interactionist is most likely to believe that the influences of
both nature and nurture are critical to development.
Cognitive Psychologists
called interactionists
Which of the following best describes Erikson's view of a mentally healthy person?
generativity, trust, industry, initiative, integrity, intimacy, identity, and autonomy
Defensible
grading system would be supported by logic, reason, and empirical comparisons
A person who functions primarily on intuition finds it _________ to explain the details of personal actions to others.
hard
A person who functions primarily upon intuition finds it _________ to understand the frustrations of others on the same task.
hard
Experimental is most strongly related to (feelings & personal values or hard science) as experiential is most strongly related to (feelings & personal values or hard science).
hard science / feelings & personal values
Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the best test-retest reliability?
r=+.86
Students who properly employ the self-regulated approach to learning are most likely to
successfully combine knowledge, motivation, and volition in order to learn.
Libido
the energy source behind drives
When a psychologist is labeled an interventionist, this means that this person believes that
the environment influences people and people influence their environment.
A psychologist decides to solve a problem by collectig data through careful observation, formulating a hypothesis about empirically. the psychologist is using
the scientific method
Operations
Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions.
Priming
Activating a concept in memory of the spread of activation from one concept to another.
Elaboration
Adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge.
Adaption
Adjustment to the environment.
Warm demanders
Effective teachers with African American students who show both high expectations and great caring for their students.
Teaching Every Student 10
Effective use of praise
Social persuasion
A "pep talk" or specific performance feedback- one source of self-efficacy.
Adolescent egocentrism
Assumption that everyone else shares one's thoughts, feelings, and concerns.
Hostile aggression
Bold, direct action that is intended to hurt someone else; unprovoked attack.
Which of the following is not a learning strategy promoted by Jerome Bruner?
Elaborative rehearsal.
According to Erikson and Marcia, a moratorium results from a situation where a commitment has been made without a crisis.
False
According to Erikson and Marcia, foreclosure includes a personal crisis and no commitment.
False
According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, identity and autonomy issues initially occur at the stages that are adjacent (next to each other) and therefore at the same point in the human life-span.
False
Pretest
Formative test for assessing students' knowledge, readiness, and abilities.
Moratorium
Identity crisis; suspension of choices because of struggle.
Erikson's stage that best fits adolescence or preadolescence is called
Identity versus Identity Diffusion
Deductive reasoning involves...
Deductive reasoning describes thinking which starts with a broad, general statement and draws inferences from this information to inform thinking about a specific instance. Two options describe the inductive reasoning concept where you begin with a specific example and infer a generalization from this information. Deductive reasoning and divergent thinking are different constructs.
Albert Bandura moved from being a
behaviorist to a cognitive psychologist
negative identity
commitment made to an unhealthy and antisocial behavior; examples: juvenile delinquency, stealing cars, computer hacking, etc.
Long-term memory
Permanent store of knowledge.
Self-regulation
Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals.
A person has deep resentment for a group of people and often uses the saying "I had better get them, before they get me." This is best considered an example of
Projection.
Repeating an address over and over to yourself while trying to find pencil and paper to write it down is an example of...
Repetition as a memory strategy is called rote rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal and chunking require more sophisticated organizational techniques and encoding skills.
Sam tends to think of table knife only for cutting food rather than a tool to pry a stuck window loose. Sam's cognitive ability is best described as ___________ thinking.
convergent, Since Sam is only able to think of the knife as an eating utensil, he is not able to think creatively or divergently.
Participation structures
Rules defining how to participate in different activities.
Scoring Rubrics
Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student's performance.
Confirmation bias
Seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while disconfirming evidence.
Summative Assessment
Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement.
Which of the following is a true statement about the concept of a self-fulfilling prophecy?
This term can be described healthy and unhealthy as well as productive and non-productive tendencies.
Cmaps
Tools for concept mapping developed by the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition that are connected to many knowledge maps and other resources on the Internet.
The term _____ describes a situation where a student demonstrates a deeply, fond attachment for a teacher. The term _____ is used as description of when a teacher develops a deeply, fond attachment for a student.
Transference, countertransference.
Guilford's theory: products, operations, & contents
True
The psychological, sociological, and physiological aspects of the Freudian model of the personality and best depicted respectively by the
ego, superego, and id.
The behavioristic view proposes that we study
only surface behavior.
A basketball coach tries to get her team "up" for the game, but not too excited so that they commit costly fouls (penalties) which harm the team's performance. _________________________________
optimal level of arousal Evidence: The Coach here knows that arousal must to be not too high or not too low [just right in the moderate zone] for success.
Which of the following presents Freud's stages in the proper order?
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Neurons
Nerve cells that store and transfer information.
Story grammar
Typical structure or organization for a category of stories.
"I" message
Clear, nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you.
Flashbulb memories
Clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life.
Mode
Most frequently occurring score.
Achievement is most strongly related to performance as ability is most strongly related to _____.
Potential.
Social isolation
Removal of a disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes.
Integrity
Sense of self- acceptance and fulfillment.
Psychology is best defined as the
science of behavior and mental process
Tracking
Assignment to different classes and academic experiences based on achievement.
Classical conditioning
Association of automatic responses with new stimuli.
Contiguity
Association of two events because of repeated pairing.
Egocentric
Assuming that others experience the world the way you do.
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 1
Assumption: Basic needs are similar for all human beings even though the manner in which people satisfy these needs vary.
Cognitive View, Piaget, Bruner, Ausubel, Bandura, Seligman, Atkinson & McClelland, and Weiner
Attribution theory, proactive, self-fulfilling prophecy, learned helplessness, self-efficacy, learned optimism, entity versus incremental view of ability, discovery learning, cognitive disequilibrium, self-regulation, expectancy X value theory, Pygmalion effect, teacher expectation cycle, learned hopelessness, advance organizers, constructivism, conceptual knowledge
Authentic assessment refers to the testing task being [very much like the real world or far removed from the real world].
Authentic assessment refers to the testing task being very much like the real world.
Sternberg's theory: componential, products, & contextual
False
The behavioristic view includes the concepts of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and constructivism.
False
The behavioristic view includes the concepts of shaping, unconscious processes, and successive approximations.
False
The behavioristic view relies upon defense mechanisms to explain behavior.
False
The disciplines of geography and geology are both part of the natural sciences.
False
The melting pot philosophy allows for the retention of your personal cultural and family identity.
False
The motive to avoid failure promotes success, since in this personality mode a student can learn from his/her educational experiences.
False
The salad and mosaic approaches to understanding culture adopt the Gestalt notion where the whole is equal to the sum of its parts.
False
Trait personality theory tends to best explain the inconsistencies in our behaviors across different situations.
False
Vygotsky believed that unconscious factors were particularly important in predicting and modifying human behavior.
False
Vygotsky's theory is heavily based upon Freudian theoretical principles.
False
When teachers think about their students as having "blank slates" when they enter the classroom, this promotes the construction of knowledge according to the cognitive viewpoint.
False
Working memory is where you must further work upon information in LTM in order get information to the permanent storage capacity of STM.
False
Recognition versus free recall
* Free recall is usually more challenging because we need to recall specific information from an array filled with so many possible similar or acceptable options. * Recognition is normally easier that free recall since you only need to recognize the answer from a more limited number of options provided. This task can be made more challenging by including common retrieval errors or points of confusion. You should be able to correctly identify examples of inductive and deductive reasoning. Remember to decide which event comes first and which is the second event. Deductive reasoning goes from a generalization to a more specific statement. Inductive reasoning goes from a specific element to a broader or general statement.
Cognitive View: Piaget, Kohlberg, Bandura, Meichenbaum
* use of the interactionist view ,individual/internal actions AND environment are critical * S->O->R the "Organism" ,cognition, perception, motivation, experience, mediates between S & R, NOTE: Neither the individual or environment are most important here. * internal mental and perceptual processes are often covert or hidden from view Intuitive thinking: Making personally imaginative mental leaps to correct perceptions and workable solutions ,Note it is very difficult to measure such a variable. You should be able to recognize and define positive and negative reinforcement. Remember that negative reinforcement is not punishment. Be prepared to recognize examples of positive, negative, and neutral transfer. Transfer involves the appropriate application of knowledge to solve a problem. Note the differences between the cognitive domain ,thinking, memory, and problem solving, and the affective domain ,feelings, values, and subjectivity. Note characteristics of androgynous individuals ,greater mental health/more flexibility in options/ability to match a personal response to different situations. Note that functional fixedness is the opposite of creative thinking and divergent thinking. An algorithm is a logical, methodical, and accurate process of seeking a solution to a problem from all the available options ,certain known characteristics can perhaps reduce the options.
Behavioristic View: Skinner, Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike
* uses reductionistic thinking , studies basic processes and laws of behavior * objectivity,logical reasoning by researcher, is valued over subjectivity,feelings and beliefs * operational definition, improves the precision of measurement of variables * Stimulus-Response View, S->R * most scientific viewpoint, emphasis upon overt [outward] and measurable behavior * environment is the most important influence upon behavior, not thoughts or feelings
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 4
2nd level: Safety and security is established after the physiological needs are met and safety needs are met through consistency, fairness, and a certain amount of routine and predictability. Childrearing credo: Freedom within limits is needed for proper growth rather than permissiveness.
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 5
3rd level: After physiological and safety needs are met, the person needs love, affection, and acceptance from other human beings. The absence of love, nurturance, and care for infants, for example, results in serious mental health problems. Love and belongingness results in healthy relationships which offer human beings intimacy and the potential for further growth.
Zero reject
A basic principle of IDEA specifying that no student with a disability, no matter what kind of severe, can be denied a free public education.
Ethnicity
A cultural heritage shared by a group of people.
A flight simulator is used to help train future pilots. This type of training is most effective because the simulation...
A flight simulator is effective because it is deemed to be so similar to real flying. All other options are incorrect statements about learning through simulation.
Relational aggression
A form of hostile aggression that involves verbal attacks and other actions meant to harm social relationships.
Piaget's principle of equilibrarion is best described by which of the following?
