Exam 3 study guide

Four Requirements for Breeding Sites

1) Ice-free terrain 2) Open water 3) Nearby food sources 4) Pebbles (creates lithology of ornithogenic soils) Dry soil up to 500 years is red/dusty. If chicks survive and fledge the colony grows. If they don't, adults die and colony dies off/gets abandoned.

Discovery of Falklands, South Georgia and South Shetland Islands

1592 - English ship driven off coast of Argentina, discovering Falklands (flat lands, ownership feuds) 1599 - Dutch ship was forced south (maybe to 64º) and reported 'a high land with mountains covered with snow, resembling Norway' (South shetlands) 1675 - English merchant ship blown south trying to find the straits of Magellan, took shelter in a bay at 55º, stayed 14 days, found end of the land and sighted another high snow-covered land south (S. Georgia and another island)

Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1935

A convention for the regulation of whaling was established in 1935, but Japan and Germany refused to join.

Jean Baptiste Bouvet

A french explorer who wanted to look for a southern tropical paradise after seeing maps with empty ocean. He made it to Brazil, and went farther south seeing ice floes, penguins, and stumbled on the very remote Bouvet Island. He couldn't land due to the island's steep sides. Climate was cold, wet, foggy, high winds (men were getting scurvy) and hew as forced to leave. The island wasn't rediscovered until the whaling era when it was claimed by Norway.

Borchgrevink and Southern Cross Expedition

A norweigen crew sailing under a British flag. Primary objective was scientific studies, surveys, and trying to locate the south magnetic pole. They arrived at Cape Adare (further south would have been safer/cleaner/healthier) and set up two prefab huts. Winter was difficult/full of disagreements. Made it to Ross Ice Shelf (1st since Ross) and to 78º05'S (farthest). Explored limited areas around Cape Adare. Showed Amundsen travel across ice shelf was possible, and first dogs on the continent. Received little credit due to his bad personality.

Scott & Shackleton's Rivalry

A relief ship came back to pick people up after the 2nd winter and Scott sent Shackleton home (blamed him for not getting off the ice shelf/seemed to be jealous of how well-liked he was). Set up rivalry.

Whale Sanctuary

A whale sanctuary was established in 1938 south of 40º latitude, that included complete protection of humpback whales.

Possession & Franklin Islands, Mt. Erebus, Ross Ice Shelf

All discovered by James Ross. Planted a flag/canister on Possession Island and claimed it (along with Franklin Island). He named Mt. Erebus (high volcano on Ross Island). Also encountered/couldn't pass the 100 ft tall Ross Ice Shelf.

Factory Ships

Allowed whales to be killed and processed at sea, which increased exploitation. The first ones were developed in 1925, by 1930 there were 41. Whale takes increased from 14,000 to 40,000. Land-based factories began to close down. After WWII whaling continued. Blue whales, then fin, sei and minke were depleted (largest - smallest). Most ended by 1960s as stocks depleted, but illegal whaling still takes place.

HMS Challenger Expedition

An oceanographic expedition originating from England to explore oceans/collect data (didn't expect to find life below 550 m). Put dredges on the ocean floor/pulled up granite carried by ice, indicating a continent to the south. Also collected many bio samples, discovered many deep sea trenches/ridges, and had labs on board.

Beaufort Island Molting Site

Ancient molt site indicates late pleistocene occupations. Layers of organic remains were exposed from wind erosion. Ages came out older than radiocarbon dating - AMAZING preservation. Ice field melting back exposed younger mounds (1280-480 ya).

Antarctic & Uruguay

Antarctic - Larsen's ship Uruguay - Aregentine rescue ship that made its way south to search for Antarctic. Landed on Seymour/picked up the two men sleeping in tents. Made its way to Snow Hill and found Nordenskjold. Now a floating museum

Dumont d'Urville & French Expedition

Attempted to follow Weddell's path in the Weddell sea but couldn't due to sea ice. He turned back and explored the South Shetlands, claiming some coastline. He tried again in 1840 and made landfall on a rocky islet a few hundred m from shore.

Minke Whales

Baleen and extremely common in the southern ocean. They are the smallest whale which makes them preyed upon by orcas. They occur in pods and feed on krill near fast/pack ice. They also occur outside of Antarctica.

