History EXAM Roman Republic

How did Caesar defeat Vercingetorix?

Caesar defeated Vercingetorix by forcing him to retreat with his eighty thousand warriors to Alesia. There Vercingetorix made a last stand. Caesar laid a siege. The Roman soldiers built a wall more than nine miles long all the way around Alesia. It was twelve feet high and had eight camps and twenty three towers. They then dug two ditches around the base of the wall facing Alesia. One was filled with water. The ground between the ditches and the city was laid with booby traps and then a second wall was built outside the first wall that was thirteen miles long. Now, Caesar's soldiers couldn't be attacked from behind. The Romans managed to completely isolate the Gauls and Vercingetorix could not hold out. Women and children even poured out of the walls and begged for food, but the Roman guards turned them back. A Gallic relief army arrived and began to surround the ring of Roman soldiers, preparing to attack them from behind. Caesar had hid his cavalry in the woods, though, and at his signal, the horsemen charged, forcing the relief army to fight the Romans on both sides. Vercingetorix sent out his men, hoping to divert the Roman soldiers from their attack upon the relief army. Most of these warriors fell into hidden pits or were slain by arrows shot from the towers. Vercingetorix was finally forced to give up after much fighting, and he surrendered himself to Caesar wearing his finest armor and mounted on a stallion.

Caesar's reforms

Caesar's reforms were: -putting large numbers of men to work on public construction project to reduce unemployment in Italy -ordering the redesign and enlargement of the Forum, the restoration of the Curia (meeting place of the Senate) and the construction of the Basilica Julia (a law court) -giving landless peasants an opportunity to return to farm work by offering them free land in unsettled parts of the empire -promoting the founding of new colonies around the Mediterranean Sea -setting up government departments of transportations to improve traffic control and to supervise the upkeep of roads throughout the empire -hiring engineers to drain the marshes around Rome and to deepen the harbor of Ostia -appointing officials to supervise the public grain supply -making plans to build museums, to codify the civil law, and to revise tax structure -he also wrote poetry and composed a Latin grammar book

Carthage

DESCENDED FROM THE PHOENICIANS

Magistrates

Elected officials who enforced the law and judged cases. They were wealthy men coming from wealthy Roman families who usually had ancestors who held high offices. There were many offices in this branch of government, and the path of moving from low ones to high ones is called the Race Of Honors. The offices were quaestor, aedile, praetor, and consul. There were also Tribunes, who represented the Plebeians.

Why did many senators consider Caesar a threat?

Many senators considered Caesar a threat because he reduced the role of the Senate to an advisory council and diluted the influence of the wealthy within the Senate by increasing its numbers to 900 and extending membership to equestrians, provincials, the sons of slaves, and even the Gauls of northern Italy. The Senate was now a more representative body. The senators also worried about Caesar's obvious love of power and disregard for many long-held government practices. Also, he had a law passed that enabled him to personally choose candidates for high office, which infuriated them. They saw that Caesar did not appreciate the Roman reverence for tradition. He simply removed the magistrates who opposed him from office, and he thought he new what was best for Rome. When he began to make plans to attack Parthia in Asia and appointed some of his political supporters to run the government while he was away, the opposition against him solidified. The men who conspired against Caesar believed that they were defending the old Republic. He wanted to be dictator for life, which meant that he would have total control until his death, which the Senators feared.

Relationships between Marc Antony and Octavian and between Marc Antony and Cleopatra: How the relationships affected the history of the Roman Empire.

