Family: CHANGING PATTERNS

Over 90% of these families are headed by women. Until the early 90's divorced mothers were the biggest group among lone mothers, however they have now been overtaken by single mothers. A child living with a lone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty as a child living with two parents.

- What percentage of lone parent families are headed by women? - What is the dominant group of lone parent families? - How much more likely are children living in lone parent families to experience poverty?

'marriage is less embedded within the economic system' now. There are fewer family firms and the family is not a unit of production. Therefore both spouses are less dependant on each other economically.

Allan and Crow

Some see cohabitation as a permanent alternative to marriage. Andre Bejin (1985) argues that cohabitation represents a conscious attempt to create a more personally negotiated and equal relationship among young people.

Andre Bejin (1985) Cohabitation

- Equalising the grounds for divorce. - Widening the grounds for divorce - Made divorce cheaper

As a whole, how have changes in the law made divorces easier to get?

as a radical feminist, suggests that many women are becoming dissatisfied with patriarchal marriages. She sees the increase in the divorce rate and the increase in petitions put forward by women as a sign of growing acceptance of feminist ideas, as women become conscious of the patriarchal oppression associated with marriage and are more confident to reject it.

Bernard (1976)

Contradict Sigle-Rushton. They argue that working women are not more likely to get a divorce, as working has now become the accepted norm for married women and therefore does not lead to problems.

Cooke and Gash (2010)

while many gays and lesbians welcome the opportunity to legally marry, others fear that it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of their relationships.

Einasdottir (2011) - same sex marriages

The decline in the stigma attaches to sex outside of marriage. In 1989 only 44% of people agreed that premarital sex wasn't wrong, but only 65% took this view by 2012. Young people are more likely to accept cohabitation. Women no longer need marriages so are freer to opt for cohabitation. Secularisation: Young people with no religion are less likely to cohabit.

Give four reasons for the increase in cohabitation: - Stigma - Young - Women - Secular

They are formed when lone parents form new relationships, therefore the increasing number of lone parents and divorce is responsible for the creation of more stepfamilies. More children in stepfamilies are from the woman's first marriage than the man's because when marriages or cohabitations break up, children are more likely to remain with their mother. Stepfamilies are more likely to lead to poverty because there are often more children and because the stepfather may have to support children from a previous relationship. Some of the tensions faced by stepfamilies may be the result of a lack of clear social norm about how individuals should behave in such families.

Give four reasons for the increasing number of stepfamilies and the problems they face - divorce rate - women in divorce - poverty - tension

Heidi Safia Mirza (1997): The high rate of lone parent families among black people is not the result of disorganisation, but reflective of the high value that black women place on independence. Tracy Reynolds (2010): The statistics are misleading as many 'lone' parents are actually in stable and supportive non-cohabiting relationships.

Give two criticism of the view that lone-parent black families are the result of disorganisation caused by slavery? - Mirza - Reynolds

For many women the home, where they are frustrated by their husbands refusal to take on domestic work, compares unfavourably to work, where they feel valued. As both partners work, they have less time and energy to work through the emotional strains this causes and they are therefore more likely to seek a divorce.

Hoschchild 1997

The high rate of female headed, lone parent black families has sometimes been seen as evidence of family disorganisation as a result of slavery. When couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother. This has been seen to have established a pattern that is still influencing family life today. The high rate of male unemployment and poverty among the black community can also be seen as a reason, as black men are less able to provide for their family - leading to conflict and marital breakdown.

How can the greater proportion of lone parent black families be linked to slavery?

Willmott (1988): The extended family still exists as a'dispersed extended family', whereby relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact through visits or calls. Chamberlain (1999): Studied Caribbean families and found that, although geographically separated, the extended family continued to provide support for its members. with close contact between uncles, aunts, siblings and cousins who especially made a big contribution to childrearing.

How do Willmott (1998) and Chamberlain (1999) suggest that the extended family has not disappeared?

Despite the rise of the beanpole family, many people still feel obliged to help their extended families. Finch and Mason (1993): Over 90% of people had given or received financial help from their extended kin, and about half had cared for a sick relative. However, More is expected of females than males. Cheal (2002): When personal care for an elderly woman is needed, a daughter or daughter in law is chosen. But when money is needed, men are chosen. Despite this, Mason found that the family history influences who is asked, with some family members having 'legitimate excuses' to not help as well as the principle of balance, whereby people feel that the help received should always be returned.