Pygoscelid penguins, distributions and ecologial difference,s population changes in AP since 1970s

Brush tailed penguins (feathers act as rudder). Usually occur in one large colony near a polynya with smaller ones surrounding. 1) Adelie - endemic, circumpolar-subantarctic distribution, ice-free areas in AP & continent (gap from AP to Ross Sea) 2) Gentoo/Chinstrap - more subantarctic, found N & S of convergence The 3 species occur on the peninsula. Adelies are declining (climate change losers) with warming (need open water, but also sea ice for food). Gentoos and Chinstraps like open water and extend south with warming (winner). Chinstraps have seen a slight decline.

HJ Bull, Carsten Borchgrevink, and Cape Adare

Bull wanted to revive whaling in the Ross Sea in 1893. He stopped in Autralia where he met Carsten Borchgrevink who joined his expedition. They headed south and got into the Ross Sea. Landing on Possession Island, they added a note to Ross' canister. They realized they could land on Cape Adare (1st to land on the continent). Cape Adare is the first point that sticks out into the Ross Sea with the largest penguin colony. As they came to make landing Borchgrevink jumped out to be the first on the continent. Later, Borchgrevink gave a lecture in London adding to Murray's call for more research/expeditions.

Antarctica appearing on maps 1600s & 1700s

By 1620 maps were beginning to show Australia's south coast and tentative lines for Antarctica (Terra Australis Incognita). A map in 1763 showed possible continent and ice filled sea in the south.

Marine Carbon Reservoir Effect

CO2 also dissolves in ocean water. Decay begins as soon as it hits the water. Antarctic water sinks below the ice. When circumpolar deep water upwells it goes into the food chain (C is 100s of years old and makes the apparent age of the organism older than it is). Must correct for this effect.

Scurvy causes/symptoms/how to avoid

Caused by a vitamin C deficiency/going long periods without eating fresh fruit/vegetables/meat. Symptoms include lethargy, gum disease, easy bruising, liver disease and death. It can be prevented by eating fresh vegetables/meats, green vegetables and cleaning cooking vessels more thoroughly.

Sealers after Captain Cook

Cook's reports opened the door for sealers to head south and take advantage of the resources. Sealers kept their maps/discoveries to themselves to limit competition.

History of exploitation, fur seals, elephant seals, whales

Fur seals were first exploited for their pelts. Next, elephant seals were exploited for their blubber (specifically the oil in it). Whales were then targeted after the other populations were depleted, for their blubber.

Adrien Victor de Gerlache and the Belgica Expedition

Group from Belgium funded to go on an expedition, headed south towards the peninsula. Stopped in Punta Arenas where some crew abandoned (international crew didn't all speak the same language). Gerlache wasted time doing research in Chile which delayed the trip to midsummer, when sea ice began forming. Found Gerlache strait between islands and the mainland. They continued south and got stuck in pack ice (may have been intentional). First to winter Antarctica. Ice-cold conditions, shortening days, winds and only canned foods to eat. The ship moved 6-8 km a day due to pack ice drift. There was no break in ice until the next Spring. Had to dig out a channel in ice which froze over then reopened. Set the stage for the Heroic Age.

Henryk Arctowski, Frederick Cook, Roald Amundsen

HA - polish geologist FC - American doctor, joined the Belgica expedition in Brazil, had experience in polar regions. Kept everyone sane over the winter (more darkness = more melatonin = more sleep/depression), and from paranoia. Forced the men to eat penguin/seal meat to prevent scurvy RA - Regarded as the perfect sailor (good link between crew and officers), also had ice experience

Sir Francis Drake and Voyage, new discoveries

He was sent to Tierra del Fuego to explore the coastline and enter the pacific via straights of Magellan. The voyage was financed by ministers/merchants, but the real purpose was to explore and claim the southern continent (first Antarctic expedition). He circumnavigated the world, and discovered that Tierra del Fuego was not part of the southern continent, drake's passage, and sighted burrowing penguins.

Captain James Cook, three voyages and discoveries

He was the greatest navigator of his time. He was the first to circumnavigate Antarctica, 'proved' there was no southern continent, and limited further expeditions to S of Antarctic circle. 1st expedition he discovered New Zealand (returned many times), and the east coast of Australia. 2nd expedition he disproved Bouvet/Kerguelen's southern continent claims, relocated S. Georgia, and discovered S. Sandwich Islands. 3rd expedition he rounded Cape of Good Hope, claimed Kerguelen Islands for British, discovered/died on Hawaiin islands. Gave his men fresher food, green veggies, and made them clean cookware better to prevent scurvy.

