HCM-114 Chapter 5: Motivation Theories : Achievement requires effort

person is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that:

(1) effort will yield acceptable performance (expectancy), (2) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), (3) the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence). (slide 23)

Herzberg's two-factor theory (*motivator-hygiene* theory.)

Identifies two different factors as primary causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. And the two factors operate independent of one another. Also known as the *motivator-hygiene* theory.

specific goals

If the goals are seen as too difficult or impossible, however, the relationship with performance no longer holds. All too often people work with very general goals such as the encouragement to "do your best." Research indicates that more _______, such as selling six computers a day, are much more motivational than a simple "do your "best" goal.

social comparison

Individual Outcome/ Individual Efforts = Others' Outcomes / Others' Efforts

Felt Negative inequity.

Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than others in proportion to work inputs.

Felt Positive inequity.

Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than others have.

fairness

Motivation is a function of how one evaluates rewards relative to efforts made, and as compared to the rewards received by others relative to their efforts made. A key issue in this comparison is ______.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Needs range from self-actualization and esteem at the top, to social, safety, and physiological at the bottom. Physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated - safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated and so on.

Hygiene factors found In job context and affect Job dissatisfaction e.g.

Organizational policies Quality of supervision Working conditions Relationships with coworkers Status and security Base wage or salary

ownership

Participating in the goal-setting process helps build acceptance and commitment. It creates a sense of _____.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Process of joint goal setting between a *supervisor and a subordinate*.

Equity Theory

Research on _______ indicates that people who feel they are overpaid (perceived positive inequity) are likely to try to *increase* the quantity or quality of their work, whereas those who feel they are underpaid (perceived negative inequity) are likely to try to *decrease* the quantity or quality of their work.

Content theories

The ______ try to explain work behaviors based on pathways to need satisfaction and on *blocked needs*.

Goal setting

The basic precepts of ______ theory are an important source of advice for managing human behavior in the work setting.

Need for power (nPower).

The desire to *control others*, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.

Need for achievement (nAch).

The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to *master* complex tasks.

Need for affiliation (nAff).

The desire to establish and maintain friendly and *warm relations* with others.

Goal setting

The process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing.

understanding of motivation

Theories of both types contribute to our _____ to work. But none offers a complete explanation.

Thematic Apperception Test (T.A.T.) Premise:

We project our unconscious needs through stories. It is a projective technique that asks people to view pictures and write stories about what they see.

motivator

When ________ factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance. When ______ factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises motivation and performance.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

When done throughout an organization, _____ helps clarify the hierarchy of objectives as a series of well-defined means-end chains.

process approach

Whereas a content approach may identify job security as an important individual need, a ______ would probe further to identify why the decision to seek job security results in certain work behaviors.

You regularly work longer hours than anyone else in your department. Yet, you do not feel that you are being adequately recognized or rewarded. According to equity theory, you will most likely .... 1- Increase your efforts by working longer hours. 2- Ask for a raise or bonus. 3- Reduce your efforts by decreasing hours. 4- Frame the situation as a learning experience and beneficial for your future career.

You will most likely reduce your efforts (3.) or try to restore equity by increasing our outcomes (2.)

Management by Objectives (MBO)

_____ involves managers working with their team members to establish performance goals and make plans that are consistent with higher level work unit and organizational objectives.

Task feedback

_____ lets people know where they stand and whether they are on course or off course in their efforts.

Vroom's expectancy theory

_____ posits that motivation is a result of a rational calculation - people will do what they can do when they want to do it.

Someone with a high need affiliation

______ is drawn to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for communication.

Perceived inequity

______ occurs when someone believes that the rewards received for their work contributions compare unfavorably to the rewards other people appear to have received for their work.

Someone with a high need for power

______ seeks influence over others and likes attention and recognition.

Expectancy logic

_______ argues that managers should always try to intervene actively in work situations to maximize work expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences that support organizational objectives.

Someone with a high need for achievement

_______will prefer individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and performance feedback.

Direction

an individual's choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives.

Difficult goals

are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult ones.

Specific goals

are more likely to lead to higher performance than vague or very general ones.

Vroom's expectancy theory

argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effort/ performance relationship and work outcomes.

Distributive justice

degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age or any other demographic characteristic.

Commutative Justice

degree to which exchanges and transactions among parties is considered free and fair.

Interactional justice

degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated with dignity and respect.

Procedural justice

degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed.

Expectancy

effort will yield acceptable performance

higher-order needs

esteem and self-actualization

Content theories

including the work of Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, and Herzberg - focus on identifying human needs that influence behavior in the workplace.

Motivation

internal force that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person's effort expended at work.

A person's motivation

is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).

Equity theory

is based on the concept of fairness.

Task feedback

is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals.

Expectancy

is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance.

Instrumentality

is the probability assigned by the individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes.

Valence

is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes.

Instrumentality

performance will be rewarded

lower-order needs

phychological, safety, and social

Hygiene factors

relate more to the setting in which people work than to the nature of the work itself.

Foundation of equity is

social comparison.