A form of intellectual self-regulation.
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
A formal- operations problem- solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions.
Cognitive view of learning
A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge.
General Intelligence, g
A general factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected.
Minority group
A group of people who have been socially disadvantaged- not always a minority in actual numbers.
Which of the following best describes Piaget's concept of scheme?
A high organized pattern of thought or behavior.
Self-efficacy
A person's sense of being to deal effectively with a particular task.
Mastery goal
A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers.
Performance goal
A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others.
Collaboration
A philosophy about how to relate to others- how to learn and work.
Racial and ethnic pride
A positive self-concept about one's racial or ethnic heritage.
Hypothesis/Hypotheses
A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research.
Response to intervention, RTI
A process to make sure students get appropriate research-based instruction and support as soon as possible and that teachers are systematic in documenting what interventions they have tried with these students so this information can be used in planning.
Negative correlation
A relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the other. Example: height and distance from top of head to the ceiling.
Positive correlation
A relationship between two variables in which the two increase or decrease together. Example: calorie intake and weight gain.
Cognitive apprenticeship
A relationship in which a less experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert.
Some psychologists believe that information in long-term memory (LTM) is organized in terms of schemes. A schema can be defined as a(an)...
A schema is best defined as an abstract structure of information or behavior. The abstract element is critical because it is such sophisticated organization that is the link to cognitive development according to Piaget. While emotional representations are often important, Piaget focused upon cognitive structures.
Co-constructed process
A social process in which people interact and negotiate, usually verbally, to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants.
Race
A socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry.
Learning strategies
A special kind of procedural knowledge-knowing how to approach learning tasks.
LINCS Vocabulary Strategy
A strategy that uses stories and imagery to help students learn how to identify, organize, define, and remember words and their meanings.
KWL
A strategy to guide reading and inquiry: Before-What do I already know? What do I want to know? After-What have I learned?
Precorrection
A tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a student's misbehavior, clearly specifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful reinforcers.
Co-regulation
A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate self-regulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers.
Which of the following statements about attributional analyses is true for students in school?
Ability is viewed as internal, stable, and uncontrollable.
Crystallized intelligence
Ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods.
Identity foreclosure
Acceptance of parental life choices without consideration of options.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 10
Achievement Motivation theory: Expectancy x Value theory David McClelland and John Atkinson, Note this is an approach vs. avoidance theory Success stems from high need for achievement (n-Ach) or motive to approach success Failure stems from high fear of failure, FOF, or motive to avoid failure resultant motivation, learned behavior, personality trait, level of aspiration, history of success and failure, ability, potential, performance, achievement or accomplishment n-Ach Dimension / FOF Dimension Risk Taking selects a moderately difficult task / selects an easy or an extremely difficult task Goal Setting sets realistic goals based upon ability and past experiences / sets unrealistic goals based upon ability and past experiences Task completion Tends to work long and hard at a difficult but valued task / tends to give up when difficulty is experienced, even if task is valued Effort puts forth a large amount of high quality strategic effort, requires quantity and quality / puts forth a small amount of any quality or a large amount of poor effort quality as a defense Self-Image holds a positive/healthy view of self / holds a negative view of self, defensive posture Attribution Theory: Bernard Weiner—ability(potential, raw talent), effort, hard work, practice, task difficulty, degrees of challenge of the task, & luck, chance, [see details on the 3 dimensions, p. 444: stable/unstable, internal/external, controllable/uncontrollable elements Matina Horner: fear of success, social relationships may suffer from being too successful-women may be at greater risk, but men suffer as well Attributions for success/failure may bolster or diminish self-concept, ability, effort, task difficulty, luck
John Dewey 2
After graduation in 1884, Dewey landed his first university teaching position in philosophy at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan. His first book (Psychology) was published in 1887 and this textbook was used at several prominent institutions across the country. Dewey moved to the University of Chicago in 1894 as head of the Philosophy, Psychology, and Pedagogy Department. It was here that Dewey developed the "experimental school" on campus as a learning/teaching laboratory for testing his new educational ideas. In 1904, Dewey accepted a new position at Columbia University in New York City where he taught until 1930. He was professor emeritus there until his death in 1952.
John Dewey 3
After graduation in 1884, Dewey landed his first university teaching position in philosophy at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan. His first book, Psychology, was published in 1887 and this textbook was used at several prominent institutions across the country. Dewey moved to the University of Chicago in 1894 as head of the Philosophy, Psychology, and Pedagogy Department. It was here that Dewey developed the "experimental school" on campus as a learning/teaching laboratory for testing his new educational ideas. In 1904, Dewey accepted a new position at Columbia University in New York City where he taught until 1930. He was professor emeritus there until his death in 1952.
After information is attended to in the sensory register, it moves into _____, which has the capacity to hold _____ bits of information for about _____.
After passing through the sensory register, information moves to short-term memory which can hold about 7 pieces of information for about 20-30 seconds.
Social conventions
Agreed-upon rules and ways of doing things in a particular situation.
All of the following statements reflect classical conditioning except:...
All of these options are descriptive of classical conditioning principles except, which illustrates positive reinforcement in operant conditioning. The other options demonstrate conditioned/unconditioned responses, generalization, and extinction.
Individualized Education Program, IEP
Annually revised program for an exceptional student, detailing present achievement level, goals, and strategies, drawn up by teachers, parents, specialists, and, if possible, the students.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 8
Anxiety in the classroom: trait, personality, generalizable dimension and a state, situation specific, dimension seem to exist; cognitive, physiological and affective elements of anxiety also seem to exist; arousal needs to be at an optimal level, not too high or too low; classical conditioned response to fear, Little Albert story
Reinforcer
Any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again.
Performance Assesssment
Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or procedure a product in order to demonstrate learning.
Problem
Any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a means to do so.
Cognitive Views of Learning 7
Application Issues: *Teachers need to carefully select what should be memorized so that what is stored in memory has meaning and promotes understanding. Strategies: massed (studying in one extended set) versus distributed (studying during several sets over time) *Help students practice retrieving important information (A test should not be the first attempt at retrieval.) *Memorization should be a stepping stone to understanding relationships and ideas as well as application. It is not an end in itself. *Let students know what is important to memorize and why the content is important.
Inquiry learning
Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 9
Area under the normal curve; Between -1sd----+1sd 68%; Between -2sd----+2sd 96%; Between -3sd----+3sd 99%
Mean
Arithmetical average.
Good behavior game
Arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.
Lesson Study
As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version.
Criterion-Reference Grading
Assessment of each student's mastery of course objectives.
Authentic Assessment
Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations.
Kounin believed that using harsh punishment was the key to improving student learning.
False
Martin Seligman suggested that unlearned helplessness makes people feel like giving up and becoming depressed.
False
Behavioral Views of Learning 5
B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning) shaping, successive approximations, emphasis on rewarding desirable behavior, Different schedules of reinforcement (constant, continuous, ratio, intermittent, interval (time basis), fixed, variables (see Table 7.1 p. 253 for schedules of reinforcement). Any reinforcement encourages or strengthens behavior. (see Figure 7.1 p. 252) Punishment is designed to weaken or eliminate a behavior. (see Figure 7.1 p. 252) Positive (+) Reinforcement (giving something desirable/pleasant) Negative (-) Reinforcement (taking away an undesirable/unpleasant stimulus) Presentation of Positive (+) Punishment Type #1: giving something undesirable Removal or Negative (-) Punishment Type #2: taking away something positive *(Note the important distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment. THESE ARE NOT THE SAME)* applied behavior analysis: satiation (being full or satisfied thus no longer motivated): behavior modification; Premack Principle (Grandma's Rule); social isolation; time out; token economics; mastery learning.
Which of the following theorists would not be considered a cognitive psychologist?
B.F. Skinner would not be considered a cognitive psychologist. All other options are considered cognitive psychologists.
Schemas (singular, schema)
Basic structures for organizing information; concepts.
Flynn effect
Because of better health, smaller families, increased complexity in the environment, and more and better schooling, IQ test scores are steadily rising.
Creating Learning Environments 3
Behavioral view: token reinforcement system; contingency contract; appropriate use of rewards and punishments; control of the environment; conditioning; behavior modification
Behavior View of Learning 2
Behavioral viewpoint in Psychology:S--R(stimulus--response) psychology, most scientific approach, objectivity/measurement highly valued, environmental influences, quantitative measurement, external influences (reinforcement) studied rather than internal factors (such as cognition), reductionistic viewpoint (search for the basic elements/laws of behavior like other scientists); operational definition; extrinsic motivation; contingencies; shaping; A-B-C: Antecedents--Behavior--Consequences: (See Appendix B on the scientific method); surface behavior is measurable and overt while cognition is hidden (covert) until a math solution is written on the board (an overt behavior).
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 2
Behavioral viewpoint: B. F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov reward, incentive, schedules of reinforcement, punishment, conditioning, overt behavior, environmentalist, external influence most important, measurable and observable outcomes, strong scientific emphasis
Behaviorism is most likely to employ the concept of, constructivism or objectivity or intuition.
Behaviorism is most likely to employ the concept of objectivity.
The fact that behaviorism employs a reductionistic and scientific viewpoint implies that we must...
Behaviorism values objectivity over subjectivity which eliminates option a from consideration. The search for "deep seated reasons" implies a psychoanalytic view. Option c deals with smallest elements that is related to the reductionist view, but the emphasis here is on cognitive elements. Remember that behaviorism did not concern itself with mental processes. Option d is the best answer here. Fundamental patterns refers to basic patterns such a reflex actions employed in classical conditioning.
Behavioristic theory is most noted for its emphasis upon ,unconscious motivation or measurable and observable facts.
Behavioristic theory is most noted for its emphasis upon measurable and observable facts.