Dietary shifts in Adelie Penguins and Stable Isotopes

Heavier nitrogen isotopes indicate a diet shift up the food chain. Can compare tissues pre/during/post whaling to see diet change. Carbonate in eggshells reflects isotopes during egg formation in late spring/early summer. Within 200-300 years diet had shifted down the food chain. Eggshells from RFS cabin 1911-1917 indicated diet had already shifted during the most intense whaling period. Ancient penguin isotope ratios show litle variation 9000-200 ya. Rapid loss in heavy nitrogen/carbon isotopes thereafter.

Sir John Murray, Father of Modern Oceanography

Helped publish results of the HMS Challenger expedition (4700 new species, 50 volumes of research, 23 years to compile all data). He wrote 7 of the volumes. Work set the stage for the heroic age.

Hope Bay, Cape well-met, and Seymour Island

Hope Bay - 3 men stranded for winter with limited supplies but did fine (originally dropped off to reach/tell Nordenskjold Larsen was having trouble picking them up) Cape Well-met - Three men from Hope Bay met up with Nordenskjold's group who were out exploring ice, after the winter. Seymour - Two men traveled from Snow Hill, rescued by Uruguay. Discovered by Nordenskjold, has 6 foot penguin fossils

Captain Bellinghausen & Russian Antarctic Expedition

In charge of the first Prussian antarctic expedition. Took two ships and sailed to the south shetlands. He was the first to circumnavigate the continent since cook. He reached 69º21'S and saw hillocks of ice (may have been the first to see the continent). He eventually stopped in Sydney. When he left Sydney he discovered islands at the base of the peninsula including Alexander island. Russians stopped looking until whaling in the 1940s. Established Mirney station in IGY.

Methods and History of Whaling

Initially, people would row out and hunt the whales with hand spear one by one. Next, whaling stations were developed and allowed them to hunt right around the station/process them on land. The swivel canon was invented next, and allowed whalers to kill more whales faster, but they still needed to be processed on land. Finally, factory ships allowed for whales to be killed and processed at sea.

Svend Foyn

Invented the swivel gun in 1865 which increased exploitation of the whales.

Other seabirds: kelp gull, storm petrel, blue eyed shag, antarctic tern

KG - SAI, patagonia, same breeding as skua (no siblicide) SP - flutters over ocean surface, feeds on zooplankton, world-wide, abundant during storms BES - diving/fish-eating in SAI and patagonia AT: migrates out of antarctica in winter (only nests in summer), sometimes up to the arctic

Louis Bernacchi and Nicolai Hansen

LB - physicist on southern cross expedition who accused Borchgrevink of being incompetant/cowardly NH - zoologist who died of an unknown ailment that caused him to be sick for a long time on southern cross expedition (first death/grave on the continent). He was buried on Cape Adare plateau near rock he liked to watch penguins from. Scott's men added a cross to the grave.

Cape Adare

Large triangular beach, ridges are penguin formed soils, there are nests 300 m up, and it's the largest colony (338,000 breeding pairs). Entire mounds are ornithogenic (2 m of pebbles above black volcanic beach). Occupation began 2000 ya. The upper terrace continues for over a kilometer, and is covered by abandoned penguin sites. The penguins didn't move to the bottom of the terrace (sites date back same time as terrace). Penguins put a huge effort into bringing pebbles up the terrace. Mounds at bottom of terrace help to combat sea level rise, but it's still a huge threat making the colony the most endangered in the world.

Learned from Discovery Expedition

Learned how to work in the cold, not to work in blizzards, objects on horizon are farther than they seem, accidents can happen quickly/suddenly, and reaching the south pole will take herculean efforts.

Robert Falcon Scott and the Discovery Expedition

Led by RFS (navy) crew of 20 (including Shackleton and Wilson), left to do magnetism, geology, and biology research including photography. Picked up Bernacchi in NZ. Got to Cape Adare, but continued to Ross Island. Sent up a hot air balloon to collect observations before setting up the huts. Sent sledge party out on the ice shelf/got farthest south. Another sledge party was sent to Cape Crosier where one man died in a blizzard. They kept busy over the winter with research, games, paper w/ stories, sled/dog practice to prevent depression. Attempted to make it to the South Pole in Spring. Discovered dry valleys. After two winters they almost had to abandon Discovery, but ice opened up and they returned home.

