Global Environmental Politics

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

NGOs define issues, sway the policies of governments, lobby at intergovernmental negotiations, provide information and reporting services, and monitor the implementation of agreements. NGOs influence on global environmental politics comes from... NGOs possess expert knowledge and innovative thinking about global environmental issues acquired from years of thinking about environmental issues. NGOs are acknowledged to be dedicated to goals that transcend national or sectoral interests. NGOs often represent substantial constituencies within their own countries and thus command attention from policymakers because of their ability to mobilize people.

NW 18 Capitalism vs. Climate (Naomi Klein)

Naomi Klein argues that far from counting on capitalism to come to the rescue of the environment, capitalist efforts themselves are at the verge of environmental challenges like climate change. Klein asserts that the only way to tackle climate change, and by extension, other environmental challenges is to move the world on to a radically different economic trajectory. In this way, Klein offers a vision of the future and a plan for action that places her sharply at odds with those who see a better world resting on ever higher levels of economic growth. To Klein, responding to climate change requires that we break every rule in the free-market playbook and that we do so with great urgency.

Types of Regime Strengthening

1. A convention's Conference of Parties (COP) can adopt a new treaty, usually called a protocol which establishes new concrete commitments. Examples of this convention-protocol approach include when parties to the 1985 Vienna Convention adopted the 1987 Montreal Protocol and when the parties to the 1992 UNFCCC adopted the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. 2. The COP can formally amend a treaty, changing or adding provisions in the main text. Examples include establishing a moratorium on commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission (IWC). This requires reaching a decision by consensus, with all parties agreeing, or a majority vote. Again, states ratify this new amendment, and those who choose not to ratify are not bound by it. 3. Some treaties allow the COP to mandate important new or stronger actions without a formal amendment or protocol procedure. Thus parties can change regime terms or technical details rapidly in response to new information. These decisions are reached by consensus or sometimes, a supermajority vote if consensus cannot be reached.

Environmental Regimes

1. Agenda setting and issue definition 2. Fact finding 3. Bargaining on regime creation 4. Regime implementation 5. Regime review and strengthening

Factors of Regime Success

1. Strength of regime and the degree to which parties comply with its core provisions. Strong means an agreement that mandates actions expected to impact the problem. 2. New scientific evidence moving veto states on some issues (ODS and POPs) but less on others (climate change). 3. International political considerations payed a role (in the Basel Convention). 4. Domestic political and ethical concerns (concern for the Inuit community made Canada a lead state in POPs negotiations). 5. Perceptions of economic interests changed significantly in the ozone regime, while they slowed efforts to strengthen the climate regime. 6. Requires leadership of lead states committed to defining the issue and proposing policies to address it.

Governing the Global Commons

No one size fits all when it comes to designing sustainability institutions and mechanisms. Environmental problems are numerous and complex. We need to think creatively about the best combinations of approaches for improving environmental conditions. There are three relevant factors... Size and Scale: The most obvious difference between global and local resources. Complexity: Difficult to understand natural cycles and processes at the global level. Enforceability: The international system is 'anarchical.' There is a patchwork of institutions and norms that give some order to this system, but there is no higher authority than the nation-state. The UN can help negotiate agreements, but it is not strong to monitor, let alone enforce agreements.

Partnering with Corporations

2005 saw the rise of eco-businesses due to the similar rise in globalization and the concept of the "raise to the bottom" which is about improving the corporation bottom line, and not the environment. Corporations are often so powerful, that they can choose to ignore laws or have them changed. As such, WWF, Greenpeace, and other NGOs have partnered with corporations because: If corporate actions are not sustainable, they can easily undo the hard work done in other sectors. Corporations have $ for funding. Corporations move quickly. For all these reasons, these NGOs say that it's better to be on their boards to effect change from the inside. This, however, comes at the potential risk of having a muted voice and being complicit in greenwashing. Furthermore, there is the argument that helping a corporation market themselves as CSR-focused is harmful overall because, if they sell more goods, they are adding to the problem of over-consumption. Chapter 18 simply addresses, in a nutshell, the debate as to whether promoting environmentally friendly methods must always mean reduced profit under capitalism.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001)

A 2001 agreement among 127 nations concerning 12 chemicals to be banned, phased out or reduced. Challenges to the toxic waste regime include continuing to address live chemicals, politically necessary exemptions, the need for financial and technical resources to assist developing countries, and implementation of the synergies initiative (Stockholm, Basel, and Rotterdam Conventions all address chemical waste).

