Exam 3

Lacrimal Bone

- 2 lacrimal bones- located in eye sockets - forms the inner walls of the eye sockets * contains a small groove for the tear duct

Temporal Process

- a process of the zygomatic bone with zygomatic process of the temporal bone with which it articulates laterally forms part of the zygomatic arch

Pterygoid Process

- a process that extends downwards from each side of the sphenoid bone near the union of its body and a greater wing - consists of medial and lateral pterygoid plates - pair of projections

Hyperextension

- angular movement - (excessive) excessive extension movement beyond normal anatomical position - example: * moving head backwards

Rheumatism

- any painful disorder of the supporting structures of the body: * bones * ligaments * tendons * muscles - that is not caused by infection or injury

Opposition

- brings the thumb and little finger together

Osteoblasts

- cell that reshapes and builds bone - responsible for bone deposition - only have one nucleus - come from: * bone marrow - are related to structural cells - produce new bone called "osteoid" * which is made of bone collagen and other protein

Simple Fracture

- closed - a fracture that does not break through skin

Depression (Movement)

- downward movement lowering body part vertically - example: * to slump shoulders

Frontal Sinus

- in the frontal bone - large - spaces between the bones around the nose

Maxilla Sinus

- located near the nose - located below (inferior) the cheeks, above (superior) the teeth and the sides (lateral) of the nose

Mandible Bone

- lower jaw bone- largest and strongest facial bones which holds the lower teeth * has the alveolar process, mandibular ramus, condylar process, and mental foramina

Developmental Aspects: Spinal Curvature

- primary thoracic and sacral curvatures obvious at birth * give spine a C shape * convex posteriorly

Red Bone Marrow

- produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets - in children, red bone marrow is found in the medullary cavity of the long bones - in adults, it is primarily found in the flat bones: * the pelvic girdle * sternum - the red bone marrow contains hematopoietic cells * which are responsible for generating red blood cells

Sex Hormones

- progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone - hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs - that stimulate the development of male and female sexual characteristics - the growth and maintenance of the skeletal system - promote osteoblastic activity and the production of bone matrix - responsible for the adolescent growth spurt - promote closure of the epiphyseal plates

Dislocation

- separation of two bones where they meet at a joint - joints are areas where two bones come together - a joint where the bones are no longer in their normal positions

Gomphosis

- structural classification - a synathrosis that binds teeth into bony sockets in the mandible and maxillae - the fibrous connection between the tooth and its socket is periodontal - fibrous

Syndesmosis

- structural classification - bones are connected by a ligament - example: * the distal joint between the tibia and fibula - fibrous

Fat Pads

- superficial to the joint capsule - localized masses of adipose tissue covered by a layer of synovial membrane - packing material - also provide some protection * protect articular cartilages - haversian gland - a mass of closely packed fat cells surrounded by fibrous tissue septa - also covered by a layer of synovial cells

Incomplete Fracture

- the bone is fractured but not in two

Fracture

- the way a mineral looks when it breaks apart in an irregular way - types of fractures: * Complete Fracture * Incomplete Fracture * Displaced Fracture * Nondisplaced Fracture * Compression Fracture * Compound Fracture * Simple Fracture * Spiral Fracture * Epiphyseal Fracture * Comminuted Fracture * Greenstick Fracture * Depressed Fracture

Palatine Process

- thick, horizontal process - forms the anterior three quarters of the hard plate

Alveolar Process

- thickened ridge of bone that controls the tooth sockets on the jaw bones that hold the teeth

Occipital Bone

- trapezoid-shaped bone at the lower-back of the cranium (skull) - houses the back part of the brain * has the occipital condyle, foramen magnum, lambdoid suture, hypoglossal canal, and jugular foramen

Elevation

- upward movement raising body part vertically - example: * to bring your shoulders up

Greenstick:

An incomplete fracture or cracking of the bone without actual separation of the parts. Common in children.

Comminuted:

Bone fragments into many pieces.

Spiral:

Common sports fracture resulting from a twisting force.

Foramen:

Round or oval opening through a bone.

Facet:

Smooth, nearly flat articular surface.

Appositional growth:

The growth pattern of bone in which matrix is laid down on the surface.

How are the male and female pelvises different?

The pelvic inlet is heart-shaped in the male. * The female pelvis is modified for childbearing; it is wider, shallower, and lighter than the male pelvis. The male pelvis has thicker/heavier bones with more prominent bone markings, acetabula that are larger and closer together, and a narrower, heart-shaped pelvic inlet.

True or False: The term osteoid refers to the organic part of the matrix of compact bones without mineralization.

True

Trochanter:

Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process.

What is moving a limb away from the midline of the body along the frontal plane called?

abduction

Performing "jumping jacks" requires ________.

abduction and adduction

Cranial Bones and Clavicles become(s) thicker and stronger by the process of

appositional growth

Which type of joint allows for movement of the bones in more than two axes?

ball-and-socket joints * The structure of a ball-and-socket joint allows for a high degree of movement in all three planes of space and axes. Ball-and-socket joints allow for multiaxial movement.

Bone Deposition specifically occur(s) when there is an increase of

blood calcium

Which structure is seen at the arrow?

bone collar

The word root _____ means blood.

hema-

Long Bones form(s) embryonically from

hyaline cartilage models

Which of the following are CORRECTLY paired?

multiaxial movement; movement in all three planes and around all three axes * Multiaxial joints, such as the shoulder and hip, permit movement in all three planes and around all three axes.

Bones are covered and lined by a protective tissue called periosteum. The inner (osteogenic) layer consists primarily of ________.

osteogenic cells

Sesamoid (short) Bone

patella

Pointing the toes is an example of ________.

plantar flexion

Pivot Joint is/are uniaxial, allowing for the movement(s) of

rotation

Which of the following is an abnormal lateral curvature of the vertebral column often seen in the thoracic region?

scoliosis

On the basis of structural classification, which is a fibrous joint?

syndesmosis

The axial skeleton includes ________.

the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

Palatine Bone

- 2 palatine bones - location: * nose - forms the floor and wall of the nose and the roof of the mouth

Temporal Bone

- 2 temporal bones - forms the bilateral portions of the cranial floor * has the mastoid process, mandibular fossa, external acoustics meatus (canal), squamous suture, zygomatic process, styloid process, carotid canal

Skull:

- Paranasal Sinuses * mucosa-lined, air-filled spaces * lighten skull * enhance resonance of voice * warm and humidify air * found in frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones

Calcitriol

- a hormone produced from vitamin D that acts in essentially the same manner as parathyroid hormone - the active form of vitamin D - normally made in the kidney - used to treat and prevent low levels of calcium and bone disease in patients whose kidneys or parathyroid glands

Ossification

- also known as osteogenesis - process of bone formation - begins about the third month of fetal life in humans and is completed by late adolescence - types of ossification: * 2 * intramembranous and endochondral

Mandibular Fossa

- an oval-shaped depression behind the anterior root of the zygomatic process - joins upper surface of the articular disk - supports sides of the eyes and head - articulating or uniting with mandibular condyle

Bursae

- any sac or saclike cavity - lined with a synovial membrane that secretes a viscous lubricating synovial (bursal) fluid - interposed between tendons and bony prominences or at other points of friction between moving structures

Ethmoid Sinus

- are hollow spaces in the bones around the nose

False Sutural Bones

- are ossification centers not welded to independent bones

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)

- autoimmune disease in which the body attacks its own tissues * in this case the cartilage and joint linings - it will usually be bilaterally (both sides of the body) * though not always to the same degree - inflammation of synovial membrane * pain and tenderness of the joint

Sacrum

- bone formed from five vertebrae fused together near the base of the spinal column - back half of pelvic cradle - located at the base of lumbar vertebrae - connected to the pelvis - forms the posterior or pelvic wall - strengthens and stabilizes the pelvis - sacral region

External Acoustic Meatus (canal)

- bony canal for the ear canal - tube running from the outer ear to the middle ear - passageway that leads from the outside of the head to the tympanic membrane (eardrum membrane) * looks like a tunnel

Spicules

- certain mesenchymal cells group together, usually near or around blood vessels, and differentiate into osteogenic cells which deposit bone matrix constitutively - small cells that are laid down in the formation of new bone matrix

Optic Canal

- cylindrical canal - ran obliquely through the lesser wing of sphenoid bone - transmits the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery

Sagittal Suture

- dense, fibrous connective tissue joint between the two parietal bones of the skull - extends from the front of the head to the back, down the middle of the top of the head - unties the parietal bone of skull

Lambdoid Suture

- dense, fibrous connective tissue joint on the posterior aspect of the skull - connects the parietal bones with the occipital bone - continuous with the occipitomastoid suture