Discovery of the Straits of Magellan

Magellan ordered two ships to explore the channel to the west, while he took one ship to explore the bay. His officers thought the bay was too shallow to have a channel to the west. Magellan persisted and the two ships succeeded in finding the route to the Atlantic.

Voyage of Magellan 1519

Magellan received support from the Spanish king to seek a western route to Spice Island in SE Asia. He sailed around the world and discovered the straits of magellan at Tierra del Fuego (may have been discovered earlier). He presumed Tierra del Fuego was apart of the southern continent.

Martin of Bohemia

May have made a map that depicted the straits, which is how Magellan was so sure of their existence. Suggests prior explorations.

Captain Larsen & Rescue

Meant to pick Nordenskjold & group up after one winter but couldn't due to ice coverage in Weddell sea. Got stranded on Paulet Island w/ 20 men (3 others on Hope Bay). Eventually made it to Snow Hill with five men. Picked up remaining people on Paulet and left.

Crabeater Seal

Most abundant seal in the world. Their diet consists mainly of krill. They have the most complex teeth of any mammal that they use to strain krill from the water. They are creamy white/light brown all over. They have longer snouts than weddell seals, but are about the same length. They stay out on the pack ice which makes them harder to study. Pup in early summer. They get north of the convergence (S. Africa, New Zealand, Australia, SAI).

Research on penguins using flipper bands, weigh bridges

Most seabirds are banded on their lower leg, but penguins are banded on their flipper (can restrict hunting). Provides info on population changes, diet, breeding success. Another study method is sectioning part of a colony off with only one door out. There's a weigh bridge/bar scanner at the door to provide info on diet quantity (no diet specifics though - no stomach pumping).

Giant Petrel Ecology and Predation on Penguins

Nest on islands in the subantarctic/peninsula. They produce one large egg - long incubation period (1st half of the summer). They produce an oil in their stomachs that they feed chicks when they first hatch (mate out getting food). Also use the oil as a defense (STINKS). Go after larger chicks (in creche)/adults (sometimes).

Deception Island and Whaler's Bay

Norweigen whaling station from 1906-1931 in whalers bay on deception island. It got affected by volcanic eruption that caused people to leave. Prime location because of the inlet/protection it provided. There's also warmer water due to the volcanic vents.

Leopard Seal

Not often on a beach, and will be found north of the convergence. They look menacing (large head/mouth, dark top, lighter ventral with spots). They eat krill/fish/penguin. Some specialize on penguin during the breeding season (thrash penguin until it's inside out and eats innerds). This isn't common though, maybe moreso in years when food is limiting. They are larger than the weddell/crabeater seals (3 m), and are only recognized as a predator in the water.

Early possible sightings of the continent

Not until the 1800s, maybe by whalers or sealers. Maybe by Bellinghausen, Palmer or Smith.

American sheathbill ecology, unique niche

Occupy a niche around penguin colonies on the subantarctic islands, antarctic peninsula and east antarcitca. There are only two families (greater and lesser). Have excess sheath/warts on their bill. They eat copepods, undigested krill in fresh guano, and peck at eggs to get yolk. Scavenge carcasses.

Penguin Optimum

Occurred 4000-2000 ya. There's still occupation at TNB because of the polynya. Scott coast was heavily occupied (inc. Ross and Franklin islands). During this warming period, there was an expansion of penguins (ice-free areas opened up, but it was still cold enough for sea ice/food). Marble point is the last site occupied.

Odontoceti vs Mysticeti differences

Ondotceti are the toothed whales (sperm and orca), whereas mysticeti are the baleen whales who filter krill (blue, finback, right, minke and humpback).

Southern Elephant Seal

One of the five species of phocids. They are not endemic to Antarctica and are found north of the convergence. Their main breeding site is on Macquarie Island, but they also breed on South Georgia and the AP. They are twice as large as the northern elephant seal, and have a smaller snout. They feed mainly on squid. They were depleted from the sealing era but are now recovering. Male elephant seals are the deepest diving non-cetacean mammal (1+ mile). The bull males are age 7-8 and engage in brief fights for the herram (brief due to overheating). The fights leave calluses on their necks, and scars on their backs. The pups come out headfirst and must bond immediately (voice recognition) to the mother. Older females have better reproductive success due to experience. The pups nurse for 8 weeks (mother's milk is extremely rich in nutrients). Pups are ignored by the bull male because they are often not related. Bulls with extreme bellows can hold herrams longer (they're intimidating). Females fast from when they hit the beach to when they're done nursing the pup (6-8 weeks). After populating with the bull males they leave to swim/gestate. Lone pups are called wieners (tick = extremely well fed). The wieners might molt/go out to sea. Many seals are seen on Antarctic beaches post-breeding. Seal wallows are a group molting (often seen on antarctic, especially the peninsula.