How do obligations to relatives impact the extended family? - Finch and Mason - Cheal

Sees lone parenthood as a result of the dependancy culture created by the welfare system. He argues that benefits reward deviant behaviour, leading to a 'perverse incentive' to commit irresponsible behaviour. Murray suggests that this would be prevented through abolishing the welfare system.

How do the New Right / Charles Murray deem lone parenthood?

Some postmodern sociologists also argue that modernity encourages people to adopt a neo-liberal, consumers identity whereby they base their choices solely on their own self-interest. This pursuit is likely to pull spouses apart.

How has modern neo-liberalism effected divorce rates?

The traditional opposition of divorce by the churches now holds less weight: people care less about religious beliefs. As well as that, many churches have begun to soften their stance on divorce and divorcee. Likely because they would lose their credibility and following by isolating large sections of society.

How has secularisation impacted the divorce rate?

Historically, divorce was stigmatised by society. Churches, for example, often condemned divorce and refused to conduct marriage services for previously divorced couples. As stigma has declined, couples have become more willing to resort to divorces, therefore increasing the number of them. This increase in divorces has then further influenced more divorces, as it has begun to 'normalise' divorce, making people more likely to access it. It is now seen more as a misfortune than as a shameful secret. Mitchell and Goody (1997): The rapid decline in the stigma associated with divorce has been an important chance since the 1960's.

How has the declining stigma and changing attitutde to divorce effected the divorce rate? Mi... and Go..

Much more likely to be in paid work. The proportion of working women has increased from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013. Equal pay and anti discrimination laws have helped to narrow the pay gap. Girl's now have greater access and success in education so are able to achieve better-paid jobs. Welfare benefits prevent women from remaining financially dependant on their husbands. As women are more likely to have their own separate source of income from paid work they have less of an incentive to tolerate conflict or absence of love. They are therefore more likely to seek a divorce.

How has women's increased financial independence impacted the divorce rate?

The ideology of romantic love has been influential. This belief that marriage is based solely on love justifies divorce, as it suggests that there is no reason to remain married as your 'soulmate' is still 'out there'. This is in great contrast to the past, when marriages were largely contracted for economic reasons or family duty. Couples had low expectations for romance and were therefore less likely to be dissatisfied by the absence of intimacy. Now, marriage is seen as a way in which people seek personal fulfilment. Ronald Fletcher (1966) argue that this higher expectation is a major cause for rising divorce rates. However Fletcher remains positive, by pointing at the continued popularity of marriage as there is a high rate of re-marriage after divorce- therefore implying that society has not rejected marriage entirely.

How have rising expectations of marriage effected the divorce rate?

2.9 million, double the number in 1996 1/5

How many cohabiting heterosexual couples are there in Britain? How many are serial cohabitors?

Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups, at 4.4, 4.3 and 3 persons per household compared with 2.4 for both Black Caribbean and White British households. Such households sometimes contain three generations, but most are nuclear rather than extended families

How much bigger fo Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be when compared with black Caribbean and white British?

Relationships become more fragile as individual become less willing to remain with a partner that doesn't fulfil their interests. People instead seek a 'pure relationship' that exists solely to satisfy each partner's needs, rather than to satisfy duty, tradition or the sake of children. This results in higher divorce rates, which then normalise divorce and strengthens the belief that marriage exists solely to provide personal fulfilment.

In what three ways has individualisation thesis and modernity impacted divorce rates?

Jean Renvoize (1985) describes how many professional women are able to support their child without the father's involvement and therefore choose to be single. Ellis Cashmore (1985) found that some working class mothers chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner because they had experienced abuse.

Jean Renvoize (1985) and Ellis Cashmore (1985) : Lone parent families

Julia Brannen describes the 'long and thin' extended family: It is vertically extended up or down through three or more generations. It is not extended horizontally, so doesnt involve aunts, uncles and cousins. This is supported by Charles' study of Swansea, which found high levels of contact between mothers and adult daughter but a sharp decline in contact and support from brothers and sisters. The beanpole family structure can be seen to be the result of two demographic changes: Increased life expectancy: meaning more surviving parents and grandparents Smaller family sizes: Meaning people have fewer siblings and thus fewer horizontal ties.

Julia Brannen: Beanpole family

The rapid decline in stigma associated with divorce has been an important change since the 1960's

Mitchell and Goody 1997

In 2013, almost 3/10 households contained only one person: nearly three times the figure during 1961.

Number of one person households in 2013 vs 1961

Of the 14% belonging to ethnic minorities, the main groups were Asian and Asian British (7.5%), Black and Black British (3.3%) and mixed (2.2%). This greater ethnic diversity has contributed to changing family patterns in the UK.

Of the 14% of the population belonging to ethnic groups, how many are: - Asian - Black - Mixed

- Sociologists such as Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) argue that in modern society, traditional norms such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life lost their value. They believe that each individual becomes free to pursue his or her own self-interest, rather than simply conforming to the traditional interest.

Outline Individualisation Thesis and its impact on divorce rates

The grounds for divorce were made equal for men and women, resulting in more female divorce petitions

Outline the 1923 divorce law change

Introduced legal aid, making divorces more accessible

Outline the 1949 change in divorce law:

widened the grounds for divorce. Allowing it as the result of 'irretrievable breakdown' rather than requiring a 'guilty party'. This made divorce much easier to obtain and led to the divorce rate doubling overnight.

Outline the 1969/1971 divorce reform act

Appeal Court Ruling applies the principle of equality to divorces whereby the decision making process begins with all assets being split 50-50 between the couple.

Outline the 2007 change in divorce law

Welfare benefits are not very generous and definitely do not encourage lone parent families, they often actually lead to poverty. 60% are unemployed and unable to afford childcare. Many lone mothers are unable to earn the same amount as men. Fathers don't always pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family that they have to support.

Outline the criticism of the New Right's view of lone parent families?

Feminists argue that the dual burden women face in married relationships has created a new source of conflict between husbands and wives. They suggest that this is leading to a higher divorce rate than in the past. This is impacted by their belief that although there have been significant changes in women's position within the public sphere of work or education, progress within the domestic sphere is slow. In-turn, marriages remain patriarchal.

Outline the feminist explanation for the increased divorce rate

Robert Chester argues that for most people, cohabitation is part of the process of getting married Ernestina Coast (2006), 75% of cohabiting couples say that they expect to marry each other.

Robert Chester and Ernestina Coast (2006): Cohabitation

higher expectations are a major cause for rising divorce rates. However Fletcher remains positive, by pointing at the continued popularity of marriage as there is a high rate of re-marriage after divorce- therefore implying that society has not rejected marriage entirely.

Ronald Fletcher (1966)

Mothers who face a dual burden are more likely to seek a divorce than mothers who remain in traditional marriages. Where the husband of a working wife is actively involved in housework, the divorce rate is the same as for couples with a traditional division of labour.

Sigle-Rushton (2007)

Weeks (1999) Increased social acceptance may explain a trend towards same sex cohabitation and relationships that resemble those found among heterosexuals. Weeks sees gays as creating close chosen families of friends as kins who offer the same security and stability as heterosexual families. Kath Weston (1992) Describes same sex cohabitation as 'quasi-marriage', whereby same sex couples choose to cohabit as single partners rather than in the casual relationships of the 1970's.

What are chosen families? weeks (1999) Weston (1992)

Larger Asian households also to some extent reflect the value placed on the extended family in Asian cultures. However, practical considerations, such as the need for assistance when migrating to Britain are also important. Roger Ballard (1982): Extended family ties provided an important source of support among Asian migrants during the 1950's and 1960s. In this period of migration, houses were often shared by extended families. Later, most Asian households became nuclear with relatives living nearby and visiting regularly. Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus are still more likely than any other ethnic or religious groups to live in extended family units.

What cultural and practical considerations have led to Asian families being larger? - Ballard (1982)

there is so much diversity between step families that it is impossible to assess all in the same light. Some do experience specific tension whilst others experience the same tension as first families

What does McCarthy et al (2003) suggest about step families?

Changes in the position of women: With better educational and career prospects, many women are less economically dependant on men and therefore do not need to marry.

What effect has changes in the position of women had on marriage?

There is less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. There is now a widespread belief that the quality of a couple's relationship is more important than its legal status.

What effect has changing attitudes towards marriage had?

The influence of religion has declined in recent years, meaning that people feel freer to choose not to marry. According to the 2001 consensus, only 3% of young people with no religion were married, against 17% of young people with a religion. As well as that, many churches are against holding weddings for divorcees.

What effect has secularisation had on changing patterns of marriage?

Declining stigma attached to alternatives: Cohabitation, remaining single and having children outside of marriage are all now regarded as acceptable. This is especially important in regard to children, as 'shot gun' weddings are no longer necessary and people do not have to get married in order to have children. In 1989 70% believed that couples who want children should get married, compared to only 42% in 2012.

What effect has the declining stigma attached to marriage alternatives had?