Teaching Every Student 3
Benjamin Bloom and colleagues, 1956, developed a Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain, a hierarchical or stage structure to identify high or low level cognition; 6. evaluation, judgment based upon criteria, [highest level of cognition] 5. synthesis, building up--creation of a new entity—most creative 4. analysis, breaking down into component parts 3. application, transfer to a new situation 2. comprehension, understanding 1. knowledge, retrieval of facts from LTM, [lowest level of cognition]
John Dewey (1859-1952)
Biographical Information: John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, on October 20, 1859. His mother was a Congregationalist who made certain that all the children attended church in order to learn a strong set of moral coded. His father fought in the Civil War while serving in the First Vermont Cavalry. While Growing up in Vermont, Dewey often went camping and fishing in the Adirondack Mountains.
Which of the following describes a behavioral event that involves primarily the affective domain?
Bobby is angry about staying inside for recess.
Part learning
Breaking a list of items into shorter lists.
Bioecological
Bronfenbrenner's theory describing the nested social and cultrual contexts that shape development. Every person develops within a microsystem, inside a mesosystem, embedded in an exosystem, all of which are a part of the macrosystem of the culture. All development occurs in and is influenced by the time period- the chronosystem.
Spiral curriculum
Bruner's design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time.
The term empathy is most associated with
Carl Roger's approach to therapy.
Which of the following theorist would suggest that empathy deserves to be employed in behavior management/ classroom discipline situations?
Carl Rogers
Existentialism is most closely associated with
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
There are fifty questions on your social studies test. Carl answered 42 questions correctly on the test. Which of the following is correct?
Carl's % correct score= 84%
Which of the following best demonstrates the concept of measurement?
Carla correctly completes six reading worksheets.
Attribution theory tends to focus upon
Causal explanations of failure and success.
Modeling
Change in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person- a model.
Social development
Changes over time in the ways we relate to others.
Learning styles
Characteristics approaches to learning and studying.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 4
Characteristics of standardized tests, used for large scale comparisons, time limits, made by psychometricians not Preschool-12th grade teachers, machine scored
Private speech
Children's self-talk, which guides their thinking and action. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech.
The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 2
Constructivist approach to teaching and learning, complex learning environments, social negotiation, multiple representations of content, teacher and students must rely upon communication and cognition, note the 5 conditions of constructivist approaches to learning, community of practice, general or situated, note John Dewey' contribution to solving problems, inquiry learning, see how knowledge is constructed in Table 10.2 p. 362 according to the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and information processing theory
Teaching Every Student 5
Constructivist approach, assessment, conceptual change teaching, Remember this approach was advanced by Piaget where interactionism, S-O-R model explained behavior and the teacher is a facilitator or guide helping students learn
Cognitive Views of Learning 6
Constructivist views: reconstruction/deconstruction; Gestalt view: whole is greater than the sum of its parts; Mnemonic Devices: repetition, elaboration, organization, affective states, structure information, associations Examples: SQ3R Francis P. Robinson-- useful for studying (survey, question, read, recite and review) peg-word approach: one is a bun, two is a shoe...... acronyms: HOMES (5 Great Lakes) ROYGBIV (7 colors of the spectrum) ALL COWS EAT GRASS (musical scale) silly statements: Richard of York Gave Battle in Vain (Spectrum or colors); rhymes: "i before e except after c" "thirty days hath September, April, June, & November..." Men Very Easily Make Jugs Serve Useful New Purpose (order of the nine planets from the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto). Pluto was downgraded to a dwarf planet in 2006 and fro a short while two other dwarf planets (Ceres and Eris) were added. The following phrase was used when they believed 11 planets existed: My Very Exciting Magic Carpet Just Sailed Under Nine Palace Elephants (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and Eris) Note: Now most astronomers agree that there are eight major planets and other dwarf planets.
Teaching Every Student 2
Contributions from behavioristic psychology: instructional objective, behavioral objective, Robert Mager: start with the specific and Norman Gronlund: start with the more general; strengths and weakness of behavioral objectives, could also include cognitive objectives for students
Self-reinforcement
Controlling your own reinforcers.
Self-reinforcement
Controlling, selecting and administering, your own reinforcers.
Group Discussion
Conversation in which the teacher does not have dominant role; students pose and answer their own questions.
The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 3
Cooperative learning; note the complexity of this teaching strategy; this approach is more than just having students working in groups; Consider: Student roles in cooperative learning groups, preparation for activities, monitoring of activities, grading performance, greater noise and frustration level, etc.; mastery learning; active teaching; learning across the digital divide
Measures of Correlation and Scatterplots 2
Correlation coefficients can vary on a number line from +1.0 to -1.0 with zero in the exact middle. The coefficient offers two very important pieces of information regarding the relationship between two variables: 1 the nature or type of relationship that exists and 2 the relative strength of the relationship between two variables.
Problem solving
Creating new solutions for problems.
Creative thinking is most related to ,deductive thinking or divergent thinking.
Creative thinking is most related to divergent thinking.
Operant conditioning theory relies upon the shaping of the mind rather than behavior.
False
Piaget's concrete operational stage best captures the cognitive functioning of the pre-school child.
False
Germane cognitive load
Deep processing of information related to the task, including the application of prior knowledge to a new task or problem.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 11
Defense mechanisms: most limit functioning and relationships, natural psychological reactions to stress/limited knowledge of self/lack of coping mechanisms, conscious and unconscious dimension to each defense mechanism Examples: projection, rationalization, reaction formation, denial, humor, displacement, regression, repression
Behavioral Views of Learning 1
Definition of learning: note the distinctions where cognitive psychologists focus upon changes of knowledge that lead to overt changes in behavior and behavioral psychologists who focus upon overt changes in behavior.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 1
Definition of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, locus of causality, internal/within the person or external/outside the person
Validity
Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Psychoanalytic View, Freud and Erikson
Denial, regression, transference/countertransference, industry versus inferiority, conscious versus unconscious, defense mechanisms
Assistive Teaching
Devices, systems, and services that support and improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities.
John Dewey 2
Dewey attended college in his hometown and graduated with Phi Beta Kappa honors from the University of Vermont, UVM, with a Bachelor of Arts degree. After teaching high school in Pennsylvania and Vermont, he decided to enter a doctoral program at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland
John Dewey 5
Dewey was also actively involved in several social issues of his day. He maintained a longtime relationship with Jane Addams in Chicago and served as a Trustee of Hull House. He supported Teddy Roosevelt as the "Bull Moose" candidate for President of the United States in 1912. In 1930, Dewey received an honorary doctorate from the University of Paris. He also wrote several articles for the liberal publication New Republic on topics of civil rights and political freedom. John Dewey was a charter member of the first teachers' union in New York City and honorary president of the National Education Association in 1932. On October 21, 1968, the United States Postal Service honored Dewey by placing his image on a thirty-cent postage stamp.
John Dewey 4
Dewey was also actively involved in several social issues of his day. He maintained a longtime relationship with Jane Addams in Chicago and served as a Trustee of Hull House. He supported Teddy Roosevelt as the "Bull Moose" candidate for President of the United States in 1912. In 1930, Dewey received an honorary doctorate from the University of Paris. He also wrote several articles for the liberal publication New Republic on topics of civil rights and political freedom. John Dewey was a charter member of the first teachers' union of New York City and honorary president of the National Education Association in 1932. On October 21, 1968, the United States Postal Service honored Dewey by placing his image on a thirty-cent postage stamp.
Extended families
Different family members- grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.- living in the same household or at least in daily contact with the children of the family.
Gender biases
Different views of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other.
The ability to take a principle from one situation and appropriately apply it to a different set of circumstances is best termed...
Discrimination involves the recognition of differences and generalization involves the recognition of similarities. This example describes the application of a principle which is based upon generalization. Since the stated scenario does not tell us whether or not the person is aware of this process it is not possible to determine if intuition is used here.
If you were concerned about the content validity of one of your classroom tests, which of the following questions would be most appropriate to deal with?
Does the test adequately and accurately measure the class content covered in class?
Bulima
Eating disorder characterized by overeating, then getting rid of the food by self-induced vomiting or laxatives.
Anorexia nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by very limited food intake.
Least restrictive environment, LRE
Educating each child with peers in the regular classroom to the greatest extent possible.
Behavioral Views of Learning 3
Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect (two part) 1st: Behavior followed by a pleasurable experience is more likely to be repeated. 2nd: Behavior followed by an unpleasant experience is less likely to be repeated.
Bernard Weiner's attribution theory proposed that which of the following is most likely to be given for explanations of success and failure?
Effort, task difficulty, luck, and ability.
Teaching Every Student 1
Expert teachers are also reflective, can clarify, offer warmth and enthusiasm, have competence in subject matter; Lee Shulman's 7 areas of professional knowledge Lee Shulman also suggested the importance of subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical-content knowledge, PCK, [how to teach subject matter content]
Sociocultural theory
Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn the culture of their community, ways of thinking and behaving, through these interactions.
Note that even though Erikson's identity formation has a strong cognitive component this is a psychoanalytic theory
Erikson used the id, ego, and superego personality elements.
Which of the following is most strongly related to a negative self-concept for learning?
Erikson's inferiority state.
Principle
Established relationship between factors.
Difference between measurement and evaluation and the complex relationship that exists between these concepts
Evaluation is most related to judgments while measurement is most related to empirical distinctions.
Stimulus
Event that activates behavior.
Consequences
Events that follow an action.
Antecedents
Events that precede an action.
Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 1
Example: Albert Bandura famous Bobo Doll experiment where aggression was learned by children, observational. learning, vicarious reinforcement, later studied self-efficacy, self-effectiveness, ripple effect, modeling, reciprocal determinism, interactionism, Fig. 11.1 Reciprocal Influences p. 399
What is the purpose of chunking?
Example:1-4-9-2-1-9-7-6 (8 items in STM) is chunked as "1492" and '1976"(2 items in STM) * This is an organizational technique, which reduces the bits of new information to be learned or remembered. * Note that this example also relates new information to previously learned information (an example of elaborative rehearsal)
Humanistic View, Maslow and Rogers
Existential philosophy, self-actualization, fully-functioning person, empathy, intrinsic motivation is most important
Expert Teachers
Experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. Their knowledge of teaching process and content is extensive and well organized.