Coronal/Frontal Suture

- dense, fibrous connective tissue joint that separates the two parietal bones from the frontal bone of the skull - allows skull to become smaller - enables the skull to expand with the rapidly growing brain

Hinge Joints

- description: * convex bone surface articulates with a concave bone surface - movement: * flexion and extension - examples: * knee * elbow * ankle *interphalangeal - monaxial (uniaxial)

Movement of Knee Joint

- flexion and extension

Axial Skeleton

- functions: * supports and protects organs in body cavities > attaches to muscles of head, neck, and trunk > performs respiratory movements > stabilizes parts of appendicular skeleton

Superior Nasal Conchae

- in the nose and is part of the labyrinth of the ethmoid bone - arising bony projection from its posterior surface - air passage between the superior nasal conchae and the lateral nasal wall - each pair, either side of the nasal cavity

Intervertebral Foramen

- in-between two vertebrae - in opening - nerve root exit the spine - travels to foramen to reach rest of body - in and out passage of vertebral canal

Vertebral Column: Curvatures

- increase resilience and flexibility of spine * cervical and lumbar curvatures > concave posteriorly (curve inward) * thoracic and sacral curvatures > convex posteriorly (bulges outward)

Bursitis

- inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction

Medial Rotation

- inward (medial) movement of a body segment in the transverse plane - rotational movement towards the midline

Anulus Fibrosus

- outer collar composed of collagen and fibrocartilage - tough

Epiphyseal Line

- remnant of the epiphyseal plate, seen in adult bones - marks the point of union were the epiphysis meets the diaphysis - bone replaces the cartilage

Occipital Condyle

- rounded projections * there is 2 - lateral to the foramen magnum that articulate with the first cervical vertebra (atlas) - forms a joint with first cervical vertebra (atlas) - enabling the head to move relative to the neck

Hernia of Vertebral Disc

- rubbery disks that lie between the vertebrae in your spine consist of a soft center (nucleus) surrounded by a tougher exterior (annulus) - a herniated disk occurs when a portion of the nucleus pushes through a crack in the annulus - symptoms may occur if the herniation compresses a nerve

Styloid Process

- slender pointed part of the temporal bone - it projects anterior -inferiorly from the inferior surface of the petrous part of temporal bone - serves as am anchor point for several muscles associated with the tongue and tarynt

Supination

- turn palm of outstretched hand upward - example: * like you are asking for more soup > (soup = supination)

Angular Movement

- type of movement in a synovial joint - produced by changing the angle between the bones of a joint - includes: * flexion * extension * hyperextension * abduction * adduction * circumduction

The word root _____ means embryonic or formative cell.

-blast

What physiological processes allow growing bones to acquire their unique features such as processes, tuberosities, condyles, and fossae?

It results from mechanical stress and remodeling.

Spine:

Sharp, slender, often pointed projection.

Epiphyseal line:

The appearance of this structure signals the end of bone growth.

Chondrocytes:

The cells responsible for the early stages of endochondral ossification.

An individual with a "double-jointed" thumb can pull it back towards the wrist much farther than normal. What does it mean to be "double-jointed?"

The joint capsules and ligaments are more stretchy and loose than normal.

Articulations permitting only slight degrees of movement are ________.

amphiarthroses

Short Bone

carpals and tarsals

The blood vessels and nerve in the figure are found within which type of space?

central (Haversian) canal * A central (or Haversian) canal runs lengthwise at the center of each osteon.

Which bone would be formed by the process of intramembranous ossification?

frontal bone of the forehead * The frontal bone is a flat bone that, like other cranial bones, forms from within a membrane.

Cranial Bones and Clavicles form(s) during fetal development by the process of

intramembranous ossification

Bone Deposition specifically occur(s) when there is an increase of____

mechanical stress

Bone Resorption is/are primarily accomplished by cellular activity of

osteoclasts

Calcium is released by the action of____ ,which break down bone matrix.

osteoclasts

The word root _____ means around or enclosing.

peri-

The connective tissue membrane that encloses a bone is the

periosteum.

Male and Female Pelves

picture, labeled

Irregular Bone

vertebrae, hip bones

Your patient is returning for follow-up 6 weeks after sustaining a nondisplaced fracture of his radius. He tells you that his forearm is no longer painful, but he is concerned that he can palpate a "lump" in the bone at the site of the healing fracture. What is your response?

"That bump is a normal part of bone healing at this stage. As your body completes the process, the cells in your bone will gradually remodel it to its previous shape."

Transverse Facets

- (smooth) joint articulates - also known as the transverse costal facets - is one of the costal facets - a site where a run forms a joint with transverse process of a thoracic vertebrae - ends in a clubbed extremity, on the front of which is a small concave surface, for articulation with the tubercle of a rib

Appendicular Skeleton

- 126 bones - allows us to move and manipulate objects - includes all bones besides axial skeleton * the limbs * the supportive girdles

Maxillae Bone

- 2 maxillae bones - upper jaw - fused together to from the upper jaw which holds upper teeth * has palatine process, maxilla sinus, and alveolar process

Zygomatic Bone

- 2 zygomatic bones- also known as the malar - located in cheek - forms the cheek bones * has temporal process

Cervical (C1-C7)

- 7 vertebrae closest to the head- neck vertebrae - special characteristics: * transverse foramen * atlas (C1) * axis (C2) - provides mobility and stability to head - has transverse foramen to help vertebral arteries supply blood to the brain - protection spinal cord - vertebrae of neck inferior to skull - superior to thoracic vertebrae

Atlas

- C1, the first cervical vertebra - on top - ring-shaped - atypical cervical vertebra - articulates with dens of the axis and the occiput - respectively allowing rotation of the head - flexion and extension and lateral flexion of the head = "yes" or "no" movement - just inferior of the head - holds up world = head; supports the head - occipital condyle

Types of Vertebrae

- Cervical: * 7 vertebrae * transverse foramen * atlas (on top) * axis (on bottom) (dens) - Thoracic: * 12 vertebrae * transverse facets * demi-facets (superior costal facets and inferior costal facets) - Lumbar: * 5 vertebrae * nothing special

Superior and Inferior Articular Processes

- Superior: * rough area * extends or faces upwards * each side of a vertebrae * articulates with inferior articular process * the articular processes arises from junction between the laminae and pedicles of the vertebral arch - Inferior: * rough area * faces or projects downward * each side of a vertebrae - sticking out part is the process

Foramen Rotundum

- a circular hole in the sphenoid bone - connects the middle cranial fossa and the pterygopalatine fossa - base of the greater wing, inferior to the superior orbital fissure

Greenstick Fracture

- a common incomplete fracture that occurs in children; it appears to have broken partially like a sap-filled green stick

Osteoporosis

- a condition in which the bones become fragile and break easily - loss of bone density - a bone disease that occurs when the body loses too much bone, makes too little bone, or both - "porous bone" - cause: * low calcium intake

Hypoglossal Canal

- a foramen (opening) in the occipital bone - hidden medially and superiorly to each occipital condyle - hypoglossal nerve transverses the canal

Spiral Fracture

- a fracture that twists around the bone

Synovial Joint (Flash Card)

- a fully moveable joint in which the synovial (joint) cavity is present between the two articulating bones - created where two bones articulate to permit a variety of motions

Articulations

- a joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole - they are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement - joints are classified * structurally > whether the adjacent bones are strongly anchored to each other by: * fibrous connective tissue * cartilage > whether the adjacent bones articulate with each other within: * a fluid-filled space called a joint cavity * functionally > three types of joints: * immovable * slightly movable * freely movable - functions: * immovable and slightly movable > serve to protect internal organs > give stability to the body > allow for limited body movement * freely movable > allow for much more extensive movements of the body and limbs

Fracture Hematoma

- a mass of clotted blood that forms around the site of a bone fracture within 6-8 hours after the injury

Reposition

- a movement that moves the thumb and the little finger away from each other, effectively reversing opposition

Zygomatic Process

- a place for muscle attachment, mainly muscles involved with chewing - helps strengthen the entire cheek bone area - long arched process - projecting from lower part of the squamous part of temporal bone

Fibrous Capsule

- a transparent capsule that prevents infections in surrounding regions from spreading to the kidney - outer dense fibrous connective tissue layer of the articular capsule that is continuous with the periosteum of the bone - also forms ligaments when fibrous bundles are parallel

Vertebral Column: Curvatures

- abnormal spine curvatures * scoliosis - abnormal lateral curve * kyphosis (hunchback) - exaggerated thoracic curvature * lordosis (swayback) - accentuated lumbar curvature

Sutural Bones

- also known as Wormian bones - located between some cranial bones (formed between sutures) * most commonly located in the lambdoid suture - true or false - supernumerary irregular - abnormal small bones

Cortex

- also known as cortical bone - outer shell of compact bone - formed by compact bone - found predominantly in the appendicular skeleton - found particularly in diaphysis of long bones