Ross Sea Paleorecord (Adelie Penguins)

One of the longest records of Adelie Penguins. Modern history extends from Ross Island to Cape Adare (largest colony). Many colonies occur in Terra Nova Bay due to the polynya. Cape Barne hasn't been occupied in 1000 years. In the 80s sea ice broke up and penguins came in/used as nests for a year or two until ice coverage forced them to abandon the colony.

Otariidae vs Phoecid

Otariidae are the earred seals (fur & sea lion), they have external ears and stand on four flippers. Phoecids are the true seals. Only one species of fur seal occurs south of the convergence. There are five species of phoecids (four from common ancestor). The southern elephant and fur seals appear to have arrived later (closely related to northern species).

Tubenoses & salt glands

Petrels (giant, snow, storm) are the tubenoses. They have salt glands that act as a second kidney, extracting salt from seawater to flush out of their body via the tubenose. There's a depression in their bone for the gland.

Ptolemy and Terra Australis Incognita

Ptolemy was the first to state that there must be a southern continent called Terra Australis Incognita. He also stated it was separated by a land of fire (or torrid zone), discouraging explorations south for the next 1200 years.

Ross Ice Shelf Retreat in the Holocene

RIS advanced 20,000 years (penguins couldn't be in the Ross Sea due to no open ocean, not sure where they went, strain exists today, possibly to terrain now underwater), and retreated 13,000 ya to today. The first occupations occurred 7000-4000 ya in TNB during the holocene on Cape Spike. Cape Spike is a flat island with beach access, surrounded by sea ice (no occupation today). Ornithogenic soils/mounds indicate a past occupation. Younger colonies developed north as the RIS retreat caused open ocean.

Genesis of the Heroic Age & how it receives that name

Roots in the 1890s. After the voyages of James Clark Ross, Antarctica was largely ignored for 40 years. In 1893 Sir James Murray gave a lecture "The Renewal of Antarctic Expeditions" to the Royal Geographical Society. Resulted in the first time men reached the geographical/magnetic south poles. Name given due to the hardships endured, and the science, photography, and poetry that came out of the age.

James Clark Ross and the British Expedition to the South Magnetic Pole

Ross was trained in the north (knew arctic sea ice), and was sent to find the south magnetic pole/set up stations at the Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen and Tasmania. He had naturalist John Hooker on board. Plowed through the pack ice surrounding Antarcctica and discovered the Ross Sea, Ross Island, Ross Ice Shelf, Possession Island, Franklin Island and saw the transantarctic mountains. Tried to land on the continent twice more, but was forced to turn back due to worsening conditions. Still unknown if Antarctica was a continent or series of islands.

Snow Hill & Paulet Islands

SH - Nordenskjold and five men had a hut and spent two winters PI - Where Larsen and his 20 men had to spend the winter in a self-made stone hut after their ship got stuck in pack ice trying to pick up Nordenskjold and men.

Ross Island and Hut Point

Scott set up 3 huts on Ross Island and docked the ship right next to them (Hut Point). Two huts were used for research/hold scientific instruments. The other was meant for living quarters but was too cold/airy/ice leaked in so they stayed on the ship.

First Attempt at Pole & Outcome

Scott took Wilson & Shackleton to try and find the South Pole. Met with many difficulties with sleds, dogs, food, and scurvy. Eventually turned back at 82º16'S. Shackleton was in worse shape from scurvy (had to kill all dogs and manhaul sleds).

First scientific expeditions

Sealers were making incursions deeper into the SO. The first scientific mapping & discovery expeditions were initiated.

Spread of exploitation, subantarctic to antarctic

Sealing began on the Falkland Islands in 1765 and spread to South Georgia in 1786. In 1775, 13,000 fur seal skins were taken from Falkland by one ship. From 1793-1807, 3.2 million fur seal skins were taken. In 1819, operations moved to the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. 300,000 fur seal skins were taken from the AP in 4 years. The fur seal industry depleted its sources/ended in 1822, and they moved on to elephant seal blubber. Whaling began in the mid 1800s when other populations were depleted.