Framework Convention - Protocol Approach

A framework convention is a treaty or other international agreement that defines an agreed problem and the general outlines of an international approach to it. It does not establish binding commitments. They just acknowledge the importance of an issue. Protocols to a framework convention are entirely new treaties and must be ratified by a certain number of states to enter into force. For example, the US ratified and is bound to implement the UNFCCC, but did not ratify and is not obliged to abide by the Kyoto Protocol. The two-stage convention-protocol approach allows the international community to establish the institutional and legal framework for future work, even when there is no agreement on the specific actions to be taken. It is a negotiating necessity. The weaker framework convention is chosen not as a preferred option by lead states, but because it represents the limit of what veto states will accept.

United Nations Framework Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Rio 1992

A global treaty requiring the reduction of GHG emissions to pre-industrial levels, but had no binding obligations. Provided for regular review of the commitments.

Lead State

A lead state has a strong commitment to effective international action on the issue, moves the negotiation process forward by proposing options for an agreement, and attempts to win the support of other state actors.

Tragedy of the Commons (Garrett Hardin)

A parable that illustrates the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain. (Herdsman, cattle, what is the utility of adding one more to my herd, but all herdsmen do so without limit in a limited world). Hardin argues that resources must be controlled by markets or estates to avoid degradation. Cooperative management schemes have enjoyed some success at the local level, but it remains unclear if this approach can be scaled up to the global level. The absence of a global government doesn't make the degradation of global commons inevitable. It is difficult but possible to establish institutions and mechanisms for regulation access to global commons.

Rio Declaration

A set of 27 principles for sustainable development that emerged from the 1992 Earth Summit, a UN Conference of 172 nations and 2,400 NGOs held in Rio de Janeiro. These included calls for states to develop national laws and cooperate internationally to address environmental harm and to adopt focused measures to ensure that development is part and parcel with environmental efforts. It represents the international community at its best.

Treaty Secretariat

A specific type of IGO established by an international treaty to manage the day-to-day operation of the treaty regime. They have two broad areas of impact: Influencing the behavior of actors by helping to change their knowledge and belief systems (knowledge brokers). Influencing the political processes through the creation, support, and shaping of norm-building processes for issue-specific international cooperation.

Supporting State

A supporting state speaks in favor of a lead states proposal and negotiations.

Swing State

A swing state has mixed incentives and, in exchange for its acceptance of an agreement, seeks a concession to its interests (typically not one that significantly weakens the regime).

Veto State

A veto state seeks to block a proposed environmental regime, tries to weaken it to the point that it cannot be effective, or refuses to join, thereby severely reducing the global or long term effectiveness of the regime.

Overcoming Veto States

Overcoming the impact of veto states usually results from one or more of the following five elements. 1. A veto state changes its own understanding of the problem because of new scientific evidence. 2. A veto state changes its position because its economic interests have changed. 3. A veto state has a change of government and the new government has a different policy towards the issue. 4. A veto state comes under effective domestic political pressure to change its policy. 5. A veto state fears negative reactions from other governments or adverse internal and international opinion, which it regards is more important than its interest in between the specific provision of the regime.

NW 14 What's Wrong with Climate Politics (Paul Harris)

Paul Harris focuses on the diplomacy around climate change, pointing out the limitations of the state system. While he acknowledges the importance of the UNFCC for setting the political context for addressing global warming, he notes how individual states concerned with their narrowly defined national interests have stymied progress on climate protection by refusing to assume more aggressive measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. He blames the inclination of states to focus on the short term when defining their interests, and implies the need for reforms to state-level diplomatic efforts that could help states better recognize their common but differentiated responsibilities.

NW 16 The Promise of Corporate Environmentalism (Peter Dauvergne and Jane Lister)

Peter Dauvergne and Jane Lister argue that big business is the enemy of environmental sustainability because, even if it's green, it is still committed to the endless production and consumption of products. However, they also open a window into the possibility of businesses contributing to a greener world, They describe the pro-business case, which assumes that the global economy is functioning in productive ways that can be modified in the service of sustainability. In this sense, they can be seen as supporting the status quo, or at most calling for relatively minor reforms.

1. Agenda Setting and Issue Definition

Agenda setting and issue definition involve bringing the issue to the attention of the international community and identifying the scope and magnitude of the threat, its causes and the type of international action required.

Paris Agreement (2015)

Agreement to reduce global carbon emissions. Had to be written in a way that it could be adopted without congressional approval, as many in Congress disagreed with science behind global warming and opposed tighter controls of greenhouse gases. Thus the Paris Agreement is a treaty under international law, but only certain provisions are legally binding.