Behavioral learning theories
Explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors.
Expectancy times value theories
Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals' expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal.
Which of the following best captures the essence of achievement motivation theory?
Failure to plan leads to a plan for failure.
A teacher who employs primarily intuition when teaching is highly likely to be patient and understanding when students have difficulty learning.
False
Abraham Maslow was a cognitive psychologist because he tended to focus upon self-esteem and mental health.
False
According to Erikson, the psychosocial issues of guilt, inferiority, and autonomy are all related to essentially mentally healthy behaviors rather than forms of mental illness.
False
According to Freud, self-control originates from primarily unconscious mental processes.
False
According to Kounin, effective classroom managers were more overactive than proactive.
False
An interactionist believes that the environment is a more powerful influence in explaining behavior than forces inside a person.
False
As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that the individual was most important for development.
False
Attribution theory relies upon the explanations of self-concept, reinforcement, self-esteem, and punishment to explain success and failure experiences in life.
False
Ausubel's advance organizers help students learn primarily by rote rather than helping students make mental connections between ideas and concepts.
False
Behavioristic psychologists believe that the personal subjective world is the most powerful source of human motivation.
False
Behavioristic psychology is more concerned about intrinsic motivation than extrinsic motivation.
False
Cognitive psychologists believe that unconscious processes are essential for understanding human behavior.
False
Deductive reasoning and divergent thinking describe the same cognitive events.
False
Divergent thinking is where you form a specific belief based upon an earlier general assumption.
False
Freud's concept of id is approximately 50% conscious and 50% unconscious.
False
Functional fixedness is an equivalent term for the process of creative thinking.
False
Gardner's theory: spatial, musical, experiential, aturalistic, linguistic/verbal, logical/mathematical, & products
False
In order to build knowledge using constructivist theory, a student only needs to receive the knowledge and not do any further work with such knowledge.
False
Intuitive thinkers make the best teachers.
False
Review of Basic Freudian Concepts 3
Healthy Personality: conscious forces harmoniously balance other parts of the personality to offer behavioral flexibility; a person is consciously aware of drives and desires, but can postpone gratification until appropriate times; pleasures are balanced with other important elements of life; in theory, if nothing is placed into the unconscious [all problems are dealt with in a logical/rational manner] the person never becomes unhealthy
Empathetic listening
Hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing.
Complex Cognitive Processes 10
Heuristic device (Note the Mini P.H.D. Essay Exam example) Special Quote: Shavelson and Stern (1981) defined heuristics as "implicit rules that people are unaware of and use in complex tasks in order to select information, classify objects or persons, or revise knowledge" (p. 469). [Note: This quote is not in the text.]
Culture and Diversity 1
Historical concept of melting pot, cultural deficit model, multicultural education, culture, resistance culture, minority group/majority group, ethnocentrism, education that is multicultural influences that teacher's relationship with students, style of instruction, nature of the curriculum, evaluation of students work, dealing with parents, etc.
Overt
How many times you reach for and pull the lever on a slot machine in a casino in a one-hour time period.
Constructionism
How public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math, economics, or history is constructed.
Review of Basic Freudian Concepts
Human Personality Structure: [three dynamic & interacting parts] * id [biological] urges and drives [hunger, thirst, sexuality, aggression] demand immediate satisfaction based upon the pleasure principle; mostly unconscious, life/death wishes or instincts, hedonism [a philosophical belief that humans seek pleasure and avoid pain] * ego [psychological] the executive [cognitive] balance which uses the reality principle to deal with situations; able to postpone gratification; most conscious element; defenses operate here * superego [social] conscience and morality based upon upbringing and social standards [e.g., family, school, community, church, government, etc.]; rigid [often unconscious and sometimes unrealistic] demands of good/bad, right/wrong, etc.; ego ideal; childhood identifications; produces guilt if too unrealistic and not counterbalanced by a healthy ego
Complex Cognitive Processes 11
Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers spoke of actualizing behaviors where a person was an effective problem solver and a mentally healthy individual. (More on this in Chapter 12 on p. 433).
Humanistic psychology relies upon the existential philosophy where [the external environment shapes behavior or individuals are a product of their own personal choices].
Humanistic psychology relies upon the existential philosophy where individuals are a product of their own personal choices.
Teaching Every Student 7
Humanistic view, connection to constructivism; student-centered learning; active teaching/active learning; educating the whole child
Creating Learning Environments 4
Humanistic view: empathic listening; "I" messages; problem ownership; self-control; authoritarian style teacher, price to be paid here; existential philosophical viewpoint; classroom cohesiveness, healthy relationships; paraphrase rule
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 3
Humanistic viewpoint: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs-five levels (Appendix G) self-actualization needs (highest level—mental health) self-esteem needs love and belongingness needs safety and security needs physiological needs (lowest level) self actualization is a state of mental health rather than mental illness; note the distinctions between growth needs and deficiency needs; importance of intrinsic motivation and subjective experience; search for personal meaning and relevancy; self/perceptual view; empathy, honesty and self-disclosure; mental healthy relationships promote growth; mental health involves risk taking; counseling/therapeutic origin of such ideas; Carl Rogers shared many of the ideas of Maslow and both spoke of the mentally healthy person as fully functioning.
Highlights of the Scientific Method
Hypothetical reasoning (hypothesis testing); systematic observation; control of variables (variables are aspects which change or vary between subjects or in the same subjects over time e.g., intelligence, gender, motivation, etc.); representative nature of a sample of subjects is critical for generalizations to be made; controlled conditions; manipulation of variables; publication of results of experiments; experimental methods; replication of results; in general, objectivity valued over subjectivity; theories must be testable in order to gain support for hypotheses; measurement (psychometric) issues involve operational definitions of variables (this adds precision and predictability); quantitative measurement is preferred (qualitative measurement may be acceptable in some circumstances); use of statistical analyses for decision making.
Which of the following is the best example of measurement?
I will test my students on their knowledge of music.
Constructivism is most related to
Jean Piaget's cognitive viewpoint.
Complex Cognitive Processes 1
Jerome Bruner's discovery learning-inquiry method, intuition, learning by doing, vicarious learning, spiral curriculum deductive, general--specific: inductive, specific--general
John Dewey 3
John Dewey was a revolutionary thinker who had and continues to have influence upon education, psychology, and philosophy. It has been said by some that Dewey started out as a psychologist and became a philosopher. Dewey's influence on the field of psychology can be seen as the historical foundation for the theories developed by Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Carl Rogers, and many others. During his lifetime of 93 years, Dewey wrote some 40 books and over 700 articles. In this day, Dewey promoted what was known as progressive education.
John Dewey 1
John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, on October 20, 1859. His mother was a Congregationalist who made certain that all the children attended church in order to learn a strong set of moral codes. His father fought in the Civil War while serving in the First Vermont Cavalry. While growing up in Vermont, Dewey often went camping and fishing in the Adirondack Mountains.
Complex Cognitive Processes 14
John Dewey's "learning by doing" and inquiry learning, book How We Think, active involvement of the learner, early origin of constructivism, the value of complex ideas, (Please see Appendix I for more details on John Dewey).
Representativeness heuristic
Judging that likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes-what you think is representative of the category.
Self-regulatory knowledge
Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge.
Metacognition
Knowledge about out own thinking processes.
Radical constructivism
Knowledge is assumed to be the individual's construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong.
Procedural knowledge
Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; "knowing how."
Implicit memory
Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but that influences our behavior or thought without our awareness.
LOOK AT PAGE 12
LOOK AT PAGE 12- B
Cognitive Views of Learning 4
LTM: permanent systems, Tip-of-Tongue (TOT) phenomenon (retrieval problems), capacity; unlimited; Common Components: episodic, semantic, conditional, implicit, and procedural; schema organization of LTM (see Piaget for this concept).
Culture and Diversity 6
Language Issues: Bilingual education, monolingual, language/intelligence connection (we think in a language), sociolinguistics, language is more than just a tool for communication (values, attitudes, discrimination, etc. are also associated with language development and usage).
Norm Group
Large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, IDEA
Latest amendment of PL 94-142; guarantees a free public education to all children regardless of disability.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 6
Learned Helplessness: Martin Seligman perceptions of hopelessness or helplessness and hopefulness, mental health, motivate human behavior; hopelessness may help explain depression; cognitive, affective and motivational components
Complex Cognitive Processes 2
Learning and teaching about concepts, defining attributes, prototype, exemplar, overgeneralization, under-generalization, concept mapping, cognition is related to overt ,outward and observable, and covert ,inward and hidden, factors.
Enactive learning
Learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions.
Observational learning
Learning by observation and imitation of others-vicarious learning.
Operant conditioning
Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents.
The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 1
Learning sciences: collaboration between psychology, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience and other fields in the study of learning. Key ideas: conceptual knowledge, learner ownership, learning environment, prior knowledge, and reflection
Complex Cognitive Processes 5
Learning strategies and study skills, distinction between strategies and tactics ,more specific, underlining, highlighting, note taking, visual diagrams PQ4R: Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review.
Creating Learning Environments 5
Lee Canter's assertive discipline: teachers need to learn to be firm and assertive rather than passive or hostile: systematic discipline plan, often used in the entire school, specific strategies include name on the board and marbles in a jar; clear consequences for misbehavior, options, opportunities to make self-corrections and learn responsibility, consistency is crucial, behavioral style; note critics of this view
Interval schedule
Length of time between reinforcers.
Explicit memory
Long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall.
Procedural memory
Long-term memory for how to do things.
Episodic memory
Long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of the events in a person's life.
Long-term memory (LTM) refers to information...
Long-term memory refers to information that is permanently stored and available for possible retrieval. Information stored in LTM does not depend upon how it was processed along the way. If information is no longer available for retrieval, it is lost and cannot be remembered. The word "long" in LTM refers to duration elements not when the information was originally processed.
Traditional research on sex differences and scholastic abilities suggests that girls seem to have a slight advantage over boys at the elementary school level in which of the following areas?