Marc Antony and Octavian's relationship was interesting. The two shared the power of the Roman Republic together, and while Octavian was a gifted politician, Marc Antony was a good general (although he was rash and headstrong). Octavian clearly distrusted and feared Marc Antony and his relationship with Cleopatra, and Octavian wanted to become the sole ruler of Rome. He also was concerned about Caesarion someday claiming power in Rome and was also angry about Antony leaving his sister, who Antony had married, in Rome while Antony was in Egypt. Without Antony, Octavian might not of gained power, which meant that he might not of started the Roman Empire. That would make a pretty big difference in history! Marc Antony and Cleopatra's relationship contributed to Octavian becoming emperor too. If the too hadn't fallen in love and planned to make a kingdom, Octavian might not of ever become sole ruler of the empire because Antony might of still shared the power with him. Antony played a crucial role in Octavian founding the Roman Empire, and without his and Cleopatra's relationship, who knows what might of happened? If Mark Antony and Cleopatra had won at Actium, Mark Antony could of held all the power.

Forum

Open area in a Roman city filled with public buildings, temples, and markets. The Roman Forum was the center of Rome's government, economy, and religion.

How long did the Punic Wars last?

Over sixty years

Rome's three-part government

Rome had 3 branches of government. The 3 branches were: The assemblies (direct democracy) The Senate (oligarchy) The magistrates (they were almost like monarchs) The assemblies were groups of adult male Roman citizens who passed laws and elected magistrates. All adult male citizens could participate in assemblies. Usually, the votes of the wealthy would count for more than those of the poor. In the assemblies, citizens of Rome passed laws and elected officials. The power of the assemblies was checked by that of the Senate and of elected officials. The Senate was made up of wealthy, well known, important citizens, often former magistrates. These men controlled foreign policy and government money. Senators were chosen by a censor, which was an official. The Senate did not represent the people. They were supposed to guide the state. Rich and older senators were thought to be wiser than regular citizens. The Senate advised the assemblies and magistrates, and its advice was almost always followed. The most powerful part of the government in Rome was the Senate. Magistrates were elected officials who enforced the law and judged cases. The magistrates were wealthy men whose ancestors usually had held high offices. Men from elite families had politics as an important part of their lives. Magistrates were extremely powerful. The Race of Honors was the path of a politician from lower to higher offices. It changed over time, but in the later years of the Republic, it followed a standard form. Here's how it went: Quaestor (low) - accountants who kept track of the state's money. They were also assistants to higher offices. Aedile (low) - in charge of holding festivals and maintaining public buildings. Praetor (high...?) - These magistrates judged cases, managed the city of Rome, and led armies in times of war. Consul (highest) - Top officials whose most important job was to lead the army. Other jobs included presiding over the Senate and assemblies and being the highest judge. There were two consuls. There were also officials called dictators. These men could be named by the Senate in times of great emergency. They held complete power, but only for a maximum of 6 months. The Roman government had checks and balances. No one branch in the government was too powerful, and the power of one branch balanced/checked that of another branch. The Tribunes were the ones who represented the Plebeians in the government. The position was filled by a plebeian and they acted as the protector of the plebeians. Sometimes a Tribune would tale radical or revolutionary positions. Tribunes could veto any law or action of any magistrate. It was also forbidden to harm a Tribune or to stop him from doing his job.

Events leading to Caesar's rise in power

Rome was in pretty bad shape before Caesar's rise to power. There was violence, small wheat farms going out of business, plebeian shopkeepers and artisans being at a disadvantage in the shops and markets, protests, and more. A tribune by the name of Tiberius Gracchus tried to give land to the poor in 123 BC, but he and his brother were killed by his opponents. Gaius Marius, a consul, helped reform the army, {see Gaius Marius} but when a job for the general Sulla to defeat a rich enemy was voted by the assemblies to be given to Marius, Sulla became mad and marched his troops to take the job by force. He fought a civil war against Marius and his supporters and won. He then became dictator. When he retired in 79 BC, Pompey and Crassus became consuls by forcing the Senate to accept them (70 BC). The two consuls restored the power of the tribunes and reduced the power of the Senate, giving balance between the patricians and the plebeians once again. Unfortunately, they couldn't bring order to the cities. Julius Caesar came along {insert stuff about early Julius Caesar}. Caesar began his political career as a pontiff, then as a quaestor in Spain, then as an aedile, then as a pontifex maximus, and then as a praetor. Caesar found himself enjoying the support of plebeians and patricians alike, and the other high-ranking magistrates envied him. Pompey and Crassus became concerned with the growing number of enemies they had in the Senate, and Crassus also worried about Pompey's love of power. He thought it would be wise to support the rapidly-rising Caesar to counterbalance the power of his fellow consul. In 60 BC the three men formed the First Triumvirate, which was an extra-legal alliance that helped them achieve their political goals. Pompey wanted to obtain a large portion of land for his retired soldiers, Crassus wanted tax concessions for himself and his fellow capitalists, and Caesar wanted power. Pompey and Crassus used their power and influence to get Caesar to the position of consul, and his power in the Roman government took off from there.