Gliding Joints

- also known as plane/planar joints - description: * flat or slightly curved plane - movement: * gliding motion back and forth and/or side to side - examples: * intercarpal joints * intertarsal joints * sternoclavicular joints * acromioclavicular joints * sternocostal joints * vertebrocostal joints

Medullary Cavity

- also known as the marrow cavity - cavity within the shaft of the long bones filled with bone marrow * yellow marrow in adult (child red marrow) - central, hollowed-out area in the shaft of a long bone - tube-like, hollow space in diaphysis

Vertebral Column (Flash Card)

- also known as the spinal column - central asks or the skeleton axis in all vertebrates - provides attachment to muscles - supports trunks - protects the spinal cord and nerve roots - serves as a site for haemopiesis - give body structure and support - allows movement and flexibility - protection - contains: * cervical * thoracic * lumbar * sacrum * coccyx

Ethmoid Bone

- an unpaired bone in the skull - separates the nasal cavity from the brain - located at the roof of the nose, between the two orbits * has perpendicular plate, ethmoid sinus, crista galli, cribriform plate, middle nasal conchae, and superior nasal conchae

Sphenoid Bone

- an unpaired bone of the neuro-cranium - middle of the skull towards the front - in front of the basilar part of the occipital bone * has sphenoidal sinus, pterygoid process, sella turcica, optic canal, superior orbital fissure, foramen rotundum, foramen ovale, and foramen spinosum

Flexion

- angular movement - (to bend) decrease in the angle between bones of a joint; usually occurs on a sagittal plane - example: * moving head forward, like to bow your head

Abduction

- angular movement - move appendage away from the midline - example: * raising leg out to the side, away from the body

Adduction

- angular movement - move appendage toward the midline - example: * lowering leg back to the body, to the anatomical position

Circumduction

- angular movement - the circular movement at the far end of a limb - move a distal part of an appendage in a circle - example: * keeping arm straight, and moving in a circle motion * moving hips in a circle motion

Extension

- angular movement - (to stretch out) increase in the angle between bones of a joint - restore to anatomical position. - example: * bringing head back to regular position, to anatomical position

Foramen Ovale

- at the base of the skull- larger of several holes - transmits nerves through the skull - posterior part of the sphenoid bone - posterolateral to the foramen rotundum

Lateral Flexion

- bends vertebral column from side to side - movement of a body part to the side - commonly associated with the neck and spine - examples: * when you move your head toward one of your shoulders * bend your body sideways

Vertebrae

- body of each vertebra = large, round portion of bone - body of each vertebra = attached to a bony ring - 33 individual, interlocking bones that form the spinal column - each has 3 main functional components: * vertebral body = for loading-bearing * vertebral arch = to protect spinal cord * transverse process = for ligament attachment - subdivided into 3 types: * cervical = 7 (C1-C7) * thoracic = 12 (T1-T12) * lumbar = 5 (L1-L5) - protects and supports - bears the majority of weight put upon your spine

Endochondral Ossification

- bone formation from the cartilage mold. * hyaline cartilage model of the bone forms first from the mesenchyme > which is then replaced by bone tissue * most long bones that need to lengthen rapidly form this way due to the ability of hyaline cartilage to form quickly without requiring a direct blood supply - as the cartilage model grows, a bone collar forms around the future diaphysis - blood vessels grow into the center of the diaphysis to deliver osteoprogenitor cells that establish primary ossification center - this process occurs in each epiphysis to establish the secondary ossification centers - at the junction between the primary and secondary ossification centers, a disc of hyaline cartilage remains as the hypohyseal plate * continues to produce hyaline cartilage * the rate of the hyaline cartilage replacement with bone tissue increases in adolescence until the entire growth plate becomes calcified > at which point the bone can no longer lengthen.

Intramembranous Ossification

- bone formation within the mesenchyme * some of the mesenchymal cells aggregate, differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells, and give rise to osteoblasts - osteoblasts produce bony matrix and become encased in it and become osteocytes - newly formed bone matrices interconnect and remodel to form: * the compact and sponge bones of the flat bones and portions of irregular bones

Bone Remodeling

- bone is active tissue and is always undergoing * remodeling - replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue - resorption in remodeling involves * removal of minerals and collagen fibers by osteoclasts - deposition in remodeling involves * addition of minerals and collagen fibers by osteoblasts - a factor: * calcium levels

Sesamoid Bones

- bones embedded in tendons - round bones found near joints - commonly found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet * kneecap > patella - protects tendons from stress and wear

Flat Bones

- bones of the ribs, shoulder blades, pelvis, and skull - protect internal organs * heart, pelvic organs, brain - somewhat flattened, like a shield - provide large areas of attachment for muscles

Irregular Bones

- bones of the vertebrae and face - protection of nervous tissue - anchor points for skeletal muscle attachment - maintaining support for the pharynx and trachea - tongue attachment * hyoid bone - vary in shape * have complex shapes for protection purposes - most common location is the spine

Spinous Process

- bony projection off the posterior of each vertebra - protrudes where laminae of the vertebral arch join and provides the point of attachment for muscles and ligaments of the spine - allows for muscles and ligaments attachment - muscles found in neck, head, back

Depressed Fracture

- broken bone portion is pressed inward, typical of skull fracture * a fracture especially of the skull in which the fragment is depressed below the normal surface

Carotid Canal

- carotid canal passage within the petrous temporal bone and transmits the internal carotid artery and sympathetic plexus - starts on the inferior surface of the temporal bone at the external opening of the carotid canal - anteriorly to jugular fossa and medially to the carotid plate

Short Bones

- carpals and tarsals * wrist > scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium * ankle > calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial cuneiform - long as they are wide - provide stability and some movement - typically cube-shaped

Epiphyseal Plate

- cartilaginous area at the ends of long bones where lengthwise growth takes place in the immature skeleton - cartilage that is organized for quick, efficient growth - area of active bone lengthening - maintains constant thickness * rate of cartilage growth on one side balanced by bone replacement on other - near the end of adolescence * chondroblasts divide less often while epiphyseal plate thins and then is replaced by bone - closure: * bone lengthening ceases (requires presence of cartilage) - bone of epiphysis and diaphysis fuses

Osteoclasts

- cell that tears down bone - responsible for resorption of bone - multinucleated cells - increased activity of these cells is associated with several common bone diseases * osteoporosis - large cells - come from: * bone marrow - related to white blood cells - found on the surface of the bone mineral

Sprain

- classified by: * the degrees of tearing or rupture that has occurred - injuries to the ligaments that result from forces that induce movements beyond the normal range of motion for that joint - ligament injury - common sprained areas: * ankle * wrist * fingers * toes * spine * knee * sacroiliac joint - immediate pain; less pain with 3rd compared to 2nd - tearing and popping sound at time of injury - swelling4 - ecchymosis: bruise - increase in joint play movements; the greater the disruption of the ligament fibers, the greater the joint play - pain with specific ligament stress test - pain with distraction of the joint surfaces (traction) - point tenderness on palpation - placing the joint in neutral (resting or open packed position) will alleviate some of the pain

Congenital Abnormalities of Skull

- cleft palate * no medial fusion of right and left halves of palate

Superior Orbital Fissure

- communication between the cavernous sinus and the apex of the orbit - straddled by the tendinous ring - separates the greater and lesser wings of sphenoid

Facial Bone

- components: * maxillae bone (2) * zygomatic bone (2)* palatine bone (2) * lacrimal bone (2) * nasal bone (2) * vomer * mandible - facial bones support structures such as the eyes and teeth - some bones are made from cartilage

Cranial Vault

- components: * parietal bone (2) * temporal bone (2) * frontal bone * occipital bone * sphenoid bone * ethmoid bone - flexible - shock absorbance - squeezing through birth canal - room for brain growth - cranial based alteration - bones formed embryologically in membrane, held by the dura, consisting of thin bone with few fenestrations

Tendons

- composed of tenocytes (water and fibrous collagen proteins) - of variable length - part of muscle and contractile part of muscle to the bone - non-distensible fibrous cord or band - tendons are not well vascularized - included in muscle length - consists of: * fascicles of densely arranged fibers - bone to muscle

Lamellae

- concentric rings made up of groups of hollow tubes of bone matrix - layers of bone matrix - types: * concentric lamellae * interstitial lamella * circumferential lamellae > outer circumferential lamellae > inner circumferential lamellae

Opening

- conduits for blood vessels - includes: * canal > passageway through a bone > optic canal which is the tiny hole in upper eye * fissure > narrow, slit like opening through a bone > superior orbital fissure which is the tear drop hole next to optic canal * foramen (foramina) > rounded passageway through a bone > foramen magnum which is posterior to where the spine connects to the head (spine hole) * meatus > passageway through a bone > external acoustic meatus which is the ear canal area * sinus > cavity or hollow space in a bone > sphenoid sinus