Male students seem to have a slight edge in tasks such as using spatial relationships (mentally rotating objects in space) and solving complex physics problems. Athletic strategic decision making is not listed amongst the sex differences that have been found where girls have and advantage. Option c is the best choice. Solving basic math calculations (computation) is a skill listed in the text and organizers as being found somewhat superior in females.
Self-management
Management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions.
Convergent thinking
Narrowing possibilities to a single answer.
Which of the following best illustrates metamemory?
Metamemory refers to thinking about how one's memory operates. Is the only option that deals directly with thinking about memory (recall of information). Some of the other options deal with thinking about cognitive processes which is more representative of metacognition. Remember that metamemory is a special case or category under the broader category of metacognition.
Problem-based learning
Method that provide students with realistic problems that don't necessarily have "right" answers.
Median
Middle score in a group of scores.
Neo-Pigetian theories
More recent theories that integrate findings about attention, memory, and strategy use with Piaget's insight about children's thinking and the construction of knowledge.
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation associated with activities that are their own reward.
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 12
Motivation to learn, trait and state approaches Authentic task; problem-based learning, intrinsic/extrinsic value, goal structure, cooperative learning, self-regulation
Negative reinforcement is unique from positive reinforcement in that...
Negative reinforcement is unique from positive reinforcement in that negative reinforcement has to do with taking something negative away while positive reinforcement has to do with giving something positive. Option a states how positive and negative reinforcement are alike, not how they are unique. Negative reinforcement is not a form of punishment.
Grading in the curve
Norm-referenced grading that compares students' performance to an average level.
Norm-referenced tests rely upon comparisons made [with other students or only with individual past performances rather than comparisons with others].
Norm-referenced tests rely upon comparisons made with other students.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 6
Normal distribution or Gaussian curve or bell-shaped curve, note shape characteristics and assumptions, skewed distribution
Statistically significant
Not likely to be a chance occurrence.
Abraham Maslow's Theory of Basic Needs 8
Note that Maslow's ideas come from clinical experience, psychotherapy, and are not always able to be easily supported by empirical research findings. Lower needs constitute deficiency needs which must be satisfied first and are considered crucial. Major Assumption: Human beings are growth oriented, unhealthy behaviors are explained by blocked or unfulfilled needs.
Culture and Diversity 2
Note the important distinctions between the following cultural metaphors: melting pot, salad and mosaic;(Note: The melting pot requires assimilation where people give up their cultural identity while both the salad and mosaic allow for retention of such a personal cultural identity in terms of a Gestalt notion.)
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 13
Objective testing, multiple-choice, matching, true/false, short-answer, etc; essay testing; authentic assessment, portfolios, performances, and exhibitions as examples
Affective Domain
Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings.
Adequate Yearly Progress, AYP
Objectives for yearly improvement for all students and for specific groups such as students from major ethnic and racial groups, students with disabilities, students from low-income families, and students whose English is limited.
Response
Observable reaction to a stimulus.
Robert Rosenthal proposed that teachers can assert a positive influence over students in terms of expectations by
Offering more meaningful learning opportunities.
Percentile Rank
Percentage of those in the norming sample who scored at or below an individual's score.
Organization
Ongoing process of arranging information experiences into mental systems or categories.
Operant conditioning relies upon the principle of...
Operant conditioning or shaping relies upon successive approximations toward an achievable goal. Best describes this theory. Skinner focused upon the use of rewards for appropriate behaviors and downplayed the use of punishment.
Which of the following is the best example of operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning principles call attention to situations where responses that are reinforced tend to be strengthened.
Organization
Ordered and logical network of relations.
Development
Orderly, adaptive changes we go through between conceptions and death and remain for a reasonably long period of time.
Gender schemas
Organized cognitive structures that include gender-related information that influences how children think and behave.
Mastery experience
Our own direct experiences- the most powerful source of efficacy information.
Complex Cognitive Processes 8
Over-learning ,practicing past mastery.
Spasticity
Overly tight or tense muscles, characteristic of some forms of cerebral palsy.
The behaviorists believed most strongly in the study of (overt or covert) behavior.
Overt
Blended families
Parents, children, and stepchildren merged into families through remarriages.
Visuospatial sketchpad
Part of working memory. A holding system for visual and spatial information.
Phonological loop
Part of working memory. A speech- and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds.
Goal orientations
Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school.
Defense Mechanisms
People often use psychological coping techniques in order to relieve anxiety, pressure, frustration, and internal/external conflict. At times, these defenses help us "save face" in front of others and they are often employed without thinking. Such personal survival techniques are normally filled with deception and operate most fundamentally at the unconscious level. This also implies a lack of awareness on the part of the user of such defense mechanisms. Only identification and sublimation are considered mentally healthy, and then only if these defense mechanisms are employed appropriately. All the rest of the defense mechanisms are believed to be unhealthy if used too frequently or to an extreme. Since all human beings demonstrate defense mechanisms, it is an over reliance upon such techniques for daily survival that helps to define such behaviors as a characteristic of mental illness. The unconscious elements of these coping tools are the most universally defining characteristics of what has been formally called ego defense mechanisms, since they originate in the ego functioning part of the personality, rather than the id or superego. Although, Sigmund Freud was the first to highlight these in his clinical therapeutic practice, most psychologists, even from other theoretical viewpoints, accept the usefulness of such constructs to explain certain behaviors. These defense mechanisms originated from the psychoanalytic viewpoint.
Participants/Subjects
People or animals studied.
Bottom-up processing
Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern.
Measures of Correlation and Scatterplots 4
Perfect linear relationships between variables are represented only by +1.00 and -1.00. The symmetry of the correlation coefficient scale, +1 to -1 number line, means that the strength of relationships can be compared by examining the absolute value, disregard the + or - sign for this evaluation, of correlation coefficients e.g., +.92 is exactly the same strength as -.92, etc. In general, a correlation coefficient between zero and ± .20 is considered very low and weak in significance, from +.20 to +.40 and -.20 to -.40 is low, from +.40 to +.60 and -.40 to -.60 is moderate, from +.60 to +.80 and -.60 to -.80 is high, and from +.80 to +.99 and -.80 to -.99 is very high.
Sociocultural views of motivation
Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice.
Zone of proximal development
Phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support.
Psychomotor Domain
Physical ability and coordination objectives.
Arousal
Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to be alert, attentive, wide awake.
Arousal
Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, excited, or tense.
Which of the following correctly lists the order of Maslow's Hierarchy?
Physiological, safety, belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualization.
Paraphrase rule
Policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond.
Any form of reinforcement ,positive or negative, ideally should...
Positive and negative reinforcement ideally and theoretically should increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring or being repeated. Punishment is used to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Remember that punishment is different from negative reinforcement.
Complex Cognitive Processes 3
Problem solving, problem generation (perhaps a good question is more valuable than a good answer), well-structured versus ill-structured problem, algorithm (a step-by-step problem solving device where all possibilities are considered in order to find the correct answer), verbalizing, working-backward strategy, response set, insight, functional fixedness (the antithesis of creative thinking), divergent thinking is another term for creative thinking (see Guilford here), expert versus novice teachers, discovery learning.
Learning disability
Problem with acquisition and use of language; may show up as difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, or math.
Complex learning environments
Problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life.
Complex Cognitive Processes 4
Problems are sometimes solved through intuitive thinking where people have great difficulty explaining their decisions, but such decisions are often effective.
Fear of success most often leads to later
Problems in academic success due to risks involved in social relationships.
Culture and Diversity 7
Problems in school learning explained by: learned helplessness, lack of culturally relevant pedagogy, and too much failure. Answers include fostering resilience in students so they can rebound from failure.
Cognitive behavior modification
Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction.
Functional behavioral assessment (FBA)
Procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior.
Assessment
Procedures used to obtain information about student performance.
Retrieval
Process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory.
Punishment
Process that weakens or suppresses behavior.
Learning
Process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge of behavior.
Executive control processes
Processes such as selective attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization that influence encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in memory.
Assisted learning
Providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing as students gain independence.
Creating Learning Environments 7
Psychoanalytic view: transference and countertransference [look for hidden (symbolic) meanings and unconscious processes here] Transference Definition: client/student projects onto therapist/teacher Examples: 1. A student is angry at the teacher because of a disagreement with a parent. 2. A student has a "crush" on a teacher and leaves "love notes" on the desk. Countertranference Definition: therapist/teacher projects onto client/student Examples: 1. A teacher is upset with Edith because she still harbors anger toward her mother who is also named Edith. 2. A teacher falls in love with a student in the classroom.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 4
Psychoanalytic viewpoint: Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson unconscious/conscious motivation, defense mechanisms, Erikson's industry versus inferiority; see Appendix D
Psychological androgyny refers to the situation where...
Psychological androgynous individuals exhibit both male and female stereotypical characteristics. Option b best represents this situation and correctly suggests that there might be adaptive advantages to having a fuller range of behavioral responses in contrast to behavior based upon gender stereotypes.
Which of the following offers the most accurate description of a domain of learning?
Psychomotor Domain: Samantha can perform three consecutive cartwheels and then a backflip.
Review of Basic Freudian Concepts 4
Psychosexual Development: [Important: Remember that Sigmund Freud viewed any pleasurable action as a symbolic form of sexuality.] 1. Oral Stage [0-2 years] pleasures of the mouth 2. Anal Stage [2-4 years] pleasures related to the elimination process 3. Phallic Stage [4-6 years] sexual identity phase Oedipal and Electra Complexes appear here and involve the identification with the opposite sex parent [ex. boy's attachment to mother and girl's attachment to father]. Resolution [a healthy process] occurs when a child identifies with the same sex parent [boy identifies with father and girl identifies with mother]. Note that identification is distinguished from the behavioristic concept of modeling, since identification is at least partially an unconscious process. 4. Latency Stage [6-12 years] no new crisis/good for education 5. Genital Stage [12 and upward] sexual/physical maturity
Free, appropriate public education, FAPE
Public funding to support appropriate educational programs for all students, no matter what their needs.