NW 3 Humanity's Potential (Alex Steffen)

Alex Steffen argues that while the future is certainly not rosy in an ecological sense, there is still a remarkable human capacity for innovation, hope and even joy. Tapping into such capacity demands that we imagine new ways of being on and with the earth, and this begins with identifying genuine forms of social and political engagement that can make a difference. Steffan outlines the trajectory of such efforts and challenges us to get excited about working on behalf of planetary ecological well being.

World Bank

An example of the international financial institutions, the world bank is a specialized agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation. Its formal name is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Another example of international financial institutions is the IMF.

Minilateralism

An exclusive form of diplomacy that restricts membership to a geographical region or regime trait, powerful states, or like minded states.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 1: Systemic or Structural Obstacles from International System Structure

Anarchical structure of the international political system is an example. Lack of congruence among the global, political, and ecological systems.

Weak Sustainability

As seen in the Rio version of sustainable development, weak sustainability focuses on enhanced efficiencies in consumption and production, the innovation and commercialization of technology, and policy incentivizing environmentally friendly choices. These are adjustments that are possible within a capitalist economy, allowing economic growth and sustainable development.

3. Bargaining on Regime Creation

Bargaining is done among nation states on the goals and content of the global policy to address the issue. The fact finding stage, often shades into this bargaining stage The regime must have the participation of states that contribute significantly to the problem to be effective. The outcome of the bargaining process depends on the bargaining leverage and cohesion of the veto coalition, which can prevent the creation of a strong international regime by refusing to participate in it, or insisting answer significant concessions. Agreements may form without key veto states (Kyoto Protocol) and thus remain ineffective.

NW 4 Global Warming's Terrifying New Math (Bill McKibben)

Bill McKibben argues that climate change is not a future problem. It is already with us. It will take all of the political coordination and muscle that can be mustered to make sure that the problem does not worsen and he points out that oil companies already own the rights to enough fossil fuel reserves to cause runaway catastrophic climate change. Therefore, he pleads with the world citizens to do everything that can be done to ensure that these fuels stay in the ground.

NW 9 A Finite Earth (Bill McKibben)

Bill McKibben demonstrates the explanatory power of the IPAT by asking three critical questions. How many of us are there? How big are we in an ecological sense? How big is the earth? By walking us through these three questions McKibben demonstrates that the IPAT formula can help us see how expanding human numbers and appetites can push up against hard ecological limits in increasingly profound and troubling ways. Along with Friedman, McKibben demonstrates that an understanding of the IPAT formula helps to capture the materialistic dimensions of environmental degradation. These forces do not, however, operate in a vacuum, but are embedded in and animated by the second of our analytic categories: ideational factors that steer material arrangements in certain directions. In other words, demographic, economic, and technological trends are partly governed by ruling ideas that determine the pace, direction, and quality of collective change.

Case Study: Ozone Depletion (Success)

CFCs were discovered to have a serious threat to the stratospheric ozone, but the economic importance of these ozone depleting substances (ODS) made international control difficult. Agenda setting and issue defining and fact finding process took many years (1970s to 1980s) as scientific evidence fluctuated, and no evidence had yet emerged. When the formal bargaining began in 1982, knowledge was still a barrier. The US took a lead role in negotiations as it had already banned CFC use in spray cans and wanted other countries to follow suit. The EC and Japan opposed controls, due to the hazy science and economic importance of CFCs. Large developing countries also formed another veto coalition, due to their desire to produce CFCs in the future for development. The framework convention (1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) affirmed the importance of protecting the ozone but provided no obligations to reduce production or use of CFCs. Weeks after this, British scientists published the first publicly available reports about the Antarctic ozone hole. This raised domestic and international pressure, and two years later negotiations ended with the 1987 Montreal Protocol. The EC shifting from a firm veto state to accepting a compromise 50% reduction target was due to several factors: disunity in the EC, diplomatic pressure from the US, pressure from European NGOs, and the reluctance of the EC to be seen as the culprits if negotiations fail. The ozone regime needs the participation of large developing countries. A historic achievement was the creation of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol, defraying initial investment costs. As the conversation shifted to methyl bromides, the US shifted to a veto state due to economic interests (domestic lobbying from farmers who use it for agriculture). Further regime strengthening measures have shifted the conversation to HFCs and HCFCs. Today, the ozone regime is considered the most successful global environmental regime. Atmospheric concentration of ODS are declining, and there have been substantial climate benefits. Challenges include phasing out production completely, and managing ODS containment and destruction. Currently, millions of tons of CFCs remain in discarded appliances where they leak into the waste stream. Four causal factors that shaped the development of the ozone regime include... 1. The necessity of accommodating veto states, requiring compromise during regime development. 2. Advancing scientific knowledge led to the discovery and prioritization of the threat. Economic benefit gave way to concerns of economic cost of environmental threat. 3. Changing patterns of economic interests among major actors, such as the importance of CFCs and methyl bromide and the development of the Multilateral Fund impacting the calculations of developing countries. 4. The extant development of the regime: the framework of the Vienna Convention allowed governments to press forward quickly and effectively on binding protocol.