Sledges, man-hauling, use of dogs/sleds

Sledges were used to explore around Ross Island, Ross Ice Shelf, and Cape Crosier. Failed at dog teams due to lack of experience. Often had to man-haul sleds (EXTREMELY costly/heavy)

Captains Smith, Palmer and Biscoe

Smith - relocated and landed on South Shetlands Palmer - slaughtered wildlife in subantarctic islands, might have been the first to see the continent in 1819 (debated between him and Bellinghausen) Biscoe - circumnavigated Antarctica, made landings along API, First (in a while) to believe a southern continent did exist, and it wasn't just an icy sea.

Principle of Radiocarbon dating, half-life

Solar radiation causes a neutron to hit N14 which converts to C14. C14 oxidizes to form CO2. CO2 is absorbed, and incorporated into tissues of animals as they eat the plant tissues which have retained the C14 ratio. When the organism dies, C14 stops being replaced and starts to decay (5730 half-life, only lasts 50,000 years). Can date within 25-50 years of when an organism died.

Marble Point

The last site to have occupation during the penguin optimum. No occupation today, but past penguins sites found in raised beaches.

Southern Elephant Seal & Terra Nova Bay Polynya

The nearest breeding site to TNB is Macquarie Island. Nine mummies found on Inexpressible Island indicate they've been there a long time. They date back to various time periods. The tops of them may be wind blown if they are old (1000 yo). Live ones show up occasionally. Appears to have been a haul out place for molting animals over decades-hundreds of years from Macquarie Island.

Spy Hopping and Wave Washing

The orcas stick their heads out of the water to see if there is a seal on the ice floe. If there is/they decide they can access it they signal for the pod to come over. They'll either hit the floe, wait the animal out, or wave wash (synchronous diving of the pod creates a wave to knock the seal off the floe into the water).

Diversity and Biomass (marine mammals)

The southern ocean accounts for less than 10% of the world's ocean, but more than 50% of marine mammal biomass (1/5 of pinneped and 1/5 of cetacean diversity). There are 6 species of pinnepeds (4 endemic), 7 species of ondotocetes, and 8 species of baleen whales. No endemic whales save for some orca populations.

Orca Types, Dietary Differences, Hunting Strategies

The types differ in morphology (size/shape of the white eye patch), behavior and diet. Type A - Minke Whales Type B - Antarctic Seals (mainly weddell due to easy access to the ice floes) Type C - Fish Type D - Little known Hunting strategies include spy hopping, wave washing, hitting ice floes, waiting the prey out, and playing with their food until it dies. We can study them via harpooning chunks of skin out, and using satellite tags.

Five Species of Penguin in Antarctica

There are five species that breed in Antarctica, two of which are endemic. There are 17 species in the southern hemisphere off the coasts of Africa, New Zealand, Subantarctic Islands, etc. 1) Emperor (endemic) 2) Adelie (endemic) 3) Gentoo 4) Chinstrap 5) Macaroni (only in the northern AP)

Occupational History in Ross Sea

There are modern occupations at Beaufort Island, TNB, Cape Crosier (200,000), and Cape Adare/Surrounding areas (1,000,000). Most colonies are young (500 years or less), but Cape Adare is older. Colonies change in response marine climate. The largest colonies are near polynyas. History is based on >150 C14, and comparisons to ice cores for temperature changes. Dome C = warming from 4000-2000 ya, cooling from 8000-4000 ya

Major Cetacean Species in the Southern Ocean

There are some endemic populations of orca, but the rest are too large/migratory. The species most abundant in the antarctic today are orcas, minkes, finbacks and humpbacks. Blues, rights, and sperm whales are still recovering.

Flensing Platforms

These were platforms on the whaling stations where the whales were processed. Long knives were used to cut out chunks of blubber. The blubber was then boiled to extract the oil. A slope in the back of Grytviken was thought to be used to drop blubbler sections off.

Adelie Penguin as a Bioindicator Species

They become a bioindicator species for past conditions, since they need open water and ice-free terrain. How long they've been in an area indicates how long it's been ice-free with open water. Organic material can indicate diet/food abundance/changes. Use materials in mounds to perform analysis.