Assume that you gave a quiz and students earned the following raw scores: 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8. Which of the following is true?
Range=4
Behavioristic View, Skinner, Pavlov, and Thorndike
Reactive, tokens, marbles in a jar, schedules of reinforcement, emphasis upon overt behavior that is measurable
Schema-driven problem solving
Recognizing a problem as a "disguised" version of an old problem for which one already has a solution.
Experimentation
Research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded.
Respondents
Responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli.
Spreading activation
Retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another. Remembering one bit of information activates ,stimulates, recall of associated information.
Group consequences
Rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct.
Which if the following brain lateralization facts is most accurate?
Right brain controls unconscious processes.
Response set
Rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way.
Cognitive Views of Learning 3
STM: working memory, capacity 7±2 (5-9 new items), duration 20-30 sec., free recall vs. recognition, chunking, maintenance/rote rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal.
Scatterplots 1
Scatterplots are graphic depictions of the relationship between two variables. Correlation coefficients can be depicted in scatterplot form for a better visual analysis.
Moral realism
Stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute.
Similarities and differences represented by scatterplots and correlation coefficients
Scatterplots can depict linear, non-linear, curvilinear, and random relationships. The correlation coefficient can only accurately inform you about relationships between linear variables. Remember that the strongest correlations, best predictors, are closest to ± 1.00 and the weakest correlations are nearest to zero, ±. Don't forget that high test-retest reliability for a test demands a high positive correlation coefficient. A high negative correlation coefficient is NOT an indication of high test-retest reliability
Script
Schema or expected plan for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza.
Stereotype
Schema that organizes knowledge or perceptions about a category.
Standard Scores
Scores based on the standard deviation.
Motivation in Learning and Teaching 13
Self-fulfilling prophecy, not always groundless beliefs... they could be true, Pygmalion effect, teacher expectations are critical for student learning and motivation, self-fulfilling prophecy: belief, behavior, expectation
Teaching Every Student 11
Self-fulfilling prophecy, not always groundless beliefs...they could be true, Pygmalion effect, teacher expectations are critical for student learning, self-fulfilling prophecy: belief—behavior--expectation
Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 3
Self-regulation, see four elements of the process on pp. 413 and model in Figure 11.2 on page 412, self-regulated learners and teachers, volition, self control
Donald Meichenbaum's theory was most similar to...
Since Meichenbaum is best known as a social learning theorist, the S--O--R model offers the best answer. Remember that S--R theory and behavior modification are labels from the behavioristic view and such a perspective does not include the "organism" in the theoretical model.
Sarah decides to study for the exam for 30 minutes each night for two weeks while Donna over this same time period decides to stay up to study and cram for only 7 hours the night before the exam. Which of the following is most true?
Since Sarah spread her studying out over time and Donna only concentrated her study time the night before the exam, Sarah is using a distributed practice style and Donna is using a massed practice style. Note that mention was made as to specific strategies that these students used to study so references to cognitive styles or behavioral elements cannot be made in this instance.
Completing homework assignments in order to avoid being given an undesirable, routine, and required assignment in school is an example of the operant conditioning technique of...
Since completing homework assignments removes the undesirable work given routinely in school, the completion of homework functions as a negative reinforcer. Note that homework is not punishment as described in this situation. The required "in school" assignment perhaps comes closest to punishment in this example except for the fact that such work is apparently a uniform requirement rather than a strategy used to end a particular behavior.
Measures of Correlation and Scatterplots 5
Since the correlation coefficient is an index, comparisons can be easily made that will demonstrate which association is the strongest or the weakest.
Scientific Method
Since the scientific method is considered the backbone of the discipline of psychology, a thorough understanding of the scientific method becomes critical to the study of psychology.
Cooperative learning
Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals.
The shaping process relies most heavily upon the principle of...
Skinner's operant conditioning relied upon the shaping process where successive approximations were used to strengthen behavior. Behaviors that were closer and closer to the desired goal were reinforced.
Successive approximations
Small components that make up a complex behavior.
Community of practice
Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true.
Behavioral Views of Learning 6
Social-Cognitive Learning Theory [most behavioral psychologists today have shifted to this more cognitive position that allows for the study of covert (internal and mental processes) as well as overt (outwardly visible behavior); S--O--R Theory (Stimulus-Organism (thinks, perceives, considers)-Response) *Example: Albert Bandura's social-cognitive theory, modeling, self-efficacy *Example: Donald Meichenbaum's cognitive-behavior modification, self-talk: internal dialogue: task analysis: modeling.
Reactive Versus Proactive
Some teachers simply "react" to stimuli in the classroom such as a student acting-out inappropriately, behavioristic view. Other teachers think and plan ahead in an attempt to anticipate and head-off possible classroom disruptions before they start, cognitive view.
Problems with the Scientific Method
Sometimes research studies offer contradictory findings; opposing viewpoint can be understood in terms of how evidence is selected and different interpretations of the data and results; some subjectivity is involved with all human activity, including research endeavors; some variables are difficult to measure objectively or are subjectively based such as anxiety, attitudes, emotions, belief systems, etc.
Erik Erikson's 8 psychosocial [healthy vs. unhealthy] stages/developmental crises
Stage 1: Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust ages 0-2 [infancy] Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt ages 2-4 [early childhood] Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt ages 4-6 [childhood] Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority ages 6-12 [late childhood] Stage 5: Identity vs. Identity Diffusion or Role Confusion ages 12-18 [adolescence] Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation ages 18-39 [young adulthood] Stage 7: Generativity vs. Self-Absorption or Stagnation ages 39-65 [adulthood] Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair and Disgust ages 65-death [late adulthood]
Morality of cooperation
Stage of development wherein children realize that people make rules and people can change them.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 19
Teacher-made tests, publishers of classroom textbooks often offer assessment materials, teachers need to critically evaluate the appropriateness of these materials and use the best assessment/evaluation resources available
Scaffolding
Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more.
Complex Cognitive Processes 6
Teaching and learning about thinking, stand-alone programs, transfer issues, critical thinking.
Active Teaching
Teaching characterized by high levels of teacher explanation, demonstration, and interaction with students.
Mainstreaming
Teaching children with disabilities in regular classes for part or all of their school day.
Complex Cognitive Processes 7
Teaching for transfer (application), specific vs. general, not automatic, identical elements theory (greater similarity improves the transfer) Positive transfer: 1st learning experience helps you in the 2nd learning experience Neutral transfer: 1st learning experience has neither a + or - impact on 2nd learning experience Negative transfer: 1st learning experience hinders you in the 2nd learning experience.
Differentiated instruction
Teaching that takes onto account student's abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students' needs.
Time out
Technically, the removal of all reinforcement. In practice, isolation of a student from the rest of the class for a brief time.
Acronym
Technique for remembering by using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word.
Loci method
Technique of associating items with specific places.
Mnemonics
Techniques for remembering; the art of memory.
Classroom management
Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems.
The Premack Principle is best demonstrated when a teacher rewards a child, before or after, completing a complex task.
The Premack Principle is best demonstrated when a teacher rewards a child after completing a complex task.
Resilience
The ability to adapt successfully in spite of difficult circumstances and threats to development.
Insight
The ability to deal effectively with novel situations.
You are taking a class from a dynamic instructor. However, the class meets after lunch when you tend to be drowsy and try as you might, you just can't keep from occasionally nodding off during class. On morning you run into your instructor on your way into school and stifle a yawn upon seeing him. Your instructor serves as...
The class is taught at a time when you are normally sleepy, and seeing the instructor triggers this involuntary response. A conditioned stimulus is the new stimulus, the instructor, which provokes a response that was previously associated with how you typically felt after lunchtime. This situation demonstrates the essence of Pavlov's classical conditioning.
The concept of enthocentrism implies that:...
The concept of ethnocentrism implies that one's culture is somehow better than another person's culture.
Which of the following best demonstrates Bruner's notion of understanding the structure of knowledge in a field of study?
The conflict between human beings and nature in literature.
The constructivist view places the primary responsibility for learning on the [teacher or student or environment].
The constructivist view places the primary responsibility for learning on the student.
Productions
The contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take, given certain conditions.
Utility value
The contribution of a task to meeting one's goals.
Measures of Correlation and Scatterplots 1
The correlation coefficient is a statistical measure which depicts how two variables are related or associated. Although assumed cause and effect relationships are often discussed based upon some sort of correlation, the correlation coefficient does not directly represent cause and effect. For example, a third variable could be related to the two variables being correlated and this third variable could be the "real" cause of the outcome. The correlation coefficient actually is a name given to an entire family of statistics that are used under particular conditions. The lower case letter "r" is the designated symbol for the correlation coefficient. Important Note: The correlation coefficient is only designed to measure the association between linear, straight line, variables.
The _____ viewpoint describes how some people have seen fit to label people from a specific group that was not assimilated into American culture as disadvantaged in society.
The cultural deficit theory is best term to describe this situation.
Need for autonomy
The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determined our actions.
Nigrescence
The process of developing a Black identity.
Extinction
The disappearance of a learned response.
Educational psychology
The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well.
Interest or intrinsic value
The enjoyment a person gets from a task.
The external actions of an individual are most related to, overt or covert, elements of behavior as the internal actions of an individual are most related to, overt or covert, elements of behavior.
The external actions of an individual are most related to overt elements of behavior as the internal actions of an individual are most related to covert elements of behavior.
Menarche
The first menstrual period in girls.
Spermarche
The first sperm ejaculation for boys.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 14
The following can influence grading: Halo effect, self-fulfilling prophecy, teacher-expectation cycle
Participation structures
The formal and informal rules for how to take part in given activity.
Information processing
The human mind's activity of taking in, storing, and using information.
Situated learning
The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings.
After being bitten by Fido, the neighbor's dog, Jimmy is fearful of all dogs. This is best explained by the concept of...