Do Regimes Matter

Case Study: Mediterranean Action Plan (Med Plan) There were issues in setting up the regime, such as how Algeria would not sacrifice development at the altar of the environment. The issue was the commons of the sea, with many different pollutants The Barcelona Convention negotiated 4 protocols: (1) Govern dumping from ships and aircraft; (2) Enhance cooperation in cases of oil spill emergencies; (3) Control pollution from land-based sources; (4) Establish specially protected areas. These were each ratified by everyone but Algeria. The success of Med Plan is attributable to the involvement of ecologists and marine scientists whom governments turned to and trusted for answers. Also due to UNEP officials and like-minded government officials acted as a lobbying group, and had similar beliefs and goals. UNEP funded research.

Obstacle to effective National Implementation

Certain factors can negatively influence national compliance with their requirements. Inadequate translation of regime rules into domestic policy. Insufficient capacity or commitment to implement, administer, monitor, or enforce domestic policy. Misperception of relevant cost and benefits. Costs of compliance. Inadequate or poorly targeted financial and technical assistance. Poorly designed regimes. Many regimes, and little coordination.

Natural Resource Regimes

Challenges include transnational boundary externalities, national sovereignty issues, economic interests, and a lack of clear and measurable targets and timetables. Biodiversity (weak), endangered animals (somewhat weak), forests (very weak, no comprehensive regime), desertification (ok) fisheries (weak), whaling (stronger, still weak)

NW 2 State of the Species (Charles C. Mann)

Charles Mann traces the roots of the Anthropocene to the unusual success of our species. Our big brains and capacity for cooperative social arrangement enabled humanity to develop and practice agriculture, and this was simply the beginning of our ability to take control over and increasingly transform the earth. The problem with this success is that we are collectively pushing up against hard ecological limits. Humanity cannot infinitely colonize the earth's productive and absorptive capacities without severely degrading its biophysical functioning and, in the extreme, threatening large scale ecosystem collapse. Mann concludes that Earth is in extremely poor health and getting sicker by the day.

4. Regime Implementation

Regimes must be implemented, which parallels the review and strengthening stage.

NW 15 State Sovereignty Endangers the Planet (Richard Falk)

Richard Falk condemns the structure of the state system as the fundamental obstacle to global environmental well being. He shows how the structure prevents the kinds of reforms that Harris and the others recommend, and thus advances a radical critique of international environmental efforts. To Falk, our condition is too dire to accept the status quo and too urgent to embrace incremental reform. Falk's analysis suggests that the only way toward genuine global environmental protection is system transformation. We need a completely different world order system to shepherd us into a livable future. An adequate response requires a public policy that takes into account the varied interests of different sectors of the community (individual vs community, forming the paradox of aggregation), and provides effective mechanisms for prompt and uniform enforcement. The paradox of aggregation generates a call for governmental planning and enforcement on a planetary scale.

Soft Law

Soft law are voluntarily adopted guidelines for corporate behavior derived from emerging norms and standards in international codes, declarations, and conventions. Soft law is not binding, and simply reflect the action that states intend to take. While there are no enforced consequences, political consequences include criticism from other nations or institutions, weakening of a state's negotiating power in future talks, and general untrustworthy reputation. On the issue of sustainable development, the international community has pursued a soft law approach.

NW Issues in the International State System

Sovereignty does little to address environmental issues. It frustrates cooperative attempts insofar as it fragments political authority when we increasingly need unity. The International state system sets up a mismatch between the quality of the problem and the character of the response mechanism. Global environmental issues are unitary while the state system is fragmentary. This mismatch accounts for many of the challenges associated with addressing global environmental problems. States tried to overcome this mismatch by negotiating agreements designed to tackle particular environmental issues. This consists of setting up bureaucratic bodies like the different agencies of the UN that have some rule-making and agenda setting capacities and establishing and abiding by treaties or norms of international behavior.

Copenhagen Accord (2009)

Spearheaded by the U.S., China, and several other countries Sought to curb greenhouse gases and keep global temperature increase below 2 degrees Celsius between 2010 and 2040 Talks became deadlocked, and rather than adopt it, the COP agreed to just take note of it, postponing the decision about whether to continue the Kyoto Protocol. Secretive negotiations caused distrust.