Skua ecology & predation

They can regonize your face/extremely smart/brave. They live 25-30 years, mate for life, dive bomb you unless you stare them in the eyes. They project a long-call to alert an area is their territory. South Polar skuas (EA/AP) and Brown skuas overlap in the AP. Skuas have been seen up to NA (migrate out of Antarctica in the winter). They practice siblicide (1st chick eats 2nd) stimulated by hunger (parents don't interfere). Obligate siblicide - happens no matter what (south polar) Facultative siblicide - only in poor food years Some nest around penguin colonies and eat the eggs/young chicks (most eat krill/silverfish). They'll dive into the middle of an Adelie colony and take an egg/chick (or patrol the edge), bringing it back to their nest to feed. Gentoo/Rockhoppers are less aggressive than Adelies, and smaller so they do ground attacks in these colonies. A specific behavior includes a pair harassing a penguin/distracting it until one can steal the egg (uncommon).

Weddell Seal

They like to be on the fast ice/beaches close to land so they are easily observable. They are curious so they are easily approachable. They make open holes in the ice that they use for breathing/entryway to the sea to get prey. They keep the holes open with their procumbent incisors. We can send instruments down the holes. They have a muddled appearance (dark grey top, lighter bottom), and are about 2.5 m long. The females are longer than the males. They give birth in early summer (October) and nurse their pups for 6-7 weeks. They're more spread out than elephant seals. Enemies include leopard seals and orcas.

Ecology/Breeding Cycle of Emperor Penguins

They live 15-20 years, and their diet is fish, squid, and some crustaceans. They stand at 3 feet tall, can dive more than 500 m (though they usually dive no more than 150 m for 18 minutes), and are active mainly in the winter. They have a circumpolar-antarctic distribution. They nest on the sea ice or ice shelves. They may walk hundreds of kilometers across ice to nesting location, but ice breakup in summer may put them closer to shore. They pair bond for life. Females produce one large egg (lot of cost so they leave to feed after laying the egg). The male incubates the egg on his feet to prevent the egg from freezing. It takes 5-6 months to incubate/hatch/raise the chick/egg so by the time the chick fledges it's summer. The male fasts for 180 days and feeds the chicks mucus until the female returns with food (after two months of feeding). They switch off keeping the egg warm on their feet/feeding until it can survive on the ice shelf/sea ice on its own. The more experience the parents have, the higher reproductive success they'll have.

Antarctic Fur Seals

They mainly feed on krill, some fish, and require open water. Closely related to several other subantarctic species. They come to Antarctica late summer, but don't breed on the peninsula. 95% of the population breeds/inhabits South Georgia (population still recovering) A bull male defends and area of beach & the females on it (1-2 years due to costs). They don't protect the pups because they might not be his. Females come in after 1 year of gestation, give birth, after taking care of the pup for four months they mate with the bull male, go out to sea and gestate.

Ecology/Breeding cycle of Adelie Penguins

They mate for life, come back to the same nest site, dig out, and rebuild with pebbles. The male comes first and waits for the female (finds a new one if she doesn't show). Female produces 2 eggs and goes back to sea to feed. The male takes over the incubation/fasts for two weeks until female comes back with food (find each other by call). Female then takes over for a week until the male finishes feeding. They keep switching off over 35 days while chicks develop their physiology (sit on chicks for heat/protection from skuas). Eventually as the chick becomes more independent both parents leave to feed. They feed the chicks by direct regurgitation of freshly eaten whole krill. When the chicks leave the colony they must weigh enough (over 3000, 3300 better) to survive the winter and reproduce the next year (RS increases with parental experience). If a chick's downey gets wet the chick can die from hypothermia. Once chicks are independent the parents leave and the chicks form a creche to protect themselves from predators. Parents coming in and out of the creche are harassed for food. Chicks begin flapping wings around 6-8 weeks to build muscle to use as a defense/for swimming. One leaves the creche first and the rest follow. Struggle to swim at the surface before realizing swimming below is easier. Mortality can be up to 75% in low ice years.

Ross Seal

They stay on pack ice/open water south of the convergence. They're about the same size as the smaller seals and pup in the summer. They have protruding eyes, dark color on top, short snout and no neck. They're rare seen and little is known about them. They probably eat squid/fish/krill.

Swivel harpoon canons

This took whaling from being done with hand spears to being able to kill the whales from the ships. It was invented in 1865 by Svend Foyn. The guns not only contained gun powder on the ships, but also in the gun head which exploded in the whale instantly killing it.

Cape Horn

Tip of Tierra del Fuego, usually rough waters surrounding it (due to continuous winds, most southern point in SA, not easy to land). Disastrous spot for ships to get around. Many broken ships still on the Falklands, many times carrying worthless goods (guano, coal).