Middle Nasal Conchae

- consists of medial surface of the labyrinth of ethmoid - greatly increase the surface area of the walls of the chambers - curved bones create channels for the flow air

Frontal Bone

- consists of two portions- vertically oriented squamous part, and the horizontally oriented orbital part - makes up bony part of the forehead, part of the bony orbital cavity holding the eye, and part of the bony part of the nose - bowl-shaped - front region (ventral), anterior to parietal bone, superior to nasal bone * has the frontal sinus and coronal/frontal suture

Sternum

- consists of: * manubrium * body * xiphoid process - breastbone - long flat bone - located in the central part of the chest - connects the the ribs via cartilage - forms the front of the ribcage - protects heart, lungs, and major blood vessels

Articular Cartilages

- cover the ends of most bones at movable joints - hyaline cartilage covering the ends of the bones in the synovial cavity

Intervertebral Discs

- cushion-like pad composed of two parts * nucleus pulposus > inner gelatinous nucleus > gives disc its elasticity and compressibility * anulus fibrosus > outer collar composed of collagen and fibrocartilage

Meniscus

- deepens the articular facets of the tibia to add stability to the knee and act as a shock absorber - rims of fibrocartilage situated on the articular surface of the tibial plateau - thick at their peripheral but taper to a thin edge at their inner circumference

Axis

- dens (odontoid process) - on bottom - C2, the second cervical vertebra - atypical cervical vertebra - turns head - forms a pivot joint * allows C1 (atlas) to rotate

True Sutural Bones

- derived from one or many points of ossification

Ball-and-Socket Joints

- description: * ball-shaped head articulates with cup-shaped socket - movement: * freely movable joint * flexion and extension * abduction and adduction * circumduction * rotation - examples: * shoulder * hip joints - multiaxial (triaxial)

Condylar Joints

- description: * oval convex projection articulates with oval concave depression - movement: * flexion and extension * abduction and adduction * circumduction - examples: * wrist and metacarpophalangeal joints - biaxial

Pivot Joints

- description: * rounded or pointed projection articulates with ring formed by bone and ligament - movement: * rotation - examples: * atlanto-axial joint (C1 & C2) * radioulnar joint: > turns palm anteriorly and posteriorly - monaxial (uniaxial)

Saddle Joints

- description: * saddle-shaped depression articulates with projection that fits into the saddle - movement: * same as condyloid joint, except more exaggerated - examples: * carpometacarpal joint (thumb) - biaxial - the thumb joint is the only saddle joint in the body.

Periosteum

- diaphysis - dense white fibrous membrane that covers bone - attaches tendons firmly to bone - contains cells that form and destroy bone - contains blood vessels - important in growth and repair - sends branches into bone - essential to bone cell survival and formation

Epiphyseal Fracture

- epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate - a break at the location of the growth plate, which can affect growth of the bone

Exercise and Bone

- exercise is important for treating and preventing osteoporosis - adapts by building more bone and becoming denser - helps prevent bone loss

Perpendicular Plate

- extends inferiorly from the base of the cribriform plate and contributes to the median nasal septum - thin, flattened lamina

Comparison of Male and Female Pelves

- female pelvis * adapted for childbearing * true pelvis (inferior to pelvic brim) defines birth canal * cavity of true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has greater capacity

Intervertebral Discs (Flash Cards)

- fibrocartilage pads that separate and cushion the vertebrae - lies between adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column - forms a fibrocartilage joint- allows slight movement of the vertebrae - acts as a ligament to hold the vertebrae together - shocks absorber for the spine

Joint Capsule

- fibrous tissue that encloses bone ends and other joint surfaces - this is a small area between the articulating surfaces - the peripheral margins of the joint cavity are filled by the collapsing and in-folding of the synovial membrane (villi) - this potential space contains a small amount of fluid (synovial fluid)

Metaphysis

- flared portion of a long bone - contains the growth plate * the part of the bone that grows during childhood > it grows it ossifies near the diaphysis and the epiphyses - growth zone - the neck portion of a long bone * between the epiphysis and the diaphysis > where diaphysis and epiphysis meet

Vertebral Foramen

- foramen (opening) formed by the anterior segment (the body), and posterior part (vertebral arch) - begins at cervical vertebra #1 and continues inferior to lumbar vertebra - root of spinal nerve, the spinal artery of segment artery, communicating veins, ligaments, and recurrent meningeal pass through

Dermal Bones

- form the sides and roof of the skull and make up the facial skeleton - bones created via intramembranous ossification * clavicle * mandible - forms directly in the skin from mesenchyme

Coccyx

- four vertebrae fused together to form the tailbone - also known as the tailbone - small, triangular bone resembling a shortened tail - located at bottom of the spine - composed of three to five coccygeal vertebrae or spinal bone

Nondisplaced Fracture

- fragments are still in correct position

Diarthrosis

- freely movable joints - also known as synovial joints - often reinforced by ligaments - articulation that permits free movement - includes: * synovial joint - characteristics: * blood supply * may contain * may have peripheral labrum * articular capsule and cartilage * synovial fluid and membrane - functional classification

The Thoracic Cage

- functions: * protects organs of the thoracic cavity > heart, lungs, and thymus * attaches muscles > for respiration > of the vertebral column > of the pectoral girdle and the upper limbs

Costal Groove

- groove between the ridge of the internal surface of the rib and the inferior border - contains the intercostal vessels and intercostal nerve - VAN (vein, artery, nerve) - carries blood vessels and a nerve

Compact Bone

- hard and dense, but not solid * having only small spaces for osteocytes - bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone (periosteum) - makes up majority of human skeleton

Synarthrosis

- immovable joint - bone regions united by fibrous connective tissue - includes: * suture * gomphosis * synchondrosis * synostosis - functional classification

Depression

- includes: * alveolus (alveoli) > deep pit or socket in the maxillae or mandible > alveolar process which houses the teeth * fossa (fossae) > flattened or shallow depression > mandibular fossa which articulates with mandible * sulcus > narrow groove > intertubercular sulcus which is between the two tubercles > it is a deep depression that contains the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle

Fetal Skull

- infant skull has more bones than adult skull * skull bones such as mandible and frontal bones are unfused * skull bones connected by fontanelles * unossified remnants of fibrous membranes * ease birth and allow brain growth * four fontanelles > anterior, posterior, mastoid, and sphenoidal

Nucleus Pulposus

- inner gelatinous nucleus that gives the disc its elasticity and compressibility - the soft, fibrocartilaginous, central portion of intervertebral disk

Developmental Aspects: Old Age

- intervertebral discs thin, less hydrated, and less elastic * risk of disc herniation increases - several centimeter height loss common by 55 - costal cartilages ossify * rigid thorax causes shallow breathing and less efficient gas exchange - all bones lose mass, so fracture risk increases * exercise can help reduce bone mass loss.

Foramen Magnum

- is a large oval opening in the occipital bone of skull - passage of the central nervous system through the skull connecting the brain and spinal cord

Squamous Suture

- is the cranial suture between the temporal and parietal bones - arches backward from the pterion and connects the temporal squama with the lower border of the parietal bone

Arthritis

- joint inflammation - form of rheumatism in which joints: * swollen * stiff * painful - most leading cause of physical disability of in adults older than 65 yrs

Jugular Foramen

- large foramen (opening) in the base of skull - located behind the carotid canal- formed in front by the petrous portion of temporal bone and behind by the occipital bone - act as a conduit for essential structures to pass through

Structure of Knee Joint

- largest and one of the most complex and most frequently injured joints - tibiofemoral joint is supported by: * a joint capsule * cartilage * numerous ligaments and muscle tendons

Articular Cartilage

- layer of hyaline cartilage that covers articular surface of epiphyses - function: * cushion joints and blows > smooth surface for less friction

Gliding (Linear Movement)

- linear motion, such as smooth sliding of bone past bone (the bones seem to glide past each other, hence the name "gliding" joint)

Mental Foramina

- located on anterior surface of the mandible - transmits the terminal branches of the inferior alveolar nerve and vessels

Perforating Canal (Volkmann Canal)

- location * varies, run perpendicular to the long axis of osteon - structure: * channel that runs perpendicular to the long axis of osteon - function: * deliver vessels and nerves throughout the thickness of the compact bone

Central Canal (Haversian Canal)

- location: * center of each osteon - structure: * central channel for vessels and nerves - function: * conduct vessels and nerves throughout the length of the osteon

Interstitial Lamella

- location: * in between osteons - structure: * non cylindrical layers of bony matrix -function: * fill the gap between osteons * weight bearing and transferring: > remnant of remodeled osteon