NW 5 End of the Wild (Stephen M. Meyer)

Stephen Meyer draws stark attention to the ways humanity is wiping out other species at inordinate rates. Meyer explains how over-harvesting, exploiting and despoiling essential habitat, and the spread of non native invasive species across the planet are fueling an extinction crisis that rivals even the most dramatic in the fossil record. He argues that human efforts to stem the crisis are too feeble to reverse the trend, and that we are thus stuck with living in a biologically impoverished world. Meyer calls on us to marshal moral, rigorous efforts to protect what is left of the more-than-human world.

Stewards of the Earth System

Stewards of the Earth System (2015-present) is the third and current stage of the Anthropocene, and is the recognition that human activities are affecting the structure and functioning of the Earth System as a whole.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 3: Lowest Common Denominator Problems

Strength and effectiveness of an environmental treaty depends on securing the agreement, participation, and compliance of veto states.

Strong Sustainability

Strong sustainability approaches fundamentally reform economic and social systems.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 6: Interconnections of Environmental Issues

Successfully addressing one problem can require addressing more interrelated problems. Solutions to one problem may exacerbate another problem. Example is using nuclear power to replace coal-fired plants. Less GHG but increased risk of radiation release.

Technological Capability Cause

Technological capability, a cause of environmental harm extends our reach into the earth's ecosystems. As our capabilities grow, so do the power intensity and scope of our enterprises. The consequences of this are presented as greater demands on the Earth's overstretched sources, sinks, and sights.

Population and Poverty

Concerns about sustaining a growing population dates back to Thomas Malthus. The concept of 'doubling time' is central to concerns of neo-Malthusians: the time it takes for the human population to double is shrinking. Some argue that conditions in which people live have a greater impact on the environment than the size of a population. Population control has been criticized by those in favor of women's empowerment, arguing that education, safety, and development are the best contraceptive. Poverty is widely accepted as a driver of environmental problems. International environmental policy is often based on the assumption that environmental conditions will improve as countries develop. Global trade complicates the relationship between development and pollution reduction. Wealthy countries often show signs of improved sustainability because they are outsourcing production and pollution to poorer countries. The assumption that environmental concerns are a luxury that only the wealthy can afford is simplistic and overlooks differences in environmental priorities. Ultimately, the relationship between economic growth and environmental improvements is unclear. We cannot conclude that poverty is bad and affluence is good for the environment. We cannot assume that developing countries will follow the same patterns as contemporary wealthy ones.

Global Politics of Food

Current global food system is "highly complex and distanced," meaning long and far supply chains, "food from nowhere" and debate over food miles. Distance facilitates cost externalization. There are multiple competing scientific models for increased sustainability in the food system (large-scale production with GMOs and intensification vs small-scale, diversified food system with local distribution). This promotes polarized ideational debates about which model should be prioritized. Sustainability governance related to food, fisheries, and agricultural systems tends to be weak and fragmented. Difficult to address agricultural issues with the environment through mainstream environmental governance. There are asymmetrical power dynamics in the food system (powerful corporations vs farmers). Coalitions of consumer interest groups can defeat the few powerful corporations

Factors Influencing State Actors

Domestic Political Factors: influenced by powerful economic and bureaucratic forces and domestic environmental constituencies. For example, strong environmental movements can influence a state to play a lead role. A lack of business interest in African ivory made it east for Washington to take a lead role. Potential Risks and Costs: Lack of access to technology would have made it costly for the Soviet Union to stop using CFCs, hence they played a veto role in the CFC ban. International Political and Diplomatic Considerations: States may decide to play a lead role for the prestige.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 7: Regime Design Difficulties

Effective regime design is difficult due to political and economic issues.

NW 1 Enter the Anthropocene (Elizabeth Kolbert)

Elizabeth Kolbert highlights the fact that human beings have become the central force shaping the planet's condition. Those who look back on the current age from some future time will see indelible signs of our collective activities, etched into the planets geological features. Carbon and other forms of pollution will be present in future ice cores and tree rings, our fabrications of steel and copper sandwiched in layers of future rock. The Anthropocene means not only that humanity reigns supreme over the rest of the living world, but that its dominance has achieved geological significance. This has huge impact for environmental conditions.

NW 10 Consequences of Consumerism (Erik Assadourian)

Eric Assadourian illustrates the power of ruling ideas by identifying how most societies now subscribe to a consumerist mentality that sees the good life tied to high patterns of consumption. For Assadourian, environmental harm comes not simply from increase in population, affluence, or technology, but also from the cultural context in which they operate.