The Ides of March

The Ides of March is March 15th. This is the day that Caesar was killed. It was in 44 BC, and Caesar was scheduled to attend a meeting of the Senate in the Theater of Pompey (the normal meeting room in the Curia was under repair). His wife Calpurnia had a nightmare about an evil force attacking her husband, and she begged him not to attend the meeting. A fortune teller named Spurinna also warned him, but he brushed off the warnings. On the way to the Senate meeting he encountered Spurinna and said that the Ides of March have come. She responded "Ay, but not gone!" During the meeting, one of the senators suddenly grabbed Caesar's toga and pulled it off his shoulders. This was the signal for the attack. His conspirators stabbed him 23 times. After his "friend" Brutus stabbed him, Caesar covered his face in his toga, staggered to the foot of a statue of Pompey, and fell dead. This death was supposed to guarantee the survival of old order actually marked the end of the Republic. Roman history had arrived at a crucial turning point.

Punic Wars

The Punic Wars consisted of 3 wars. The Punic Wars lasted over 60 years. These wars were fought between Rome and Carthage. The First Punic War begin in 264 BC and lasted for 23 years. The Romans were concerned about Carthage's growing power and the fact that they controlled half of Sicily and showed signs of taking over the entire island. The Romans wanted Sicily because it was a) fertile and produced a large amount of grain and b) because it was a great strategic site to have (it lay almost midway between Europe and Africa, with its eastern shore only miles from the Italian coast). When the Sicilian city of Messana revolted against Carthage and asked for help, Rome responded aggressively. The following skirmish provided the Romans with and excuse for a declaration of war against Carthage. The Romans had an excellent army, while Carthage had an excellent navy. The Romans knew that they needed an advantage over the Carthiginians, so they invented the corvus, a hinged gangplank with a metal spike on the end. This helped the Romans turn a sea battle into a land battle. The Romans built a huge fleet of 140 warships (based off of a Carthaginian one). The Romans won the First Punic War, and the final battle in it was even fought without the corvus in a conventional naval battle! Over 100,00 Roman soldiers died and 500 warships were destroyed. Carthage was ordered in the peace settlement to abandon Sicily and pay a huge sum of money. The people of the provinces had to surrender their land and pay tribute to Rome (usually 1/10 of their whet harvest). {Insert Hamilcar Barca facts here} Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, played a crucial part in the Second Punic War. He had pledged to his father at the age of nine that he would not stop fighting the Romans until he defeated them. In 219 BC he provoked Rome by capturing the Roman trading port of Saguntum in Spain. By the time Roman soldiers arrived to arrest him, he was already marching towards Italy with 60,000 mercenaries, 9,000 horses, and 27 war elephants (218 BC). He did this because the Romans would never expect an attack like this. It was extremely difficult to move such a large army from Spain to Italy! Hannibal's army crossed the Pyrenees Mountains, then moved to Gaul, then crossed the Rhone River by constructing rafts, and then crossed the Alps. It took 15 days to cross the Alps and this was the hardest part of the journey, since Hannibal and his army had to lookout for the stone-throwing mountain people, be careful on the narrow paths (men and animals frequently fell off), and melt huge chunks of ice in their way. The elephants suffered greatly from the cold climate. Finally, Hannibal's army entered the Po River Valley in Northern Italy. Their march was complete (5 months). Most of the Roman army was abroad when Hannibal entered Italy. The troops still there were taken completely by surprise. His plans to attract the Gauls to his side were fulfilled, although not every warrior joined his army. The Roman consuls leapt at the chance to destroy Hannibal's army, but they were too hasty. Hannibal cleverly defeated them on the bank of the Trebbia River. He used the morning mists to his advantage and outflanked and surrounded the Romans. Only 1/3 of the Roman soldiers survived the attack. The Roman generals escaped, but they announced that they had won to the rest of the Romans. Hannibal then led his army south (pass in the Apennines). He passed through the marshes of the Arno River, where he contracted a disease that cost him the sight in one eye. Once he recovered, Hannibal