The is an example of forming a generalization: the specific experience of being bitten by Fido led to the generalized fear of all dogs. Since generalization is not given as an option, a deeper analysis is necessary. Inductive reasoning involves thought processes which begin with a specific reference and lead to generalizations. Is the best answer. Note that deductive reasoning takes a general statement and draws a specific reference from this broad statement. Discrimination would involve the fear of particular dogs rather than all dogs.
Culture
The knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment.
The law of effect suggests that...
The law of effect suggest that if a behavior is rewarded ,followed by a pleasant experience, such behavior will likely be repeated and if a behavior is punished ,followed by an unpleasant experience, such behavior is less likely to be repeated. Best captures this idea.
Locus of causality
The location- internal or external- of the cause of behavior.
Which of the following content is listed incorrectly under the designated viewpoints in psychology?
The only term listed under an improper viewpoint category is the term "subjectivity" under option b. This is the best answer here. Behaviorism prides itself on being highly scientific and objective while rooting out possible subjective bias. All other terms are list appropriately under their viewpoint headings.
Puberty
The physiological changes during adolescence that lad to the ability to reproduce.
Compensation
The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another.
Myelination
The process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient.
Argumentation
The process of debating a claim with someone else.
Ideal Outcomes of the Scientific Method
Theory should inform research and research should inform theory, accumulated knowledge should lead to the strengthening of evidence for a theory or the revision of theoretical ideas, the results of one study should lead to the next attempt to confirm the findings under different conditions and with different subjects (replication), cause and effect relationships can normally be proven only when you can control all influential variables and examine the results of manipulating only one variable at a time (normally impossible in social sciences, therefore theories are never totally proven as fact), correlational studies only examine how variables are related and cannot demonstrate cause and effect.
Embodied cognition
Theory stating that cognitive processes develop from real-time, goal-directed interactions between humans and their environment.
Social cognitive theory
Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory.
Social learning theory
Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others.
Consider the frequently used teacher statement: "I know that I covered that in class, but students didn't seem to learn how to use decimals." This position seems to imply that...
This frequently made statement depicts a problem in the area of transfer of learning in mathematics. The fact that teachers often believe that such transfer is so automatic leads to such statements. Follows this line of reasoning in that transfer is really very complex and often taken for granted. There is no evidence provided in this question which leads to the conclusion that students have memory problems with the content or that unconscious factors interfered with such learning. The key word here is "learn" in the quotation.
John is an English teacher who has devised a highly structured general teaching device to help students learn to write a commercial advertisement for a soft drink product. This teaching tool includes a series of questions that include the nature of the audience, use of visual logos, use of color, and choice of communication medium. This teaching tool is most accurately defined as a(an)...
This general plan to help students write a commercial is most like a heuristic device. All of the other options are strategies used to deal with more specific situations.
Why does organizing the digits "1-9-7-6-1-5-8-8" into the dates "1976" and "1588" make the learning of the digits easier?
This is an example of chunking which is a mnemonic device that reduces the number of clumps of information to be learned. Such a chuncking technique is used in short-term or working memory. Although this technique demonstrates elaborative rehearsal, there is no evidence that this technique employed rote or maintenance rehearsal strategies. Chunking is often used in place of rote rehearsal.
The strategy of methodically solving a crossword puzzle by trying to solve the "down" items before the "across" items is an example of...
This methodical strategy used to solve a crossword puzzle is a heuristic device. The strategy employed is a rational and logical general strategy to use in this situation. No evidence is provided that the problem solver ponders his/her own strategies or talks to himself/herself. Please note that option d has items reversed from the top-down and bottom-up strategies mentioned in the text. There is no form of thinking mentioned here that is focused upon individual small elements or the big picture.
A student who finds himself/herself relating a lecturer's statement the "Molecular structure is of a crystalline nature" to a recollection of looking at crystals through a microscope is engaging in...
This student has related new information "molecular structure is of a crystalline nature" to a previous experience looking through a microscope. This is an example of elaborative rehearsal. Metacognition involves an examination of one's own cognitive structures and processes rather than cognitive facts as demonstrated in this example.
Reflective
Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.
Review of Basic Freudian Concepts 2
Unhealthy Personality: unconscious forces dominate and control; the person lives his/her life based upon introjected [unconscious] identifications established in childhood; a person might symbolically find a way to satisfy an unconscious wish; a person might be fixated on a particular mode of expressing and satisfying unconscious drives; a person might settle for a more infantile or primitive mode of coping with stress such as thumb sucking rather than deal with a problem
An overreliance on defense mechanisms in order to reduce pressure and maintain self-esteem is a coping mechanism. Such a condition has traditionally been viewed as
Unhealthy rather than healthy.
Productions
Units of knowledge that combine conditions with actions in "if this happens, do that" relationships that often are automatic.
Self-management
Use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior.
Reinforcement
Use of consequences to strengthen behavior.
Creating Learning Environments 6
Uses and implications of punishment: appropriateness, degree of severity, fit the crime, punishment might also be used by students who become punishers, bullies, use as a last resort, fails to teach appropriate behaviors, overt versus covert behavior
Cyber aggression
Using e-mail, Twitter, Facebook, or other social media to spread rumors, make threats, or otherwise terrorize peers.
The critical elements of moratorium according to Marcia include
a crisis and no commitment.
What percentage of IQ scores would you expect to find in a normal distribution [Mean=100; sd=15] between the scores of 85 and 145? 14% or 28% or 34% or 48% or 68% or 71% or 83% or 95% or 99%
What percentage of IQ scores would you expect to find in a normal distribution [Mean=100; sd=15] between the scores of 85 and 145? 83% or 84%
If the learning of one task neither helps nor hinders the ability to learn a second task, the transfer of learning is considered to be...
When learning one task has no effect on learning a second task the transfer is labeled as neutral.
You discover that working on a typewriter makes it easier for you to later do word processing on a computer. This situation would best be termed _____ transfer.
When the first learning event increases the transfer in the second learning event like this you have an example of positive transfer.
Which of the following pairs of correlation coefficients is exactly equal in strength of prediction? r=+.05 and r=-.06 or r=-.78 and r=+.43 or r=+.84 and r=-.84 or r=+.56 and r=+.53
Which of the following pairs of correlation coefficients is exactly equal in strength of prediction? r=+.84 and r=-.84
Examples in Teaching
Which textbook should I use next year? [science] Should the sex education program be continued? [science] Are students learning anything in my class? [science] How should I assign grades? [science] Are students prepared for the Regent's Exam? [science] How physically fit are my students? [science] How do I deal with Barbara who missed the exam because she was attending her grandfather's funeral? [art] How do I get my students more excited about poetry? [art] I want students to enjoy reading more. [art] I believe that my students are bored with history. [art] George seemed worried about something in class today. [art] Today I had Susan working with Becky in order to complete the class project. I think that they are likely to be able to work cooperatively. [art]
Volition
Will power; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning.
Initiative
Willingness to begin new activities and explore new directions.
Distractors
Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item.
Which of the following statements best reflects the theory of constructivism?
You cannot always teach someone. Since other people possess a different frame of reference.
Martin Seligman suggested that learned helplessness is
a condition that limits the use of one's abilities.
Which of the following best represents a connection between Piaget's theory and the information processing view?
You will recall that Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development (or moral development for that matter) and the information processing model (1st stage: sensory storage; 2nd stage: STM; 3rd stage: LTM) both rely upon the stage concept. These theories are not strongly associated with the behavioristic view and only the information processing model relies somewhat upon a machine (computer) metaphor.
If you were to read a counselor's report that a high school student had a negative identity, the adolescent described would most likely be
a boy who vandalized school property.
Metacognition
a broad term, thinking about our own thoughts and ideas
A child who is in the concrete operational stage is
able to understand that hummingbirds and ducks are both birds.
According to Piaget, the modification of existing cognitive structures based upon new information is best termed
accommodation.
The scientific method is most dependent upon
accurate measurement of variables, objectivity, careful sampling, controlling, replication, and publication.
Foreclosure is most related to
adopting parental values and expectation without careful and critical personal assessment.
The experience of satiation is most likely to lead to student
apathy and boredom.
Piaget believed that adaption was best accomplished by the general processes of
assimilation and accommodation.
Projection
attributing one's own repressed wishes, motives, thoughts, or feelings to another person Example: A man accuses his wife of being unfaithful when he has had an affair.
Samantha did very well on the chemistry exam. She tells her friends that she did not study very hard for the test, but she really spent numerous hours preparing for the test. _____________________________
attribution theory Evidence: Samantha's success is accurately given to effort, but she downplays the role that effort plays in this process. This is commonly done to avoid the appearance of not having enough ability [raw talent]. If you have to work very hard (put forth great effort), you may have to do this in order to compensate for the lack of ability.
Jane wins the state lottery and explains this by her talent to pick the "right" numbers. _______________
attribution theory—luck & ability Evidence: Luck is implied as the best actual explanation, but Jane chooses to explain success through ability or skill ...pick the right numbers.
When students are active learners in the classroom, the teacher tends to
become an active learner.
A new grocery store opens on that area. During the first six months the manager keeps all of his/her prices considerably below the nearby competition. Very gradually the manager begins to raise the prices after it is assumed that people are accustomed to shopping at the store. this store marketing strategy can be best explained by the _____ view.
behavioristic
a psychologist bases his/her theories upon measurable and observable events and believes that environmental forces shape behavior. This psychologist has probably adopted the ______ viewpoint.
behavioristic
When preparing evaluation materials, teachers are advised to
carefully and critically assess published test materials.
If you ask your students to explain a concept from the textbook in their own words, you are probably asking students to function at the _____ level on the Taxonomy.
comprehension
The two major aspects of the superego are the
conscience and the ego ideal
Identification
conscious/unconscious learning from childhood, resolution of the Oedipal and Electra crisis in the phallic stage of psychosexual development- right & wrongs of the superego
The process of selecting your answer to this item would best be called a _____ task.
convergent
Guilford's theory helps explain strategically "how" people
could bridge knowledge, process, and end-products.
A female teacher is overly harsh with attractive girls in the class because the teacher was never told she was attractive when she was growing up. This behavior is best described by
counter transference.