2. Fact Finding

Fact finding involves studying the science, economics, policy, and ethics surrounding an issue. This is done to both improve understanding of the issue and to build international consensus on the nature of the problem.

global change

Global change is the biophysical and socioeconomic changes altering the structure and functioning of the Earth System.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 8: Applying Common But Differentiated Responsibilities

Global economic and ecological developments have altered how some countries seek to operationalize key paradigms.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 4: Time Horizon Conflicts

Global policy development and implementation is time consuming, and there are incongruent timescales among environmental systems and political and corporate systems.

Hard Law

Hard law are conventions and treaties that under international law create legally binding obligations.

Ideational Cause

Ideational causes of environmental harm involve cultural mindsets. Examples are consumerism, a belief that humans can exploit nature with impunity, or the societal tolerance of environmental injustice.

Sinks

In terms of our ecological footprint, sinks involve what we put back into the earth. Every act of production and metabolism generates some sort of waste. The Earth has the ability to absorb some of this. However, at some point, the Earth's absorptive capacity reaches its limits. Today, the Earth's sinks are stopping up. Forests, oceans and the atmosphere have assimilated their fill, leading to climate change.

Sites

In terms of our ecological footprint, sites are places of beauty, ecological significance, or simply value. They are places of biological significance that house an inordinate number of species, represent a unique ecological expression, or provide a key service to uphold and healthy ecosystems . In a globalized world that spreads its consumptive fingers further across and deeper into the earth for resources and disseminates its waste in every nook and cranny of the planet, too many sites are becoming endangered. The defiling of sites, not only undermines the organic infrastructure of the earth; it also undermines those amenities of the planet that enhance the quality of life.

Sources

In terms of our ecological footprint, sources are the raw materials we use to live our lives. All of them regenerate and thus are not strictly finite, but they do so at tremendously varying rates. Today we faced diminishing resources. From a global perspective, we are using almost every material resource faster than it can be replaced.

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)

Institutions created and joined by states' governments, which give them authority to make collective decisions to manage particular problems on the global agenda. They can influence global environmental policy through determining which issues are the most important on the agenda, convening international conferences, influencing negotiations on a global environmental regime by providing independent and authoritative information, developing soft law to guide action in particular issues, and affecting the implementation of global environmental policies through the provision of funds.

Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)

International agreements between three of more governments dedicated to the achievement of a specific environmental objective. They proliferated after the 90s due to... 1. Positive international mood after the end of the cold war, greater feelings of security. 2. Successful and efficient negotiation of the Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol for Ozone Protection.

Anthropocene

The Anthropocene is the current geological epoch (beginning with the Industrial Revolution) to mark the central role humankind plays in geology and ecology. The term was coined by Eugene Stoermer in the 80s, and popularized by Paul Crutzen in 2000.

Basel Convention (1992)

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal controls the transport of hazardous waste between nations, especially the transfer of waste from developed to less-developed countries. It also focuses on exemplary management practices and the reduction of toxic waste. Challenges to the toxic waste regime include the lack of significant ratifications to enter into force (US, one of the largest producers, has not ratified) and the implementation of the synergies initiative (Stockholm, Basel, and Rotterdam Conventions all address chemical waste).

Earth System

The Earth System is the suite of interacting physical, chemical, and biological global-scale cycles and energy fluxes that provide the life support system for life at the surface of the planet.

The Great Acceleration

The Great Acceleration (1945-2015) was the second stage of the Anthropocene, and refers to the acceleration of processes associated with the human industry during the post-WWII period. Since 1945, a number of important metrics of human impact on the environment reflect an unprecedented increase, such as CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere, ozone depletion, atmospheric methane concentration, population growth, and deforestation.

Holocene

The Holocene is the postglacial epoch of the past 10-12,000 years.

The Industrial Era

The Industrial Era (1800-1945)was the first stage of the Anthropocene, which was characterized by an enormous expansion into the use of fossil fuels.

Case Study: Fisheries Depletion (Weak)

It is the newest environmental regime. Issues include jurisdiction (EEZs and high seas), strong veto coalitions of coastal vs landlocked states, state sovereignty (Canada and other coastal states disliked other interests from distant fishing states setting controls), and Canada's willingness to use force to protect its interests. The regime is impeded by the refusal of some key states to ratify it. Seafood Systems Example Contestation between Japanese and US interests in salmon and tuna show the international dimensions of the national system. International fisheries are combination of desire for seafood commodity and geopolitical influence. The Truman Declaration - control over continental plate and relevant fisheries, in favor of "conservation" It promoted "maximum sustainable yield," which turned out to be tool to avoid restrictions on fishing without scientific proof of overfishing. The fishery crisis evidence emerged all at once (collapse of North Atlantic cod fishery and 75% of fisheries fully or overexploited) This regime was one with governmental regulation, private ordering, and non-profit involvement · Marine Stewardship Council (WWF and Unilever) ·International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (response to MSC)