Nasal Bone

- location: * nose - forms the bridge of the nose - top of the nose - inferior to frontal bone

Vomer Bone

- location: * nose - forms the dividing bony wall of the nose

Concentric Lamellae

- location: * rings of bony matrix in each osteon - structure: * concentric layers of bony matrix with collagen fibers in each layer running in opposite direction - function: * layered arrangements and fiber orientation allow optimal weight bearing and even weight transfer

Canaliculi

- location: * rings of bony matrix in each osteon - structure: * short, narrow, hair-like channels - function: * conduct osteocyte processes, allow them to make physical and chemical contact via adhesions and gap junctions Canaliculi

Osteon (Haversian System)

- location: * throughout compact bone, oriented parallel to the long axis of the bone or in the direction of applied force - structure: * cylindrical structural units - function: * bear and transfer weight in its long axis

Long Bones

- longer than they are wide - mostly located in the appendicular skeleton - located also in the upper limb and lower limb bones * arm and leg > tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges > humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges - support the weight of the body and facilitate movement

Arches of the Foot

- maintained by interlocking foot bones, ligaments, and tendons - allow foot to bear weight * have give when weight is applied to foot and spring back when weight removed. * makes running and walking more economical - three arches * lateral longitudinal (low) * medial longitudinal (high) * transverse

Comparison of Male and Female Pelves

- male pelvis * tilted less far forward * adapted for support of male's heavier build and stronger muscles * cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep

Osteocytes

- mature bone cells * formed when an osteoblast becomes embedded in the matrix it has secreted - include: * to respond to mechanical strain * to send signals of bone formation or bone resorption to the bone surface * to modify their microenvironment * to regulate both local and systemic mineral homeostasis - located in: * bone > occupies a small chamber called a lacuna, which is contained in the calcified matrix of bone

Retraction

- move a body part backward or posterior - example: * bring jaw back toward face.

Protraction

- move a body part forward or anterior on a horizontal plane - example: * pushing jaw outward from face

Monaxial (uniaxial)

- movement of a joint in only one plane

Biaxial

- movement of a joint in two planes

Triaxial

- movement of joint in more than two planes

Parietal Bone

- on each side of the skull behind the frontal bone - forms the side-sand roof of the cranium - 4 total sutures marks - 2 parietal bones * has sagittal suture

Displaced Fracture

- one in which fragments are out of position

Compression Fracture

- one in which the bone appears to be mashed down

Comminuted Fracture

- one in which there are more than two ends or fragments

Transverse Foramen

- only present in cervical vertebrae - allows the passage of the vertebral artery and vein (in each cervical vertebra except C7)

Compound Fracture

- open - fracture involving the bone puncturing through the skin, or an object puncturing the skin, making an opening through the skins to the fracture site

Difference between RA and OA

- osteoarthritis affects large joints (knees, hips) secondary to wear and tear - rheumatoid arthritis affects small joints and actively attack the cartilage

Circumferential Lamellae

- outer circumferential lamellae * location: > outer most layer of the compact bone * structure: > several layers of bony matrix on the outer most side of the compact bone * function: > bind the osteons from the outside, site of attachment for periosteum - inner circumferential lamellae * location: > innermost layer of the compact bone * structure: > several layers of bony matrix on the inside of the compact bone * function: > bind the osteons from the inside, site of attachment for endosteum

Lateral Rotation

- outward (lateral) movement of a body segment in the transverse plane - rotating movement away from the midline

Growth Hormone (GH)

- peptide hormone - stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration - made by the pituitary gland and secreted into the bloodstream - stimulates bone turnover as it increases osteoblast number and function - stimulates bone resorption

Plantar Flexion

- point your toes downward; raise your heels

Doriflexion

- point your toes upward; stand on your heels

Foramen Spinosum

- posteromedial part of greater wing of sphenoid bone - posterolateral to foramen ovale - transmits the middle meningeal artery, middle meningeal vein, and (usually) the nerve spinosus

Calcification

- process that hardens bones by adding calcium phosphate and collagen * the accumulation of calcium salts in a body tissue - it normally occurs in the formation of bone * develop on the surface of bone and in the soft tissue of the wrist, hand and fingers * calcium can be deposited abnormally in soft tissue, causing it to harden - classified on whether there is mineral balance or not, and the location of the calcification

Yellow Bone Marrow

- produces fat, cartilage, and bone - it's main function is to store adipocytes * whose triglycerides can serve as a source of energy - found in: * the hollow interior of the diaphyseal portion * shaft of long bones - the marrow fat is different than the subcutaneous fat in the body * is the last fat to be lost due to starvation

Osteoarthritis (OA)

- progressive - degenerative joint disease in which joint cartilage is gradually lost - cause: * combination of aging * obesity * irritation of the joints * muscle weakness * abrasion/wear and tear - most commonly found in: * weight bearing * joints/synovial joints

Superior and Inferior Articular Facets

- provide mating surface for 2 adjacent vertebrae - Superior: * is posterior facing * slightly concave on superior articular facets on vertebra above * oval-shaped * works like a hinge with inferior articular facet * faces upwards * guide and movement of spinal motion segment * smooth area * flattened surface - Inferior: * faces downward * guide and movement of spinal motion segment * smooth area* flattened surface on inferior lateral mass * acts like a hinge with superior articular facet

Trabeculae

- provide structural support to the spongy bone * constructed for the body to support the areas that experience the most stress - found at the ends of long bones - full of holes that are connected to each other by thin rods and plates of bone tissue known as trabeculae

Mandibular Ramus

- quadrilateral process projecting upwards and backwards from the posterior part of the body of mandible and ending on the ending on the other side at the temporomandibular joint - attachment site of the masseter muscle

Primary Ossification Center

- region, deep in the periosteal collar, where bone development starts during endochondral ossification - diaphysis - the first area of a bone to start ossifying - prenatal development in the central part of each developing bone - involved in the formation of bone

Calcitonin (CT)

- released by parafollicular cells of the thyroid - inhibits osteoclasts * thus reducing bone reabsorption > ultimately decreasing blood calcium level

Cancellous (Spongy) Bone

- reticular tissue that makes up most of the volume of a long bone - found in long bone - includes: * red bone marrow > manufactures most red blood cells - contains little spaces like a sponge - encased in the layers of compact bone - bone spicules arranged in trabecular network - porous bone - found mainly in the axial skeleton - located between the cortices of smaller flat and short bones * scapulae, vertebrae, and pelvis.

Thoracic Cage

- ribs cage and sternum - arrangement of ribs attached to the vertebral column and sternum in the thorax of most vertebrates * encloses and protects the heart and lungs - flat bones - consists of: * ribs * costal groove * costal cartilage * sternum

Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12)

- second set of 12 vertebrae; they articulate with the 12 pairs of ribs to form the outward curve of the spine - midspine - forms vertebral spine in the upper trunk - only bones that support ribs and have overlapping spinous process - protect heart and lung - range of motion is limited - special characteristics: * transverse facets * demi-facets (superior costal facets and inferior costal facets) - sandwiched between cervical vertebrae and lumbar vertebrae

Developmental Aspects: Spinal Curvature

- secondary curvatures * cervical and lumbar—convex anteriorly * appear as child develops (e.g., lifts head, learns to walk)

Thyroxine (T4)

- secreted by the thyroid gland - also called tetraiodothyronine - T4 increases metabolism in cells - over-active may affect the likelihood of developing bone loss

Accessory Ligaments

- separate ligaments or parts of the joint capsule - consist of: * bundles of dense regular connective tissue > which is highly adapted for resisting strain - this resists any extreme movements that may damage the joint

Projections

- serve as sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment - these include: * crest > narrow, prominent, ridge-like projection > iliac crest which is the superior most ridge of the ilium > palpate the posterosuperior edges of your hip; the ridge of bone you feel on each side * epicondyle > projection adjacent to a condyle > medial and lateral epicondyle > which are on the sides of the knee > are superior to each medial and lateral condyle * line > low ridge > anterior, posterior, and inferior gluteal lines > which are on the lateral surface of the ilium (pelvis/so coxae) > are attachment sites for the gluteal muscles of the buttock * process > any marked bony prominence > zygomatic process of temporal bone > temporal process of zygomatic bone * ramus (rami) > angular extension of a bone relative to the rest of the structure > vertical portion of mandible > ischiopubic ramus of the pelvis > which the rounded right and left bottom bones of the pelvis * spine > pointed, slender process > anterior superior iliac spine > posterior superior iliac spine > which is where the iliac crest arises between * trochanter > massive, rough projection found only on the femur > greater trochanter (bigger projection at the top of the femur) > lesser trochanter (little projection on the inside of femur towards the top) * tubercle > small, round projection > greater tubercle of the humerus > which is positioned lateral to the head of the humerus * tuberosity > large, rough projection > deltoid tuberosity of the humerus > which is a roughened bump on the shaft of the humerus