Tripp Island and Cape Hickey

Tripp island had pebble concentrations indicating older sites (26,000 yo eggshells from radiocarbon dating). Pebble mounds in Cape Hickey also contained eggshells (27,000-43,000 yo) ^ Helps date ice shelf advancement ^

Captain Weddell

Went farther south (74º15'S) than anyone before due to a low ice year opening the Weddell Sea, but turned back before seeing the continent.

Three endemic species of seabirds in Antarctica

1) Adelie Penguin 2) Emperor Penguin 3) Snow Petrel (mainly around sea ice, most southerly in the world)

Alexander Island

Discovered by Bellinghausen and named after Tsar Alexander 1st. Useful to paleontologists due to the huge amount of sedimentary rock.

Tierra del Fuego

Discovered by Magella 1519-1520, thought to be apart of the southern continent. Separated from South America by straits Magellan.

Distribution (seabirds), subantarctic spp.

Diversity decreases from subantarctic to the continent. Some species include petrels, gulls, terns, skuas, some penguin spp (gentoo, rockhopper, chinstrap etc.)

Otto Nordenskjold & 1901 Swedish Expedition

Drop 5 men and Nordenskjold off on Snow Hill to do research/be picked up the next summer by Larsen. Set up weather/magnetic station and survived many storms throughout the winter. Took dog sleds the following spring and discovered Seymour Island/giant penguin fossils. Weddell sea closed off due to heavy sea ice year, forced to spend another winter. Eventually rescued by the Uruguay ship in 1904.

Evidence for open water in the Ross Sea prior to the last glacial maximum

During the pleistocene, penguins were in the Ross Sea. Evidence form Beaufort Island, Tripp Island, and Cape Hickey (radiocarbon dating eggshells/feathers).

Ernest Shackleton and Edward Wilson

ES - Sub officer on the Discovery Expedition, well liked by crew EW - Zoologist and Scott's best friend

Endemic species of pinniped plus other two antarctic species

Endemic: Weddell, Crabeater, Leopard, Ross Others: Antarctic Fur and Southern Elephant

Baleen Whales

Engulf a swarm of krill, using their tongue to filter water out from krill in baleen and ingest the krill. Some humpbacks travel thousands of miles to the southern ocean to feed on krill during the short high productivity season. They create bubble fences that trap the krill, and come up from the bottom middle to feed. There are dozens of humpbacks in bays where krill swarms are.

Grytviken

Established on South Georgia, it was the first whaling station (1904). It increased the rate of exploitation. In the first few years 6,000 humpbacks were taken from right around the station. In the first decade 1700 blue whales, 4800 finback, and 22000 humpbacks were taken. Baleen was used in corsets. When factory ships were invented, the stations were abandoned (ghost towns today).

Current status of krill hypothesis

Evidence now indicates the KSH is ending due to climate change (less sea ice and marine mammal recovery). There may not be food source for penguins to revert back to other than krill, so we may see future declines of Adelie and Chinstrap penguins in the AP.

Krill surplus hypothesis

First proposed by Sloden (1964) to account for increasing penguin/fur seal populations on the AP from 1940s-1970s. Whales and seals that eat krill died off, so krill numbers increased (150 million tons of excess). Extensive slaughter of whales/seals in the 18th/19th/20th century suggest that penguins switched their diet more to krill since early 1800s.

Charles Wilkes & US Exploring Expedition

Four ships were commissioned by the U.S. navy to explore the Antarctic and collect specimens. 82 officers, 9 naturalists, scientists and artists were on board. They made it to 70º94'S. One ship was lost in a storm, the others pend the winter in the pacific. During their second voyage they sighted land off the Antarctic coast, couldn't land, and turned back. They explored Wilkes land, were the first to refer to the Antarctic continent, and scientific results were published in 5 volumes. Sightings had errors and were subjected to navy court of inquiry.

Pointe Geologie

French research station built on Dumont D'urville's rocky islet during the IGY (disrupted an active penguin colony by building a runway). Lots of emperor penguin research is done here.

Yves Kerguelen and Discoveries

French, heard rumors of a tropical paradise in 1771 and left Amsterdam Island to search for it. Found the Kerguelen Islands in 1772. When he returned to Madagascar he claimed to have found the lost continent (he knew he didn't). Was eventually proven false, dismissed from the navy and imprisoned.