defeated the Roman army (led by the consul Flaminus) at Lake Trasimene (morning mists, surround, killed every Roman soldier, let Italian allies flee). The Romans then chose Quintus Fabius Maximus as dictator. Hannibal then went to the plain of Campania (southward). Fabius ordered his men to attack only the small detachments Hannibal sent out for food. This was in order to wear down Hannibal and his men. In the fall, Hannibal made plans to lead his men into the hills to establish winter quarters. He couldn't wait in Campania, as every city was fortified and held by the Romans. Fabius waited to pick off Hannibal's cavalry when they were sent ahead to scout the area. Hannibal tricked the Romans by tying lighted torches to the horns of a heard of cattle. The Romans followed the torches while Hannibal and his army sneaked through a different pass and out of Campania. In the spring (216 BC), 2 new consuls were elected. Their names were Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. The two led an army to Cannae, where Hannibal was camped, to try and defeat him. Hannibal defeated them, this time not using the morning mists (it was summer, so he couldn't). Instead, he drove dust into the Romans' faces by charging quickly and then using a quick and clever maneuver, he drew the Roman soldiers into the center of his army. He then ordered his pikemen on the two flanks to swing inward and attack, while the cavalry chased off the Roman horsemen and then charged at the foot soldiers in the rear. The surrounded army was then slaughtered. It was one of the worst defeats in Rome's history, and over 50,000 Roman soldiers died. Hannibal chose not to march on to Rome. It was probably a good idea that he didn't, as there were Roman troops ready to defend Rome and Hannibal had no siege weapons, nor did he have a source of supplies and food. The Romans resumed the tactics of Fabius after the battle at Cannae. This deprived Hannibal of a chance to fight a major battle, and for the next 13 years, the Roman army dogged Hannibal. Hannibal's plan to break up the Italian confederation by winning the support of Rome's former enemies never worked out. Most of the allies in central Italy remained loyal to Rome. Hannibal had no means of getting supplies of grain or weapons, and the men killed in his army couldn't be replaced. His soldiers had to live off the land and steal weapons. Hannibal's one hope for fresh troops was quashed when his brother, Hasdrubal, who was leading a small army across the Alps into Italy in 207 BC, was killed by the Romans. His head was thrown into Hannibal's camp in southern Italy. Hannibal remained in Italy for 15 years. He was a thorn in the side of the Roman Republic. Meanwhile, Publius Cornelius Scipio, a Roman general, drove the Carthaginians out of Spain. He then camped his troops near the city of Carthage and in less than a year Carthage sued for peace. Rome said that they would negotiate a peace settlement IF they would call Hannibal home. The Carthaginians did just that. Soon after Hannibal's return to Carthage, war broke out again. In 201 BC Hannibal and Scipio's armies met at Zama. It was Hannibal's first lost, and even though his army fought fiercely, Hannibal no longer had his cavalry that had helped him win so many victories abroad, as they had been detained in Italy. The Second Punic War was over, and Spain became a Roman province. The Carthaginians relinquished their war elephants and all but ten of their ships were set on fire. They had to promise never to rebuild their army of navy, and were forbbiden to wage war, even a defensive one, without Rome's permission. Hannibal became an influential leader in his government, and he made many reforms that restored the economic prosperity of Carthage. He had many rivals that conspired against him, though, and in 195 BCE the Romans ordered his arrest. Hannibal fled from his city and lived for a number of years in Asia Minor with a Greek king, but he was constantly hunted by his old enemies. In 182 BCE he took poison to avoid capture. He was 65 years old. Carthage remained a prosperous trading city, which made certain Romans uneasy. One Senator (Marcus Porcius Cato), concluded his speeches, whatever topic it was on, with the words saying that Carthage must be destroyed! Rome finally picked a quarrel with Carthage, laid a siege, and destroyed the city. This lasted from 149-146 BC. It was called the Third Punic War, although it was really more of a massacre than a war. To symbolize the destruction of the city, salt was poured upon the fields of Carthage. Carthage and the region around it became the new Roman province of Africa.