Diaphysis

- shaft of long bone * between proximal and distal ends of the bone - walls are composed of compact bone - hollow region * medullary cavity > contains yellow marrow - middle of long bone - cylindrical shape and thick - function: * provides strong support without cumbersome weight

Cribriform Plate

- sieve-like structure between the anterior cranial fossa and the nasal cavity - part of ethmoid bone and supports the olfactory bulb - transmits the olfactory nerve that carry the sense of smell - roofs nasal cavities

Amphiarthrosis

- slightly movable joint - have either fibers or fibrocartilage - connected by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage - allows minimal to moderate motion - includes: * syndesmosis * symphyses - functional classification

Transverse Process

- small bony projection off the right and left side of each vertebrae - two transverse processes of each vertebrae function as the site of attachment for muscles and ligaments of the spine - point of articulation of the ribs (thoracic spine)

Gouty Arthritis

- sodium urate crystals deposit in the soft tissues of the joints - most commonly the feet * the base of the big toe - crystals irritate and erode the cartilage - inflammation, swelling and acute pain - eventually, it will destroy all joint tissue and the bone will fuse and become immovable

Osteoprogenitor Cells

- stem cells derived from mesenchyme - osteogenic cells - located in the bone - function: * help with bone repair and growth - reside in the bone marrow - precursors to the more specialized bone cells * osteocytes and osteoblasts

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

- stimulates the release of calcium in an indirect process through osteoclasts * which ultimately lead to resorption of the bones - regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism

Costal Cartilage

- stretchy - brown, dark yellowish color on our model - bars of hyaline cartilage - serves to prolong the ribs forward - contributes to the elasticity of the walls of the thorax = allows chest to expand - found anterior ends of the ribs - connect the sternum to the ribs

Synchondrosis

- structural classification - a rigid cartilaginous bridge between two articulating bones - example: * the connection between the first pair of vertebrosternal ribs and the manubrium of the sternum - cartilaginous

Suture

- structural classification - a synarthrotic joint - located only between the bones of the skull - the edges of the bones are interlocked and bound together at the suture by dense - fibrous connective tissue - example: * the sagittal suture - fibrous

Synotosis

- structural classification - a totally rigid immovable joint created when two bones fuse and the boundary between them disappears - example: * the frontal (metopic) suture of the frontal bone - bony

Synovial

- structural classification - have a small synovial cavity (space) between the two bones that permits a greater amount of movement than fibrous or cartilaginous joints - covered by: * hyaline cartilage - the majority of the joints in the human body are synovial joints - examples: * shoulder * elbow * hip * knee joints - synovial joints vary in structure, they have several common features: * synovial cavity * articular cartilage * articular capsule * fibrous capsule * synovial membrane * synovial fluid

Symphysis

- structural classification - the articulating joints are connected by a wedge or pad of fibrocartilage - example: * the joint between the two pubic bones (pubic symphysis) - cartilaginous

Individual Skeleton Variation

- studying the Skeleton * reveals characteristics > muscle strength and mass (bone ridges, bone mass) > medical history (condition of teeth, healed fractures) > sex and age (bone measurements and fusion) > body size

Bunion

- swelling of the joint at the base of the great toe caused by inflammation of the bursa - abnormal enlargement of the joint at the base of the big toe

Articular Capsule

- synovial joint - outer fibrous capsule is made of dense irregular connective tissue attached to periosteum of articulating bones - synovial membrane is made of areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers and can include adipose tissue - synovial membrane is also responsible for feeding the cartilage and getting rid of waste - structure that encloses the synovial joint and synovial cavity - has two layers: * the fibrous capsule * synovial membrane

Synovial Fluid

- the amount of synovial fluid in a healthy joint rarely exceeds 2 mL, even in large joints such as the knee - clear or slightly yellowish fluid - ultrafiltrate of blood plasma that leaks out of the blood vessels in the synovial membrane (subintima) into joint space - extra components are secreted by synoviocytes, such as hyaluronic acid and other lubricating proteins - free cells found in low concentrations in fluid, such as monocytes, lymphocytes, macrophages and synoviocytes - functions include: * joint lubrication * shock absorption * chondrocyte metabolism > remove wastes from chondrocytes * joint maintenance * nutrient distribution * contain phagocytic cells to remove microbes and debris

Ribs

- the bones in the chest that protect the heart and lungs - right or left: * head goes back (posterior) * costal groove down - long, curved bones - form the rib cage - part of axial skeleton - surrounds chest, enabling the lungs to expand = facilitate breathing - protective of the thorax - consist of: * costal groove * costal cartilage - three types:* true (vertebrosternal) ribs * false (vertebrochondral) ribs * floating (vertebral, free) ribs

Body of Sternum

- the bony structure that forms the middle portion of the sternum - fat and elongated - largest part of the sternum - articulates with manubrium superiorly and xiphoid process inferiorly - marked by articular facets

Complete Fracture

- the fracture is completely through the bone

Synovial Membrane

- the lining of a joint that secretes synovial fluid into the joint space - inner layer of the articular capsule - composed of areolar connective tissue containing elastic fibers and adipocytes

Manubrium

- the most superior portion of the sternum - shape like a trapezoid - concave is the superior aspects of the manubrium = produces a depression known as the jugular notch

Condylar Process

- the process on the human mandible and some other species' mandibles that ends in a condyle - it is thicker than coronoid process - consists of two portion: * condyle * constricted portion > supports it, the neck - bony

Mastoid Process

- the rounded projection on the posterior -inferior portion of the temporal bones - one of two projection situated behind the ear - it serves for the attachment of many head muscles

Alveolar Process (Mandible)

- the thickened ridge of bone that contains the tooth sockets on the jaw bones that hold teeth

Endosteum

- thin epithelial membrane that lines the medullary cavity (hollow cavity) of a bone * where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur

Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L5)

- third set of 5 larger vertebrae, which forms the inward curve of the spine- bones that make up the spinal column or backbone specifically the lower back - inferior (below) cervical and thoracic vertebrae - superior (above) sacrum or pelvis - largest unfused vertebrae * larger than the bones located above - strongest - help support weight of the body - permit movement

Secondary Ossification Center

- this develops in the epiphyses of bone during endochondral ossification - area of ossification that appears after the primary ossification center has already appeared - involved in the formation of bone

Demi-Facets (Superior Costal Facets and Inferior Costal Facets)

- top and bottom - smooth - flat or hearty flat surface of a bone - half of a facet and is where part of the costal cartilage articulates and found on ribs (2 through 9) - superior costal facet (superior demi-facet) of the body of the vertebra receives the head of the rib with the same number as the vertebra of interest

Vertebral Column

- transmits weight of trunk to lower limbs - surrounds and protects spinal cord - flexible curved structure containing 26 irregular bones (vertebrae) in five major regions * cervical vertebrae (7)—vertebrae of neck * thoracic vertebrae (12)—vertebrae of thoracic cage * lumbar vertebrae (5)—vertebrae of lower back * sacrum—bone inferior to lumbar vertebrae * coccyx—terminus of vertebral column

Pronation

- turn palm of outstretched hand downward

Inversion

- turn the sole of the foot inward

Eversion

- turn the sole of the foot outward at the ankle

Left and Right Rotation

- turning movement of bones at a joint - rotation of head, neck, and trunk - moving right and left, like shaking head back & forth

Articulation

- two bones meet at a joint - joint surfaces - includes: * condyle > large, smooth, rounded articulating oval structure > occipital condyle = they line the foramen magnum (spine hole), articulates with first cervical vertebra * facet > small, flat, shallow, articulating surface > superior articular facet on thoracic vertebra * head > prominent, rounded epiphysis > rounded end at the top of femur or humerus * trochlea > smooth, grooved, pulley-like articular process > bottom of the humerus that articulates with the trochlea notch of the ulna

Sphenoid Sinus

- two large sphenoid sinuses - behind the nose and between the eyes

Rotation

- type of movement in a synovial joint - movements made about the longitudinal axis and in the transverse plane - internal rotation is rotating a joint towards the midline - external rotation is rotating a joint away from the midline - turn on a pivot with a circle - example: * rotate head from side to side

Gliding

- type of movement in a synovial joints - are usually multiaxial, the facing bone surfaces are in most cases flat - ligaments and tendons prevent most type movements in these joints - examples: * sacroiliac * acromioclavicular - nearly flat bone surfaces slide or glide over each other

Osteoid

- un-mineralized, organic portion of the bone matrix - forms prior to the maturation of bone tissue - osteoblasts begin the process of forming bone tissue by secreting the osteoid as several specific protein - consist of: * a gelatinous substance made up of collagen * a fibrous protein * mucopolysaccharide * an organic glue

Crista Galli

- upper part of the perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone - rises above the cribriform plate - falx cerebri attaches to the crista galli- projecting into the anterior cranial fossa

Bone Markings

- vary considerably, depending on the function and location in the body - bones display: * articulations * depressions * openings * projections - identification of individual bones and bony pieces and aid in the understanding of functional and evolutionary anatomy

Body of Vertebrae

- vertebral body is thick oval segment of the bone - forms the front of the vertebra called cerntrum - cavity of vertebral body consists of cancellous bone tissue - encircled by a protective layer of compound bone - supports vertebrae function in skeletomuscular system by forming the vertebral column to support the body

Epiphysis

- wider section at each end of the bone * proximal and distal - composed of cancellous (spongy) bone > contains red marrow - initially growing separately from the shaft - top and bottom of long bone - bulbous shape - function: * provides attachment for muscles and stability to joints

The word root _____ means one that breaks or destroys.