- Fewer people are marrying, marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920's. - More re-marriages: In 3023, one third of all marriages were re-marriages, leading to serial monogamy. - Later Marriage: The average age of first marriages has rise by 7 years between 1971 and 2012, the average age of marriage is no 32 for men and 30 for women. - Less Church Marriages: Couples are much less likely to marry in a church.

What four changes have occurred to marriage in recent years? - Fewer - More Re - Later - Church

47% of all children are now born outside of marriage, over twice as many as in 1986. Women are having children later in life, with the average age at the birth of their first child increasing by 4 years to 28.1 between 1971 and 2012. Women are having fewer children than in the 20th century. The average number of children per woman has fallen form 2.95 in 1964 to 1.94 in 2010. More women are choosing to remain childless. It is predicted that a quarter of women born in 1973 will be childless when they reach 45.

What four changes in childbearing have occurred - marriage - age - number - choice

- Marrying young - Having children before marriage - Cohabiting before marriage - Being married before.

What four factors increase the chance of a couple getting a divorce?

It doubled between 1961 and 1969 and then doubled again between 1969 and 1972

What happened to the divorce rate between 1961, 1969 and 1972?

28.1 years old, increasing by 4 years from 1971.

What is the average age for a woman to have their first child?

28%

What percentage of 25-34 year olds believe that marriage should come before parenthood?

Research by Duncan and Phillips for the 2013 British Social Attitudes survey suggests that 1 in 10 adults are now 'living apart together'. It has been suggests that this reflects a trend towards less formalised relationships and 'families of choice'. Reasons for LAT relationships: A desire to keep their own home Previous relationship problems due to cohabitation.

What percentage of adults are LAT? Why?

47%

What percentage of children are born outside of marriage?

37% in 1946 65% now

What percentage of divorce petitions came from women in 1946 and now?

Lone parent families now make up 22% of all families with children. One in four children live in a one parent family:

What percentage of families with children are lone parent families?

10% - quickest rising family group in the UK!

What percentage of families with children to step-families take?

In 2012, just over half of all families with dependant children headed by a black person were lone parent families- this is compared to 1/9 Asian families and just under 1/4 of families as a whole.

What percentage of families with dependant children headed by a black person were LONE PARENT in 2012? how does this compare to Asian families and families as a whole?

40%

What percentage of marriages end in divorce?

40% of all one person households are over 65. One person pensioner households have doubled since 1961, while those of non-pensioners have tripled.

What percentage of one person households are over 65?

found that the stepfamilies they studies were very similar to first families in all major respects and that the involvement of stepparents in children care was positive.

What positive view of step families do Ferri and Smith (1998) suggest?

Stepfamilies may experience problems of divided loyalties and issues such as contact with the non-resident parent can cause tension.

What problems do Allan and Crow (2011) suggest that stepfamilies face?

2002: Cohabiting couples have had the same right to adopt as married couples. 2004: Civil Partnerships Act gave same sex couples similar legal rights to married couples. 2014: Same sex couples were allowed to marry.

What three laws have increased the ability for same sex relationships 2002 2004 2014

Increased divorce rate naturally leads to an increased number of lone parent families. Women's liberation and the impact of feminism has lead to women choosing to raise children in a lone parent home. The stigma of births outside of marriage has decreased so people no longer require a partner to be deemed socially acceptable.

What three reasons have lead to greater lone parent families? - divorce - feminism - stigma

Declining stigma associated with births outside of marriage. Only 28% of 25-34 year olds now think marriage should come before parenthood. Women now have more options outside of motherhood, meaning that they delay childbearing or choose to put their career first.

What two factors have impacted childbearing?

The divorce rate peaked at 165,000 in 1993

When did the divorce rate peak? At what rate?

Larger households are partly the result of the younger profile of British Asians. As a higher proportion are of childbearing age, they are able to have more children compared to the population as a whole.

Why do some Asian households contain many generations? - younger - childbearing age

- women are associated with the 'expressive' role - women often gain custody of children during divorce rulings - men are more likely to be unwilling to give up work in order to look after children.

Why do women tend to be the leader of lone parent families?

Charles (2008): Through their study of Swansea, they found that the classic three-generation family living together under one roof is now 'all but extinct', with the Bangladeshi community being the only exception.

Why does Charles (2008) suggest that the extended family has disappeared?

Colin Bell (1968) researched Swansea, and found that both working class and middle class families had strong emotional bonds with their family and relied on them for support: Middle class families showcased financial support between father and son. Working class families had more frequent contact, living closer, and showcased more domestic help from mothers to daughters.

Why does Colin Bell (1968) suggest that the extended family has survived?