Types of activities in the Roman Forum

The Roman Forum was a swampy area between two of the town's hills that was drained by the early Romans. It was an open area filled with public buildings, temples, and markets. It was the center of Rome's government, economy, and religion.

Consuls

The highest ranking official in the Roman government. There were two of these, and their most important job was to lead the army. They also presided over the senate and assemblies and were the highest judges.

Hannibal

a Carthaginian general who was a very important part of the Second Punic War. He was well educated, could speak Greek fluently, and was a fearless fighter. He often used ambush tactics and blitz attacks to outflank and surround his enemy. He hardly lost a battle. He had pledged to his father at the age of nine that he would fight the Romans until he defeated him. He helped his father, Hamilcar, conquer most of Spain. At the age of twenty-six, following the death of his father and brother-in-law, he took command of the Carthaginian army in Spain. He started the Second Punic War by marching into Italy with his troops. He had many victories there and stayed there for a while until the Romans forced Carthage to call him back. He became an influential leader in his government when he went back to Carthage. He made many reforms that restored the economic prosperity of Carthage. He had many rivals that conspired against him, though, and in 195 BCE the Romans ordered his arrest. Hannibal fled from his city and lived for a number of years in Asia Minor with a Greek king, but he was constantly hunted by his old enemies. In 182 BCE he took poison to avoid capture. He was 65 years old.

Scipio

a Roman general who took an army to Spain and drove the Carthaginians out of the country. In 204 BC he landed his troops near the city of Carthage and, in less than a year, Carthage sued for peace. The Romans said that they would negotiate a peace settlement IF they called Hannibal home. They did, and soon after his return, war broke out again. The armies of Scipio and Hannibal met at Zama. Hannibal no longer had is cavalry that had helped him win so many battles before, as they had been detained in Italy, and Hannibal suffered his first defeat.

Julius Caesar

a Roman patrician born in 100 BC. He was a nephew of Marius. His family was said to be descendants of Aeneas. Caesar was trained for a life of politics. He studied Greek and Latin literature, philosophy, and rhetoric. He visited the Senate as often as he could, and he observed the way that skilled politicians won their arguments. In his twenties, Caesar was considered a ladies' man and a dandy, fun loving person who loved to give big parties. Caesar was declared a public enemy of Rome when Sulla declared himself dictator for life and ordered the public posting of names that were "enemies of Rome". and Sulla said that if he divorced Cornelia, Caesar's wife, Caesar would be spared. Caesar refused and fled to Bithynia in Asia. There, he served as an officer in the army. Caesar returned to Rome upon the death of Sulla (after studying rhetoric in Greece) and formally began his political career as a pontiff in Rome. He then became a quaestor in Spain in 69 BC. Then he was elected aedile, and was responsible for providing the public entertainment. He gained a lot of popularity among the Roman people in this position, and spent large sums of his own money, and then borrowed more from Crassus. Caesar was then elected pontifex maximus, and he supervised the public sacrifices. He became praetor in 62 BC and then governor of the province of Spain in 61 BC. Caesar had the support of plebeians and patricians alike. Caesar was apart of the First Triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. Caesar wanted to have power, and Pompey and Crassus got him just that. He was elected consul along with Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. During this time, Caesar showed little respect for the Roman constitution and forced his ideas on the Senate and Assembly. He also intimidated Bibulus. After his term of office as consul, Caesar became a governor of Gaul. He took this opportunity as a way to demonstrate his military ability and gain support of the Roman legions. He knew that if he was to gain absolute control of the Roman government he would need to have an army behind him. Caesar did many things as governor, like drive the Helvetians back from invading Italy, conquer Gaul, defeating Vercingetorix, and more. Caesar was ordered by the senators of Rome to come back to Rome without his army because Pompey had persuaded the senators that Caesar was capable of destroying what was left of the constitutional government of the Republic. Caesar knew that he would be in great danger if he returned to the city alone, but he also knew that it was treason for a provincial governor to lead his soldiers out of his territory and into the city. Caesar decided to take the city by force. He crossed the Rubicon River in 49 BC, which signaled that there was no turning back. Caesar defeated an army loyal to Pompey soon after, and then returned to Rome. The Senate agreed to make him Dictator, which gave him absolute military authority in Italy and all the provinces. In 48 BC Caesar defeated Pompey in Greece. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was captured and beheaded. The Egyptians sent the severed head to Caesar, hoping to gain Rome's favor, but Caesar wept at the sight of the head. When Caesar visited Alexandria, he fell in love with Cleopatra, who shared the throne with her brother in Egypt. Caesar helped her to gain the throne as Queen of Egypt and her brother was conveniently drowned in the Nile. Caesar and Cleopatra had a son named Caesarion. During his time in Alexandria, Caesar learned about the relatively accurate Egyptian calendar. Later on, he instructed Roman scholars to reform the old Latin calendar using the Egyptian one as their model. Caesar made plans to build public libraries in Rome based upon the one he had visited in Alexandria. After eight months, Caesar left Egypt and sailed to Syria. He marched across Asia Minor to Zela and drove back the army of Pharaces, King of Pontus. Then Caesar returned to Rome. He was welcomed as a hero. In 44 BC Caesar was made Dictator for life. He was called Imperator, a title that traditionally meant "commander-in-chief" of the army. Caesar was also honored with the title of Pater Patriae (Father of the Fatherland) Caesar made many reforms (different question). Caesar reduced the power of the Senate and made them a more representative body, and the patricians grew enraged as they saw their power waning. They conspired against him in the strong belief that they were defending the old Republic. Some of the men who did this were considered to be Caesar's friends. On the Ides of March in 44 BC, Caesar attended a meeting of the Senate where he was stabbed 23 times by the conspirators. After one of his friends, Brutus, stabbed him, Caesar covered his face in his toga and fell dead at a statue of Pompey. Caesar lef the bulk of his estate to his grand nephew Octavian in his will. He also left to each citizen of Rome 300 sesterces as well as the use of his gardens along the Tiber

Tiberius Gracchus

a Roman tribune who tried to give land to the poor in 123 BC. His opponents killed him and his brother Gaius later died in the same struggle.

Roman Senate

a branch of the Roman government that advised the assemblies and magistrates. this was made up of the wealthiest and best-known older men in Rome, often former magistrates. Senators were chosen by an official called a censor, and did not represent the state. They were supposed to guide the state. Rich and older senators were thought to be wiser than normal citizens. This part of the government also ran foreign policy, and decided how to spend the state's money. The advice of this branch of government was almost always followed. The senate worked like an oligarchy.

Hamilcar Barca

a greatly respected Carthaginian general who had fought Sicily. He led an army to Spain and hoped to conquer the primitive country, which was so rich in natural resources (especially gold and silver). He also planned to recruit many of the spirited young Spaniards into his army. Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, helped him conquer most of Spain.

Law of the Twelve Tables

a law code dealing with family relations, inheritance, property, and more. It was the first written Roman law.

Pompey

a powerful army general who forced the Senate to accept him as consul along with Crassus. He conquered southwest Asia. He was a brilliant general and had quelled a rebellion led by Marius' supporters in Spain. He was apart of the First Triumvirate and together, he and Crassus restored the power of the tribunes and curtailed that of the Senate. They were, however, unable to bring order to the cities. In 67 BC he was given the task of clearing the Mediterranean Sea of pirates. He did this in ninety days. When Crassus was killed in Asia in 53 BC Pompey saw his power increase. He designated himself sole consul and convinced the Senate that Caesar was a bad man. When Caesar entered Rome, Pompey and his supporters had fled to Greece. Caesar defeated Pompey in the battle of Pharsalus in Greece. Pompey fled to Egypt but was captured and beheaded. His severed head was set to Caesar to try and win his favor for the Egyptians, but Caesar wept at the sight of his former ally dead.

Gaius Marius

a powerful consul and uncle of Julius Caesar. He reformed the Roman army. He did this by allowing the poor citizens to join in. The government paid for their equipment. This made the army bigger and more professional. It also helped the poor. These new soldiers stayed in the armies for many years. When they retired, they needed land to support themselves, so they relied on their commander to make the government give it to them. As a result, soldiers became more loyal to their commander than to the government. When Sulla, a commander, was chosen to right a rich enemy, the assembly voted to take away the position and give it to Marius. Sulla tried to get his job back by force and fought a civil war against Marius and his supporters. Sulla won and he ruled as dictator for more than a year before he retired.

Mark Antony

a talented general, Caesar's protege, and right-hand man. He joined forces with Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to form the second Triumvirate. They ordered the execution of thousands suspected of opposing Caesar. He and Octavian defeat Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in Macedonia. Antony and Octavian shared the leadership of the Roman Empire. Antony was a good general but was rash and headstrong. Antony sailed east to deal with the uprisings in that part of the empire while Octavian remained in Rome. Antony fell in love with Cleopatra also when he visited her, and they planned the establishment of a vast kingdom made up of Egypt and the Roman provinces. They had twins named Alexander and Cleopatra and Antony became a second father to Caesarion. Octavian became suspicious of Antony's liaison with Cleopatra and launched a propaganda attack against Antony, suggesting that his rival wanted to create his own empire and make himself king. Octavian convinced the Senate to declare war on Cleopatra, and in 31 BC, Octavian's fleet easily defeated the ships of Cleopatra and Antony. Antony fell upon his sword when he heard the rumor of Cleopatra poisoning herself, but it was untrue. When Cleopatra heard about Antony's death, she allowed herself to be bitten by an asp, which killed her.

Cleopatra

an Egyptian Queen. When her father died, her brother (Ptolemy XIII) and her shared the throne. He had supporters who wished him to rule alone, so she took advantage of Caesar's visit to Alexandria and tried to win his support. Caesar became infatuated with her, and he used his troops to help her gain the throne as Queen of Egypt. Her brother drowned. Cleopatra spoke seven languages fluently. She fell in love with Caesar and they had a son named Caesarion (little Caesar) when she was twenty-one (even though she had married one of her brothers). Cleopatra followed Caesar to Rome, as he was her husband according to Egyptian law. She was put in a house beside the Aventine Hill, and the Roman citizens greatly disapproved of this relationship. They worried that his interest in Egypt would prevent Caesar from policy decisions that best served Rome. When Caesar was killed, Cleopatra and Caesarion went back to Egypt and arranged for her Egyptian husband's murder. She wanted to restore Egypt to its former glory. Antony visited her, and he became infatuated with her too. Cleopatra saw his legions the answer to her needs for building up her empire. They began to make plans for a kingdom made up of the eastern Roman provinces and Egypt. They had twins (Cleopatra and Alexander) and Antony became a second father to Caesarion. At Actium, Antony and Cleopatra were defeated by Octavian's fleet and Antony fell upon his sword when he heard the rumor of Cleopatra poisoning herself, but it was untrue. When Cleopatra heard about Antony's death, she allowed herself to be bitten by an asp, which killed her.