-clast

Factors that stabilize Synovial Joints

-collagen fibers (joint capsule, ligaments) * ligament number and location (limited role) -articulating surfaces and menisci * shapes of articular surface (minor role) -other bones, muscles, or fat pads * muscle tone which keep tendons that cross the joint taut -tendons of articulating bones

Special Joint Movements

-elevation -depression -protraction -retraction -supination -pronation -inversion -eversion -dorsiflexion -plantar flexion

Which letter represents the cervical curvature?

A * The cervical curvature includes the first seven vertebrae and is posteriorly concave.

Which of these curvatures on the spine are NOT present at birth but develop later?

A and C * The entire spine is posteriorly convex at birth. The cervical and lumbar areas develop their posteriorly concave shape later.

Plane joints are the only type of synovial joint not featured in the Concept Map. Which of the following describes their range of motion?

A plane joint is non-axial and allows for gliding motion. * Plane joints, such as those found in the intercarpals of the wrist and the intertarsals of the foot, are non-axial joints that allow for gliding motion. Gliding motion does not involve rotation around any axis.

Epiphyseal plate:

Area where bone longitudinal growth takes place.

Ramus:

Armlike bar of bone.

Chapter 6 and Chapter 7:

Axial Skeleton + Appendicular Skeleton

Intramembranous ossification:

Bone develops from a fibrous membrane.

Osteomalacia:

Bone formed is poorly mineralized and soft. Deforms on weight bearing.

Osteoporosis:

Bones are porous and thin but bone composition is normal.

Pregnant women may experience an exaggerated lordosis, or "swayback." Which curvature is affected during pregnancy?

C * A diagnosis of lordosis (know as hyperlordosis when it becomes excessive) is based on an exaggerated lumbar curvature.

Which of the following statements best describes interstitial growth of cartilage?

Chondrocytes in the lacunae divide and secrete matrix, allowing the cartilage to grow from within.

Paget's disease:

Excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption.

Which inflammatory joint disease is caused by the bites of ticks that live on mice and deer?

Lyme disease * Lyme disease is an inflammatory disease caused by the spirochete bacteria transmitted by the bites of ticks that live on mice and deer. It often results in joint pain and arthritis.

____are cells that build bone matrix.

Osteoblasts

____is a disease in which bones lose mass and strength, becoming brittle.

Osteoporosis

Which of the following pairings is correct?

Paget's disease; excessive and haphazard bone deposition and resorption * Paget's disease is associated with excessive and haphazard bone deposition and resorption.

Which of the following joint problems is the result of an autoimmune problem?

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) * In RA, the body's immune system attempts to destroy the tissues in the joints in an apparent case of "mistaken identity."

Dislocation of a joint is a common orthopedic problem. Which of these joints is MOST likely to be dislocated?

Shoulder (glenohumeral) * The articulation between the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity allows for maximum flexibility but sacrifices stability.

Which of the following can be considered a function of the paranasal sinuses?

Sinuses take away a minimal amount of strength from bones while reducing the weight of bones.

Which statement about the knee is incorrect?

The deep cups created by the tibial condyles help to stabilize the joint. * The articular surfaces formed by the tibial condyles are very shallow. The menisci function to deepen the tibial articular surface and stabilize the knee.

Which of the following is true about the shoulder joint?

The glenohumeral joint is more mobile, making it less stable. * The shoulder joint has the best mobility of all the joints in the body. However, the adaptations that make it mobile sacrifice strength to provide the mobility.

Which of the following statements best describes angular movements?

They change (increase or decrease) the angle between two bones.

What is the role of osteoclasts in the endosteum during long bone growth?

They proportionally increase the size of the medullary cavity as the bone grows to prevent the weight of the growing skeleton from becoming too heavy. * The osteoclasts in the endosteum break down bone tissue in the medullary cavity while osteoblasts in the periosteum add more bone matrix to the outer surface of the bone. This allows the bone to increase in width while remaining hollow and lightweight.

Lordosis

abnormal anterior curvature of the lumbar spine (sway-back condition)

Scoliosis

abnormal lateral curvature of the spine

What would be the physical sign that a bone cannot continue longitudinal growth?

an epiphyseal line * The epiphyseal plate is a zone of hyaline cartilage between the epiphysis and diaphysis of a long bone. When the cartilage is replaced with bone and the plate closes, the bone has reached its maximum length. This ossified remnant of the "growth plate" is called the epiphyseal line.

Which joints are correctly matched?

ankle; hinge

Which of the following ligaments prevents the tibia from sliding forward in the knee joint?

anterior cruciate ligament * The ACL prevents the tibia from sliding forward.

Long Bones become(s) thicker and stronger by the process of

appositional growth

The process of bones increasing in thickness is known as ________.

appositional growth

Synarthrotic joints ________.

are immovable joints

Structures C and D collectively form which of the following?

articular capsule * The synovial membrane and the fibrous layer that covers it collectively form the articular capsule.

Bone Resorption specifically occur(s) when there is a decrease of

blood calcium

Bone Remodeling involve(s) the process of storing minerals in bone tissue called

bone deposition

Which of the following is a feature of synovial joints?

bone ends covered with hyaline cartilage * Glassy-smooth hyaline cartilage covers the opposing bone surfaces as articular cartilage. These thin but spongy cushions absorb compression placed on the synovial joint and thereby keep the bone ends from being crushed.

Ossification (Osteogenesis) is the process of ________.

bone formation

Bone Remodeling involve(s) the release of minerals into the bloodstream called

bone resorption

Connective tissue sacs lined with synovial membrane that act as cushions in places where friction develops are called ________.

bursae

In the epiphyseal plate, cartilage grows ________.

by pushing the epiphysis away from the diaphysis

Which epiphyseal plate zone contains dying and deteriorating chondrocytes?

calcification zone * The calcification zone is where chondrocytes die while the surrounding matrix calcifies, becoming hardened.

Which of the following hormones is currently thought to decrease plasma calcium levels in pregnant women and children?

calcitonin * Yes, calcitonin is currently thought to decrease plasma calcium levels in children and pregnant women.

Which hormone works directly in the intestine to increase plasma calcium levels?

calcitriol * Yes, parathyroid hormone (PTH) activates Vitamin D into calcitriol in the kidney. Calcitriol then increases absorption of calcium in the intestine.

PTH promotes the formation of which hormone?

calcitriol * Yes, parathyroid hormone promotes the formation of calcitriol.

Prevention of osteoporosis includes adequate intake of ________.

calcium and vitamin D

What tissue forms the model for endochondral ossification?

cartilage

Which of the following is NOT a functional classification for joints?

cartilaginous

A joint held together by fibrocartilage would be classified as a __________ joint.

cartilaginous * Cartilaginous joints are held together by cartilage. Fibrocartilage holds together symphyses.

A ball-and-socket joint is capable of a complex movement that involves flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction performed in rapid succession called __________.

circumduction * Circumduction is a complex movement in which the distal end of the limb moves in a circle while the other end of the limb is relatively stationary.

Bones of Skeleton include

cranial bones and clavicle long bone

The ligaments that protect the alignment of the femoral and tibial condyles and limit the movement of the femur anteriorly and posteriorly are called ________.

cruciate ligaments

If a drug has the side effect of inhibiting osteoblast activity, how may taking this drug impact the patient's skeletal system?

decreased bone density

Bone

diagram, labeled

Compact Bone

diagram, labeled

Long Bone

diagram, labeled

Microscope Bone Tissue

diagram, labeled

Synovial Joint

diagram, labeled

Lifting up a glass to take a drink involves the elbow joint. Which of the following correctly characterizes that joint?

diarthrotic

Long Bones elongate(s) through the process of

endochondral ossification

Long Bones form(s) during fetal development by the process of

endochondral ossification

Which bone-forming process is shown in the figure?

endochondral ossification * The figure illustrates a step in the embryonic formation of a bone from a cartilage model.