NW 13 Brief History of International Environmental Cooperation (Jennifer Clapp and Peer Dauvergne)

Jennifer Clapp and Peter Dauvergne chart the evolution of international environmental protected efforts. It explains the emergence of more than 1,100 multilateral environmental agreements and modifications that currently establish acceptable behavior for treating the environment - spanning issues as diverse as climate change, trade and endangered species, ocean pollution, and toxic waste. Like the Rio Declaration, this reading provides evidence that states can cooperate and put into place meaningful rules for governing global environmental affairs. Taken together, the Rio Declaration and this passage suggests that the international system is able to address environmental dangers. To be sure, the documents do not claim that the state system is perfect. Both indicate that much more work needs to be done, but they implicitly support the political status quo, or at least do not call for altering the structure of character on the sovereign state system.

NW 7 The Global Food Crisis (Lester Brown)

Lester Brown argues that most of the world's environmental problems register themselves as pressures on humanity's ability to grow enough healthy food to support a growing population. He underlines how contemporary pressures are forcing countries into desperate actions, fostering public unrest over rising food prices and diminishing food availability. According to Brown, this is the future. Such pressures seem set to grow casting a grave shadow over humanity's food future.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 5: Common Characteristics of Global Environmental Issues

Links to important economic and social activities and interests. Unequal adjustment costs. Scientific complexity and uncertainty. Different core beliefs. Large number of actors.

Material Cause

Material causes of environmental harm are the physical drivers - such as economic wealth, technological capacity or population numbers - that can push the overuse of resources, saturation of sinks, or despoiling of sites

NW 6 Where Has All the Water Gone (Maude Barlow)

Maude Barlow highlights how water supplies across the planet are under significant strain. She argues that the water crisis is not about a lack of knowledge, but rather is indicative of a lack of political will. Barlow sees us sitting at a moment of opportunity in which enlightened and effective water governance can protect billions from the ravages of water poverty.

Multilateral Diplomacy

Multilateral institutions proliferated throughout the latter half of the 20th century. Recently, multilateralism has been strained by fragmentation and the growth of minilateralism. The international community began to take a political interest in environmental issues in the 60s and 70s. North-South divisions have been a feature of environmental multilateralism since this time. There are different types of multilateral agreements including resolutions, conference declarations, framework conventions, and protocols. Some constitute 'soft' law and others constitute 'hard' law. The international community placed development at the centre of the environmental agenda to protect economic growth and ensure participation from developing countries. Since 1992, states have met a series of high-level summits to promote sustainable development. Many promises have been made but progress has been poor.

Multilateralism

Multilateralism is an institutional form that coordinates relations among three or more states on the basis of principles which specify appropriate conduct. Multilateralism doesn't override sovereignty, but recognizes coordination as mutually beneficial.

UNDP - United Nations Development Programme

The UNDP is the main economic development organization of the United Nations that works to improve living conditions through economic development.

Business-as-usual

The business-as-usual philosophical approach is a scenario for future patterns of production and consumption which assumes that there will be no major changes in attitudes and priorities. This is based on the belief that global change is not significant enough to cause disruption, and that existing market-oriented economic systems can adapt as needed. Although it appears to be a safe, conservative method, it can be risky due to the significant time lapse between human decision making and its economic consequences.

North South Divide

The economic division between the wealthy countries of Europe and North America, Japan and Australia and the generally poorer countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Differences of opinion and priority between the North and South have been addressed by placing development at the heart of the environmental agenda.

Geo-engineering options

The geo-engineering philosophical approach involves purposeful manipulation by humans of global scale Earth System processes with the intention of counteracting anthropogenically driven environmental change. One example is releasing sunlight reflective particles into the stratosphere in order to produce a net cooling effect. However, geo-engineering options raise serious ethical questions about the possibility for unintended and unanticipated side effects that could have severe consequences.

Mitigation

The mitigation philosophical approach is based on the recognition that the threat of global change is serious enough that it must be dealt with proactively by reducing human modification of the global environment. The most important factor is improved technology. The risk is that it is not strong enough alone, and requires further changes in societal values and individual behavior.

Precautionary Principle

The precautionary principle states that the lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing or failing to take effective conservation measures if inaction could produce significant environmental harm.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)

The principle locus for agenda-setting in global environmental politics. A program of the United Nations responsible for gathering environmental information and conducting research and assessing environmental problems. It created the IPCC to study scientific and policy issues.

5. Regime Review and Strengthening

The process of regime review and strengthening is where parties negotiate if and how to make the central provisions clear or more stringent, how to improve implementation and or how to expand the scope of the regime. This may occur because new scientific evidence became available (process for responding quickly to this is key to regime strengthening) political shifts take place in one or more major states, new technologies make addressing the environmental issue less expensive, or the existing regime is ineffective and bringing about meaningful actions to reduce threat.

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

The result of the COP to the UNFCCC. It initiates implementation of the UNFCCC and negotiates quantitative limits on GHG emissions beyond 2000. Entered into force in 2005.

Hardin's Assumptions

The three assumptions are... Humans are self regarding and short-sighted. The commons are unmatched and freely accessible. Privatization and socialism are the only solutions (although potentially unjust) to avoid degradation. Adam Smith's invisible hand theory is fundamentally unsound.

Critiques of Tragedy of the Commons

The three key weaknesses are... Human Nature and the Commons: It is too simplistic to call all humans inherently selfish. There have been times and places where humans have cooperated in extensive ways for the greater good. Historical Inaccuracies: The decline of the commons was due to wealthy landowners taking ownership of lands, not due to the destructive nature of the commons system. History suggests this degradation was due to illegal activity instead of selfish herdsmen. Alternative Governance Options: Hardin erroneously conflates communal property with open access. In communal property, a plot of land is owned by a group of people. Communal property is seen as an ecologically rational method of management that has historically succeeded without relying on the enforcement of the state or the market.

Hey American CEOs

There is open space as far as market is concerned. Companies might be progressive, but CEOs are still not pushing Congress due to the fear of investors and scaring people off. CEOs should step up as early visionary leaders on climate.

Environmental Regime Obstacle 2: Lack of Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

There must be... Concern: in governments and public to devote resources to the problem. Contractual Environment: place where states can gather, negotiate, and make commitments. Capacity: to understand the threat, participate in creating the global regime, and implement principles.

NW 8 Too Many Americans (Thomas Friedman)

Thomas Friedman takes us to far flung corners of the world, to show us the growing pervasiveness of the American way of life. The Americans Friedman finds wherever he travels - meaning those who consume at the levels of people in the United States - are rapidly growing in number with troubling implications for the world's already stressed natural systems. Along with McKibben, Friedman demonstrates that an understanding of the IPAT formula helps to capture the materialistic dimensions of environmental degradation. These forces do not, however, operate in a vacuum, but are embedded in and animated by the second of our analytic categories: ideational factors that steer material arrangements in certain directions. In other words, demographic, economic, and technological trends are partly governed by ruling ideas that determine the pace, direction, and quality of collective change.

Developing Countries

Three phases: Pre-Stockholm: contestation [of environmental policies] by the global south. Stockholm-to-Rio: participation Post-Rio: engagement The Global South was a chosen dynamic based on a "sense that the international system is ineffective in responding to Southern concerns" and "grows out of the belief that the system is less than legitimate in terms of its commitment to Southern interests" Despite some differences (mostly related to countries' environmental conditions), there is a remarkable sense of collectivity. At Stockholm, developing countries had great importance (because Soviet bloc countries were absent). They questioned legitimacy of global environmental agenda (North "pulling up the ladder"?) They were originally against UNEP, until announcement it would be headquartered in Kenya. § "sustainable development" trend had d.c. more interested post-Stockholm. Discourse has shifted from legitimacy to effectiveness to institutions.

Rotterdam Convention (1998)

United Nations treaty designed to promote shared responsibilities with the import and exportation of hazardous chemicals. Requires that countries give explicit informed consent before hazardous chemicals cross their borders. Challenges include the implementation of the synergies initiative (Stockholm, Basel, and Rotterdam Conventions all address chemical waste).

Fragmentation in Global Environmental Governance

Whether a hard or soft law approach is likely to be more effective for sustainable development, the fact is that states opted for the flexible option soft law. The global governance of sustainable development has taken the form of summit-based multilateralism where states meet every ten years to reflect on progress and set new goals. This approach is failing to generate the ambition and action necessary to achieve sustainable development.

Montreal Protocol (1987)

Widely seen as a historic achievement as... 1. It was the first treaty to address a truly global environmental threat. 2. The protocol required significant cuts in the production and use of several very important chemicals central to economic activity in key industries. 3. The final agreement was reached in the absence of clear scientific proof concerning the problem, making it the first prominent example of the application of the precautionary principle in a global environmental treaty. 4. The design and effectiveness of key architectural elements of the protocol have influenced aspects of later environmental treaties, including the control measures, reporting requirements, assessment panels, differentiated responsibilities for developing countries, and review procedures. 5. The protocol contained clear, innovative, and effective mechanisms for expanding and strengthening the treaty in response to new scientific information. 6. The protocol has been a significant success, something that cannot be said of other global environmental agreements.