Standardized tests are most likely to be
covering content not included in the school curriculum.
Psychoanalysis has traditionally chosen to focus upon ____________ elements for behavioral explanations.
covert
When teachers "look for hidden factors" behind student behaviors in the classroom they are searching for __________ factors with originate in the __________ psychological view.
covert/ psychoanalytic
Robert Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence includes what three distinctive types of intellectual abilities?
creative, analytical, and practical
A flying instructor want to test his/her students' ability to land an airplane safely at the end of a two-year training course. What type of test should be used?
criterion-referenced
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 17
criterion-referenced grading, list of accomplishments mastered or not mastered yet, Norm-referenced grading, Grading on the curve, use of the normal curve here
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 2
criterion-referenced testing: scores are compared to a set performance standard, use when outcome is clearly measurable and a standard is established
Behaviorism
deals mostly with overt, outward, behavior that can be readily observed and more easily measured. Covert elements of behavior are more hidden and harder to measure.
Bob has an assumption that all basketball players are tall and learns that his new roommate, Mike Williams, that he has not yet met is on the SUNY Potsdam Men's Basketball Team. Bob expects his roommate tall. This thinking process is a
deductive approach, This is where you start with a broad generalization like "all basketball players are tall" ,which please note could be true or false, and from this generalization you form an opinion related to a specific individual ,Mike Williams,—that he must be tall. Remember that the deductive process goes from a generalization to a specific prediction.
identity formation, mental health
defined as going through a personal crisis and making a commitment, reorganization of self: based upon childhood identifications
Discovery Learning
demands the active involvement of learners such as in the cooperative learning situation. This approach to teaching demands considerable planning and preparation, clear instructions, careful monitoring, and summary activities.
Jane has the ability to take a common object such as a shoe and think of many unusual uses of a shoe such as a spider killer, paper weight, and weapon to throw in an intense argument. Jane's cognitive ability is best described as _____________ thinking.
divergent thinking, Jane's cognitive ability demonstrates creativity, but this term is not included amongst the options. Therefore, you need to find a synonym for creative thinking like divergent thinking.
Cooperative Learning
draws upon the strengths and weaknesses of social interaction between teacher and students and students and students.
Which of the following is the best example of a constructivist approach to teaching and learning?
elaborative rehearsal
According to cognitive psychology, students are LEAST likely to be motivated to learn when they are experiencing
equilibrium.
"Test bring about tension between students and teachers." This statement suggests that problems in the classroom are most likely to be in the _____ domain.
evaluation
Rick carries books around with him to class just to look "smart." He put in long hours "studying," but knows that he is distracted and not learning. ___________________________________________
fear of failure, defense mechanisms Evidence: Rick's likelihood of failure is high here and the explanation lies in a defensive posture. He puts on a show to make people think he is studying or at least trying.
Al, George, and Simon have been great friends since elementary school. They hang out together in and out of school. Unfortunately, their academic performance averages are all around 62% in school work. One 7th grade teacher thinks he sees considerable potential in George, so he offers him help in his schoolwork before and after school. After about one month, George shows some improvement and actually gets a few grades in the 80% range. Al and Simon continue to score in the low 60% on their grades. Al and Simon tease George for being the "teacher's pet" and a "brain." George decides to give up his quest to become a good student in order to be accepted by his friends. _____________________
fear of success Evidence: George fears success because when he experiences success he loses his friends in the bargain.
Janet is an 8th grader who has always done well in math and science. She likes a boy in class who has difficulty in these academic areas. Janet's grades in math and science begin to decline. ____________________________________________________
fear of success Evidence: Janet seems to be doing more poorly in math and science in order to obtain the attention of a boy in the class. Success in these subjects might lessen her chances of establishing a relationship with the boy.
Maslow believed that students would be ready to learn if they
felt safe, valued, and respected.
According to Piaget, centration involves the ability of the child to
focus only upon one element at a time.
A basketball coach schedules a scrimmage in order to discover who might start in the league game next week and to see how the players will preform under stress. This use of a scrimmage before the important game is best seen as
formative evaluation.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 12
formative evaluation: conducted prior to some endpoint summative evaluation: conducted at a checkpoint at the end, later in time
Multiple-choice tests are often _____ and often essay tests are _____.
hard to write; hard to score
Another term for effort would be
hard work
Ausubel's concept of advanced organizers was designed to
help students construct knowledge.
When examining statistical data from a situation where the same group of students were given two equivalent forms, Form B and Form D, of a standardized test, you would expect evidence for high test-retest reliability would result in a
high positive correlation between variables.
Existentialism is most strongly associated with the ________ psychological viewpoint; as science is most associated with the ______ psychological viewpoint.
humanistic; behavioristic
Ancient history is best thought of as part of the ________________.
humanities
A student decides to reflect upon his/her multiple-choice, essay, fill-in-the-blank, and true/false exam experiences and concludes that the following elements emerge that are common to all these test-taking experiences: retrieval of information from long-term memory and decision making. This task is best described by the
inductive approach, This is where you start with four specific types of exams ,multiple-choice, essay, fill-in-the-blank, and true/false, and form a generalization with respect to what these exams all have in common. Remember that the inductive approach goes from specific to a broad generalization.
A teacher presents pictures of a train, bus, automobile, and plane. Students are asked to consider what all of these pictures have in common with each other. This is an example of trying to get students to employ
inductive reasoning.
The appropriate use of constructivism in the classroom is best thought of as a learning situation where
knowledge is shared and explored in a learning situation filled with mutual respect and high-leveled communication.
Research which examined the level of teacher's questions in the classroom based upon the Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain supports the idea that most questions were at the
knowledge level.
Which of the following correctly lists the names of the levels of the Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain in the proper order?
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation
Jack is a 12th grader who has been a member of the school baseball team since the 7th grade. He decides to quit the team because he always sits on the bench and feels it is impossible for him to ever play on the field. ___________________________________
learned helplessness or hopelessness Evidence: Hope fades for Jack when his baseball dreams are thought to be impossible
Kounin suggested that good managers in the classroom
made sure that students were working on schoolwork and less likely to get into trouble
Bloom and his colleagues proposed that the evaluation level would require students to
make decisions with establishing criteria for such judgments.
According to Marcia, the psychosocial state of foreclosure is best described as
making a commitment by letting someone else persuade your decision and without considering personal issues.
Classroom Assessment, Grading and Standardized Testing 1
measurement, quantitative, objective and data/statistical evaluation, qualitative and quantitative, judgments and making decisions based upon established/defensible standards, accountability issues in education, assessment procedures used to obtain information
If you wanted to determine if students had mastered the course content through testing, you would rely most upon
measurement.
You have just given students a twenty-question quiz. Consider the following scores as the number of correct responses for ten students on the quiz: 8, 16, 14, 7, 11, 15, 19, 10, 5, 15. Which of the following correctly depicts the statistics for this distribution?
median= 12.5 mean= 12.0 range=14.0
How well you can do something would best be measured by a _____ test.
performance
Which of the following educational objectives is LEAST related to Erikson's description of components of identity?
permitting students to needlessly postpone choosing between a college preparatory or vocational curriculum.
Jane goes on a healthy diet in order to lose 10 pounds for one month. When she reaches her goal, she decides to celebrate by going to the ice cream parlor and ordering a hot fudge sundae with nuts and whipped cream. ___________________________________
positive reinforcement Evidence: Jane rewards herself with ice cream.
Another term for effort would be
practice
Which of the following demonstrates the effective use of praise in the classroom?
praise is offered contingently, intrinsic factors are enhanced, success is credited to ability and effort
The constructivist approach to teaching and learning suggests that
social and individual factors influence behavior.
Lev Vygotsky believed that ____________ were crucial elements for classroom learning.
social elements of assistance and scaffolding.
Geography is best thought of as part of the ___________________.
social sciences
Modern history is best thought of as part of the _________________.
social sciences
Albert Bandura
started out as a behaviorist and became a cognitive psychologist later in his career
Deductive Learning
starts with a generalization and leads to a specific conclusion.
Inductive Learning
starts with one or more specific points and leads to a generalization.
A researcher decides to study test anxiety by administering a very brief survey instrument for three minutes immediately prior to an actual classroom examination. This researcher is most likely attempting to measure
state anxiety.
The behavioristic viewpoint in psychology proposes that we
study surface-level behavior that is observable and measurable.
Beth allows for previously learned bias and emotions to interfere with her logical decision making. Beth's behavior would best be termed
subjective, Subjectivity is often thought of as a form of bias where emotions hold us back from thinking in a more logical, rational, and objective manner. The scientific method and the behavioristic view ,with proponents such as Skinner, Pavlov, Thorndike, and Watson, are most dependent upon objectivity, logic, statistics, and measureable evidence.
According to the Freudian model, excessive guilt stems from overly powerful and unhealthy (id or superego) impulses.
superego
Identification
taking on the characteristics of someone else in order to avoid feeling incompetent; this describes how a child resolves the Oedipal/Electra complexes [Note that this occurs at least partially at the unconscious level] Examples: Prisoners in a Nazi concentration camp began to copy the speech and mannerisms of the guards. A child adopts the behaviors of the same-sex parent.
Noted developmental psychologist, Erik Erikson, developed an idea he called the epigenetic principle
that says we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in stages of psychosocial development, where "progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages." universal sequence, can't skip a stage
Essay questions require
that teachers have an outline for acceptable answer.
Piaget's formal operational stage demands that a person demonstrate
the ability to think like a scientist.
Denial
the refusal to acknowledge a painful or threatening reality Example: A person remains calm and cheerful even though he/she has experienced life threatening burns.
Repression
the removal of uncomfortable thoughts from consciousness; this is a form of forgetting Example: A person forgets to set the alarm and oversleeps in order to miss a job interview that he/she was afraid to attend.
Status quo
the situation as it currently exists Example: The school basketball team had not won a game all season. The team hoped to reverse the status quo and win their final game of the season.
Bloom and his colleagues used the term "application" while other psychologists have preferred the similar term _____ to describe the same processes.
transfer