Long Bones become(s) longer at the

epiphyseal plates

Kyphosis

excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back.

Yellow bone marrow contains a large percentage of____.

fat

The terms inversion and eversion pertain only to the ________.

feet

Cranial Bones and Clavicles form(s) embryonically from

fibrous connective tissue membranes

Based upon structural classification, what type of joint is a suture?

fibrous joint * Sutures are classified structurally as fibrous joints. They would be classified functionally as synarthrotic joints based upon their degree of movement.

Bowing to your opponent before a jiu jitsu match would be considered a ________ movement.

flexion

Which movement decreases the angle between articulating bones?

flexion * Flexion is a bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articulating bones closer together.

Hinge Joint is/are uniaxial, allowing for the movement(s) of

flexion and extension

Condylar Joint is/are biaxial, allowing for the movement(s) of

flexion and extension adduction and abduction

Saddle Joint is/are biaxial, allowing for the movement(s) of

flexion and extension adduction and abduction

What is the first stage in the healing of a bone fracture?

formation of a hematoma * This is the first stage in the healing of a bone fracture. In order, here are the stages of bone fracture healing: (1) formation of a hematoma, (2) formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus, (3) formation of a bony callus, and (4) bone remodeling.

If a torn anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is not properly repaired, the consequences could include the inability to prevent ________.

forward sliding of the tibia on the femur * The ACL originates from the anterior intercondylar eminence of the tibia and runs superiorly, posteriorly, and laterally to attach to the inside of the lateral condyle of the femur. This ligament prevents the tibia from sliding too far forward on the femur and prevents knee hyperextension.

In long bone formation, from what embryonic structure does the articular hyaline cartilage on the end of an adult long bone arise?

from the original hyaline cartilage bone model of the embryo

Curvatures of the spine serve the body by ________.

giving additional springiness and flexibility to the spine which absorbs shock

The correct order (from start to finish) of fracture repair is __________.

hematoma formation, soft callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling

Blood cells are formed by the process of

hematopoiesis.

Presence of a synovial cavity, articular cartilage, synovial membrane, and ligaments are characteristics of what type of joint?

hinge joint

Long Bone

humerous, femur

What kind of tissue is the forerunner of long bones in the embryo?

hyaline cartilage

Bending your head back until it hurts is an example of ________.

hyperextension

Hypercalcemia can be caused by_________.

hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone * Parathyroid hormone functions to stimulate the activity of osteoclasts in bone tissue.

Which of the following would NOT be a way that parathyroid hormone (PTH) could alter plasma calcium levels? (Which one of the following is FALSE?)

increase osteoblasts on bone * Correct. This answer is false. PTH would NOT increase osteoblasts. Osteoblasts store calcium on bone, thus lowering plasma calcium levels.

When chondrocytes in lacunae divide and form new matrix, it leads to an expansion of the cartilage tissue from within. This process is called __________.

interstitial growth * Interstitial growth occurs when chondrocytes divide and form new matrix, thereby expanding the cartilage tissue from within.

Sprains indicate damage to what joint component?

ligaments * In a sprain, the ligaments that reinforce a joint are stretched or torn.

Bone Resorption specifically occur(s) when there is an decrease of ___

mechanical stress

What controls bone remodeling?

mechanical stress and hormones * Remodeling goes on continuously in the skeleton, regulated by genetic factors and two control loops that serve different homeostatic conditions. One is a negative feedback hormonal loop that maintains Ca2+ homeostasis in the blood; the other involves responses to mechanical and gravitational forces acting on the skeleton.

Arm (Joints)

nonaxial, uniaxial, biaxial, multiaxial

When you bring any of your fingers in contact with your thumb, this movement is called __________.

opposition * The saddle joint between metacarpal I of the thumb and the trapezium allows a movement called opposition—the action taken when you touch your thumb to the tips of the other fingers on the same hand. It is opposition that makes the human hand such a fine tool for grasping and manipulating objects.

The word root _____ means bone.

oste-

Which of the following are correctly matched?

osteoarthritis; chronic degenerative joint disease * Osteoarthritis is a common, chronic degenerative joint disease often called "wear-and-tear arthritis."

Bone Deposition is/are primarily accomplished by cellular activity of

osteoblasts

Classify the cells seen at the arrow in image A.

osteoblasts * Osteoblasts ("bone makers") begin bone formation by secreting the bone matrix.

Bones are constantly undergoing resorption (breaking bone down) for various reasons. Which of the following cells accomplishes this process?

osteoclast

A homeostatic imbalance that activates these bone cells would lead to a loss of bone density.

osteoclasts * Osteoclasts are the bone cells that break down bone. If they were activated more than normal, you should expect to see bone loss.

When an osteoblast becomes completely surrounded by its own matrix secretions it is referred to as a(n) ________.

osteocyte

What type of cell is shown at A?

osteocyte * Osteocytes, literally "bone cells," are the primary structural and maintenance cells found in bone.

Which of the following refers to a bone disorder found most often in the aged and resulting in the bones becoming porous and light?

osteoporosis * Osteoporosis refers to groups of diseases in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposit. The bones become fragile and easily fractured. The composition of the matrix remains normal, but bone mass declines, and the bones become porous and light. Osteoporosis occurs most often in postmenopausal women.

The cell responsible for secreting the matrix of bone is the ________.

otseoblast

Bone Deposition specifically occur(s) when there is a decrease of

parathyroid hormone

Bone Resorption specifically occur(s) when there is an increase of

parathyroid hormone

Which hormone increases osteoclast activity to release more calcium ions into the bloodstream?

parathyroid hormone

The Vertebral Column

picture, labeled

The cruciate ligaments of the knee ________.

prevent hyperextension of the knee

Moving your jaw forward, causing an underbite, is called ________.

protraction

What is the major function of the axial skeleton?

provide central support for the body and protect internal organs

If a herniated disc in the lumbar region is treated by surgically removing the intervertebral disc and doing a bone graft between the adjoining vertebrae, one of the consequences might be _________.

reduced flexibility of the spine in the lower back * The intervertebral disc and space that it occupies provides room for vertebral bodies of adjacent vertebrae to flex and extend the vertebral column (spine).

In a healthy, young adult, what determines where bone remodeling will occur?

regional areas of mechanical stress * Absence of mechanical stress helps determine which osteoclasts will be most sensitive to PTH and where bone will be broken down. Likewise, osteocytes sense increased mechanical stress and stimulate bone deposition by osteoblasts.

Ball-and-Socket Joint is/are multiaxial, allowing for the movement(s) of

rotation flexion and extension adduction and abduction

Osteoblasts __________.

secrete osteoid * Osteoblasts are the bone-forming cells that produce new bone by secreting the components of the organic matrix, called osteoid. They also play a role in the calcification of osteoid to form the mature bone matrix.

Which terms best describe the arm movements that occur when releasing a ball to roll across the floor, such as in bowling?

shoulder flexion and elbow extension * As the arm is brought forward in anteriorly, this movement would be described as arm flexion. As the arm is straightened at the elbow to release the ball, the elbow is extended.

The sella turcica is part of the ________ bone and houses the ________ gland.

sphenoid; pituitary

Which of the following are cartilaginous joints?

synchondroses

Which of the following are correctly paired?

synchondrosis; a plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones * A synchondrosis is a plate of hyaline cartilage that unites the bones. Epiphyseal plates are examples of synchondroses.

A situation where the bones are connected exclusively by ligaments, cords, or bands of fibrous tissue is a ________.

syndesmosis

The arrow in the figure is pointing to which of the following structures?

the epiphyseal plate * During endochondral ossification, a distinct epiphyseal plate is formed at the boundary between primary and secondary ossification centers.

What is intramembranous ossification?

the formation of bone from within fibrous membranes * The formation of bone by ossification centers within fibrous membranes is called intramembranous ossification.

Which of the following best describes the process shown in the figure?

the formation of bone in a membrane * The figure illustrates the formation of new bones within a fibrous membrane ("intramembranous") during embryonic development.

Cartilage grows in two ways, appositional and interstitial. What is appositional growth?

the secretion of new matrix against the external face of existing cartilage

Wolff's law is concerned with ________.

the thickness and shape of a bone being dependent on stresses placed upon it

Football players often sustain lateral blows to the extended knee. Which of the following is (are) damaged as a result?

tibial collateral ligament, medial meniscus, and anterior cruciate ligament

What are the major functions of the intervertebral discs?

to absorb shock and provide flexibility to the spine

Why does bone remodeling occur in an adult skeleton?

to maintain adequate blood calcium levels * Calcium ions in the blood are critical for many body activities, including cardiac muscle contractions and brain neural activity. Bone remodeling occurs in order to provide a constant supply of calcium to the bloodstream and thus to other body systems.