Dictators

an important public official in ancient Rome. The senate could vote to name one in great times of emergency, and this person held complete power and was dictator for a maximum of 6 months.

Legion

basic unit of the Roman army, consisting of up to 6,000 heavily armed soldiers

How did the corvus work?

first the Roman boat would have to avoid being rammed into by a Carthaginian boat. Then, it would go into position beside it. The marines on board the Roman ship would next hurl javelins at the enemy seamen while other crewmen locked the two ships together with iron hooks attached to long ropes. The corvus was then swiveled into position and dropped down. The spike sank into the enemy ship's deck and the Roman soldiers could run across the gangplank and fight the Carthaginians as they would have on a field of battle.

Republic

form of government in which the citizens have the right to vote and elect officials

Toga

garment that adult men wore wrapped around their bodies as a symbol of their Roman citizenship

Patricians

members of the oldest families in Rome. They were usually wealthy and in the early days of the Republic, they may have controlled all government offices. They could run for different offices in the government and had more say than the plebeians.

Brutus

one of the Senators who conspired against Caesar. He was a direct descendant of one of the first consuls of Rome. He was considered a friend of Caesar's, but he was one of the men who stabbed Caesar 23 times.

Plebeians

people who did not come from famous families and made up the majority of the Roman population. They were commoners. Most were common farmers or artisans, but some were wealthy. These people forced the patricians to open up offices to them. Apparently they did this by going on strike. During a war, they walked out of the city and sat down on a hill. The Romans couldn't keep fighting without them, so they allowed them to hold offices. They didn't have direct say in the government, but the Tribunes represented them in the government.

What type of traps did Caesar lay between the ditches and the city at Alesia?

pits filled with tangled boughs and pointed sticks as well as logs implanted in the earth that were topped with iron hooks

Veto

stop or cancel the action of a government official or body. The Tribunes had the power to veto anything that was passed by the magistrates.

Constitution

system of basic rules and principles by which a government is organized

Checks and Balances

the Roman government had checks and balances. This meant that the power was divided among the three branches of government and no one branch had too much power. Each branch had their own powers and they were balanced against the powers of the other branches. One branch could check another branch from misusing it's power.

Octavian (Augustus)

the nephew of Julius Caesar. He received the bulk of Caesar's estate when Caesar died.He was appointed to take over by Caesar. When Octavian heard of Caesar's death, he returned to Rome. Octavian proved his mettle by raising an army and joined forces with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate. They ordered the execution of thousands of people suspected of opposing Caesar and defeated Brutus and Cassius' armies at Philipi in Macedonia. Caesar was declared a god soon after his death, giving Octavian the politically advantageous position of being the living son of a god. Octavian and Antony shared the leadership of the Roman Empire. Octavian was a gifted politician but wasn't really interested in military matters. Octavian remained in Italy when Antony sailed east to deal with uprisings. Octavian relished the idea of becoming sole ruler of the empire, and was suspicious of Antony's relationship with Cleopatra and was concerned about Caesarion someday claiming power in Rome. Also, Antony had married Octavian's sister and left her in Rome while he spent time in Egypt. Octavian launched a propaganda attack against Antony, saying that his rival wanted to create his own empire and make himself king. The Senate was finally convinced to declare war on Cleopatra, and in 31 BC Octavian's fleet defeated Antony and Cleopatra's ships near Actium on the northwest coast of Greece. Octavian was now the ruler of a vast empire.

Maniple

unit of 60 to 160 soldiers within a Roman legion that could act independently in battle

Civil War

war between groups from the same country