McClelland's acquired needs theory

states that three needs are major motives determining people's behavior in the workplace 1- Need for achievement (nAch). 2- Need for affiliation (nAff). 3- Need for power (nPower).

Process theories

such as equity theory and expectancy theory, examine the thought processes that affect decisions people make about their work efforts.

Level

the amount of effort a person puts forth.

Persistence

the length of time a person sticks with a given action.

Valence

value of the rewards is highly positive

Clayton Alderfer's ERG Theory of Motivation

E- Existence R- Relatedness G- Growth

Equity theory prediction:

Felt Negative inequity. Felt Positive inequity. When either feeling exists, the theory states that people will be motivated to act in ways that remove the discomfort and restore a sense of felt equity.

ERG theory is also based on needs, but it differs from Maslow's theory in three main respects.

First, ERG theory collapses Maslow's five needs categories into *three*: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs Second, ERG theory emphasizes a unique frustration-regression component. An already satisfied lower-level need can become activated when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied. If a person is continually frustrated in his or her attempts to satisfy growth needs, for example, relatedness needs can again surface as key motivators. Third, unlike Maslow's theory, ERG theory contends that more than one need may be *activated at the same time*.

Process theories

Focus on how cognitive processes as thoughts and decisions within the minds of people influence their behavior.

Content theories

Focus on individual needs - that is, physiological or psychological deficiencies that individuals feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.

self-efficacy

Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of _____ required to accomplish them.

accepted

Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are ______ by the individual, and there is commitment to them.

Organizational justice

How fair and equitable people view the practices of their workplace.

(Key Questions) What can we learn from the needs theories of motivation?

- *Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory* views human needs as activated in a five-step hierarchy ranging from physiological (lowest) to safety, to social, to esteem, to self-actualization (highest). - *Alderfer's ERG theory* collapses the five needs into three: existence, relatedness, and growth; it maintains that more than one need can be activated at a time. - *McClelland's acquired needs theory* focuses on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power, and it views needs as developed over time through experience and training. - *Herzberg's two-factor theory* links job satisfaction to motivator factors, such as responsibility and challenge, associated with job content; it links job dissatisfaction to hygiene factors, such as pay and working conditions, associated with job context.

Types of motivation theories

- Content theories - Process theories

(Key Questions) Why is the equity theory of motivation important?

- Equity theory points out that social comparison takes place when people receive rewards. - Any felt inequity in social comparison will motivate people to behave in ways that restore a sense of perceived equity to the situation. - When felt inequity is negative - that is, when the individual feels unfairly treated -he or she may decide to work less hard in the future or to quit a job for other more attractive opportunities. - Organizational justice is an issue of how fair and equitable people view workplace practices; it is described in respect to distributive, procedural, interactive, and commutative justice.

(Key Questions ) How does goal-setting influence motivation?

- Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiation, and formalizing performance targets or objectives. - Goals are the most motivational when they are challenging and specific, allow for feedback on results, and create commitment and acceptance. - Management by objectives, a process of joint goal setting between a team leader and team member, is a way of applying goal-setting theory in day-to-day management practice.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

- Identifies five levels of individual needs. - Assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators

Needs Theories of Motivation (Content theories)

- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory - Alderfer's ERG Theory of Motivation - McClelland's acquired needs theory - Herzberg's two-factor theory

(Key Questions) What is motivation?

- Motivation is an internal force that accounts for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. - Content theories-including the work of Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, and Herzberg-focus on identifying human needs that influence behavior in the workplace. - Process theories, such as equity theory and expectancy theory, examine the thought processes that affect decisions people make about their work efforts.

Motivational implications of expectancy theory.

- Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality, or valence approach zero or are negative. - Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high and valence is strongly positive.

Equity* restoration* behaviors.

- Reduce work inputs. - Change the outcomes received. - Leave the situation. - Change the comparison points. - Psychologically distort things. - Try to change the efforts of the comparison person.

Hygiene factors

- Sources of job dissatisfaction found in the job *context* or work setting. - Job dissatisfaction occurs when hygiene factors are poor. - Improving the hygiene factors only decreases job dissatisfaction.

Motivator factors

- Sources of job satisfaction related to job *content*. - Presence or absence of satisfiers or motivators in people's jobs is the key to satisfaction, motivation, and performance. -* Job enrichment* is a way of building more motivator factors into job content.

(Key Questions ) What are the insights of the expectancy theory of motivation?

- Vroom's expectancy theory describes motivation as a function of an individual's beliefs concerning effort-performance relationships (expectancy), work-outcome relationships (instrumentality), and the desirability of various work outcomes (valence). - Expectancy theory stares that Motivation = Expectancy X Instrumentality X Valence, and argues that managers should make each factor strong and positive in order to ensure high levels of motivation.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

1- physiological need 2- safety need 3- social need 4- esteem need 5- self-actualization need (slide 6)

Motivator factors found In job content and affect Job satisfaction

Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth

Equity Theory

Any perceived inequity becomes a motivating state of mind. People are motivated to behave in ways that restore or maintain equity in situations.

Growth

Desires for continued personal growth and development.

Existence

Desires for physiological and material well-being

Relatedness

Desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships