History of American Funeral Directing (Habenstein and Lamers) Ch 4-10
Thomas Holmes
"Father of American Embalming" - Physician and surgeon; Criticized poisonous compounds used in embalming (Arsenic, mercury, zinc); Worked as a "coroner's examiner": gave him opportunity to investigate embalming
Discovery of formaldehyde
- Alexander Butlerov: initially discovered and identified in 1859 - August von Hofmann: found a reliable way to make it in 1868
Late 19th Century Mourning symbols
- First 6 months after death: deep mourning - Refrain from social and recreational affairs - Dark veils hung in doorways - Widow wore black for the first year - But...caskets were objects of beauty
Early Transportation of Body
- First: Uncoffined body carried to grave on bier - Later: horsedrawn bier - livery stables - Colonial hearse: horse drawn wagons - 1850 and on: Horse drawn hearses - After Civil War, designs became more elaborate
Methods of Preservation in 1800's
- Ice-cooling - Encasing in air-tight receptacles - External disinfection with topical applications - Chemical injection
Decade after Civil War
- Less surgeon-embalmers - Undertaker took on embalming: embalming bodies in conjunction with conducting funerals - "Fluid Houses": chemical companies - Embalming Schools: formal instruction for the non-medically trained - Overall commercialization of funeral industry
Late 19th Century Funeral Arrangements - Rural
- News of death and services by word-of-mouth - Undertaker played a lesser role (Did not lay out body, Ordered casket) - Clergy played a dominating role
Need and Public Demand for Preservation in 1800's
- Preservation prior to burial (Sanitation and Odor control) - Need to transport the body over a long distance. - Give survivors ample time to schedule and hold funeral services. - Enable the body to be viewed in an open casket.
Late 19th Century Funeral Arrangements - City
- Undertaker sent out invitations as part of their service - Different options, all under the direction of undertaker: + Funerals in home, followed by procession to cemetery + Viewing/visitation in home, followed by procession to church for funeral + chapels in funeral home began at end of 19th century, still with religious funerals
5 major themes of burial receptacles
- increased utility - social status - protection from grave robbery - preservation of the body - aesthetic representation
Grave Liners/Burial Vaults/Boxes - By 1915
10% of all used were nearly all metal and aesthetics added
Early Embalming Compounds
11 Patents granted for fluids (1856-1870); Many used arsenic as basic element
Tradesman Undertaker
1700's - Undertaking in additional to some other trade like cabinet makers and upholsters; began practicing a crude form of embalming; Acted as "manager" of all funeral related duties
Early Dutch and New England colonist burials
17th Century - Initially buried the dead in the earth, eventually using a shroud within a locally produce wooden coffin made on demand. Wood type based on social status - hardwoods: upper, pine: lower. Shape was octagonal.
Barber-Surgeons (later)
1800's - Became a trade for lay people; Lead to general surgery practices; Guilds in Middle Ages lead to them being a powerful group; Strict control over the embalming process; Exclusive charter stating their right to embalm
Barber-Surgeons (beginnings)
1800's - Blood-letting began with barbers in monasteries "Barbers & Reducers"; Reduced the quantity of blood in their patients as a method of healing
Burial and Sanitary Reform
1800's - Mass burial within the city on small plots eventually yielded disease outbreak (cholera); Establishment of a public health agency; Sanitation research by Edwin Chadwick
Edwin Chadwick
1800's - Sanitation research; Investigated conditions of urban workers, burial customs of working people, and condition of the interment of the dead; Authored famous report: "Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Brittan"
"Friendly Societies"
1800's - arrange for the burial of the lower social class
Undertaker
1800's - had different meaning than today - underwriter; appraiser; herald; but mostly provider of funeral paraphernalia ; was not an embalmer yet
J. Anthony Gaussardia
1856: Obtained first patent in US for the process of embalming; Primarily used injection of arsenic-alcohol mixture; Topical washing with chemicals; Placed lesser importance of displaying body; focus on preservation
Thomas Holmes Accomplishments
After 8 successful embalmings, embalmed a body and placed it on exhibit for publicity; Embalmed Colonel Ellsworth (first ranking casualty of civil war); Invented a rubber body bag for transporting bodies; Said he embalmed more than 4000 soldiers during war; Manufactured and sold: hand pump for injection, force pump for injection (1861), fluids mixtures (kept secret at first)
Feudal Funerals (European)
After Feudal period in history; elaborate funerals - based on social status; served little purpose; criticized by clergy as not "Christian-like"
"Chadwick Report" Recommendations
All cemeteries should be municipalized; Religious rites should be simplified and standardized; prohibit new cemeteries in city; Cause of death to be certified to eliminate child murder for insurance
Funeral Directing
An occupation that provides a set of tasks for the care and disposal of the dead and is a form of "personal service" which operates as a business enterprise
Dr. William Hunter
Anatomist in 1700's - Use of arterial and cavity embalming for study and burial; considered originator of injection technique for preservation
Dr. Richard Harlan
Anatomist returned from France and translated Gannal's text, History of Embalming, into English (1840)
Undertaker as sole occupation
Appeared in second half of 19th century; Society and economic opportunity allowed craftsman to expand their businesses. All basic funeral function became organized under one name of "Undertaker"
Leonardo da Vinci
Around during Late 1400's; drew anatomy; He dissected over 50 cadavers; Venous injection; Inspired physicians and anatomist; Led to later modern embalming
Early American Funeral Behavior (1600's)
Attempt to disassociate religious beliefs from death customs; Lack of involvement of clergy in funeral ceremonies
Colonial Funeral Custom Framework
Based upon Virginia Colony (1607 in Jamestown - Commercial ideals), Massachusetts Bay Colony (Religious beliefs)
9th Century
Beginning of period breaking away from Egyptian embalming practices; decomposition seen as a challenge for surgeons and physicians versus a morbid preoccupation
Keeper of Hacks (horse) and Carriages
Better known as livery stable keepers; Fulfilled the demand for funeral carriages due to foot processions losing public appeal add increasing distances for burial. In early 1800's added funeral undertaking functions to the job.
Late 19th Century Undertaking
Big changes occurred involving increased control over the whole process of Funeralization. Grew out of 3 needs: - Embalming by chemical injection: need for space and supplies - Crowding of cities: smaller homes created need for funeral home - Transportation of dead: to church and place of burial
Feudal Funerals Items
Black drapery / black mourning bed / funeral carriages / velvet pall / hearse / mourning clothes (originally family owned); Trade of "Undertaker" arose to provide these goods
John Hunter
Brother of William; 1775 Embalmed wife of London eccentric; Kept body in living room for 2 years on display ("Hunter's Canal" named after him)
Chemical Embalming by Injection in 1800's
Came in conjunction with: aesthetic and material upgrading of burial receptacles; desire to display body longer; Sanitation/prevention of disease; medical pathology
Jean Gannal
Chemist 1800's - Wrote "History of Embalming" - text remains a classic today
1600's (Findings)
Circulation of blood - Used to stimulate arterial embalming - Injection techniques to trace the circulation through vessels Physician turned bodies to "stone:" - injection solution of "silicate of potash" - immersion into an acid "bath"
New England Burial Practices
Colonial - Models of simplicity and dignity; Recognized death as a natural, inevitable reality; Death was never ignored, disguised, or denied; Cemeteries reflected the unique personalities of the person who died; Rings, scarves and gloves used to pay tribute to the deceased; Funeral was a social function and a public event
Grave Liners/Burial Vaults/Boxes - After 1900
Concrete vaults: gravel, sand cement, water (where materials were readily available)
Dutch Funerals (New York and Virginia)
Considered important occasions; Held 3 or 4 days after death; Parlor in home was used; Pall covered coffin was carried on a bier to the churchyard by 12 pallbearers (given "Monkey Spoon" as gift); Licensed official conducted the service; Attended only by males
Grave Liners/Burial Vaults/Boxes - Later 1800's
Designed to protect from evil spirits, natural elements and burglars; Constructed from Wood ("outside box" or "rough box"), Cement, Slate; "Burglar-proof" from Steel, End-sealer
Late 19th Century Home Embalmings
Done if local undertaker had training in embalming; Cooling board and all supplies brought to home; Posed problems, both practically and socially
Crane & Breed
Exhibited most elaborate Horse-drawn funeral car of the 19th century at the Chicago's World Fair in 1893
Late 19th Century Funeral Cortege
Extravagant hearses; Long line of coaches and carriages; Generated sense of importance
Origin of word "Hearse"
French: "Herse" Latin: "Hirpex"
Women: Performers of Personal Service
Friends and neighbors initially provided care for the dead in America; Adult females often laid out the dead with "rough" skill; The family nurse and midwife took more formal responsibility for preparing the dead in mid-1800's; Women began to dominate the occupation
Gas Buggy
Gasoline-powered hearse came with advent of automobile; Innovators: Fred Hulberg, Crane & Breed
Burial Case
Generic term used in America to designate all burial receptacles as new variations of the coffin were being offered.
Chadwick Report Outcome
In 1848 - 5 years later after its introduction, many recommendations incorporated into Public Health Bill; Some opposition by the Church because Church profited with church yard burial
Rise of Protestantism
Industriousness; Hard work viewed as a way to salvation (akin to "godliness") and a moral obligation; Idleness viewed as a cardinal sin and a breach of law; Same teachings of John Calvin ("Calvinism")
Cloth Burial Cases
Introduced in 1871; Wood constructed and covered in cloth; Mass produced. Lighter than metal but still strong; Aesthetically pleasing
Samual Rogers
Invented Trocar in 1878
Trocar
Invented by Samual Rogers 1878; Eliminated need for evisceration
Sexton-undertaker
Laid out of the dead, directed processions, and furnished merchandise/paraphernalia at a funeral for churchyard burial.
Impact of Civil War (1861-1865)
Large number of casualties; Desire to transport bodies home for burial; Source of money for embalmer
Colonial Funeral Outcomes of Change
Less religious traditions followed: Church law rejected; common law followed; Simpler mourning practices; More urban, class-conscious society; Emergence of Undertaker as a specialty
Grave Liners/Burial Vaults/Boxes - Early 1800's
Lined grave with bricks, rocks, stone
James Cunningham, Son & Co
Made Horse-drawn Hearse featuring a "funeral Car" in 1884
Hudson Samson
Made Horse-drawn Hearse with an 8-column, oval decked funeral car in 1889
Mid-19th Century Coffins
Made from Iron, cement, marble and artificial stone, cement/wood, iron/wood, zinc/iron/glass
Coffins around the year 1900
Made from vulcanized rubber; fabricated metals; papier-mache'; aluminum; cloth/wood; wood/glass
Metallic Burial Case Production
Major manufacturing began in 1853; as a result smaller, specialty coffin shops began to decline. Mass produced. Better preserved body (bodies returning home from civil war). Protected against water seepage, vermin, disease and infection. Used in moving cemeteries. "Winter Vaults"
"Inviter to funerals"
Municipal Officer in early America; specialty licensed position; obliged to attend the burial of the poor without charge.
Early America Undertaker Role
Municipal role of Public Health Official: policed public health and sanitation practices; Acted as coroners
Stone and Metal Coffins
Patented in 1830's. Difficult to manufacture: heavy and impractical
1800's American Coffins
Period during which the design changed from old fashioned ones to modern day caskets
1800's
Period where better fluids were used by chemists
17th and 18th Century
Period with preoccupation with the Gruesome Side of Death; skeletons, skulls, or crossbones
Sextons
Person who looks after a church, churchyard , and cemetery; sometimes acted as bell-ringer, and gravedigger. Controlled the issuance of permits for churchyard burials-providing a type of "monopoly" and control of those buried there.
William Harvey
Physician and anatomist in 1600's - Circulation of blood
Death in Late 19th Century
Prevailing feelings: emotional strain, anxiety, and gloom; Most occurred in the home; In Cities: Undertaker handled body (kept with cooling device or embalmed with chemicals); In Rural areas: family or neighbors handled body (washed, dressed, and laid out in the home)
Fredrick Ruysch
Professor in 1600's - arterial injection followed by evisceration
Metallic Burial Case Variations
Public acceptance led to atheistic enhancements; Variations: Size, depth, Interior style, Ornaments (hardware)
Coffin Shops and Warehouses
Resulted from a high demand for production and warehousing of coffins as a result of War of 1812 and westward expansion. Impacted price, quality and diversity of types.
Early New England Colonies (1700's)
Sermons beginning to be preached in church; Graveside prayers were added; Separating Church from State in regard to legal system: went from church law to the introduction of "common law"; Church control of burials not favored
Furnishing Undertakers
Side work furnishing other undertakers with necessary supplies and paraphernalia; Allowed individuals with limited resources to enter the field; Personal service became important; Examples: Sextons & Liverymen
Late 19th Century Funeral Arrangements
Similar compared to today; Held as soon as possible, usually next day after death; Notify clergy and singers; Casket selected from catalog; All orders and notification happened by telegram
Late 19th Century Funeralization
Similar to usual sequence of today (Public viewing of body; Ceremony: Prayers, scripture, eulogy; Last viewing; Procession to cemetery; Music; Flowers; Memorialization at cemetery)
Winged Cherub
Symbol used in Colonial New England Burial Practices; replaced the skull and crossbones; helped change doubts about immortality and gave hope for ascent into paradise
Coffins That Failed in 19th Century
Terra Cotta-pottery ware; Glass coffins and Caskets; Cement and Stone; Celluloid; Basketry or Wicker
19th Century Close (end of 1800's)
Trade of Undertaker began to specialize; Coffin maker/Undertaker/Funeral Furnisher appeared; Undertaking began to look like today; Less pompous (not as elaborate) funerals; Church no longer authority over funerals; Retained belief of "rite to a decent funeral" (except during plague)
Coffins, Funeral Goods
Use of these in burial emerged in only the last several hundred years; Some undertakers had other income: upholstery, drapers, carpenters and artisans; wide range of goods available for the protection of the body
Funeral trolley car
a specially designed train car used in 1890's to run on a city's trolley line to transport casket, flowers & mourners to cemeteries on the outskirts of the city
Fisk metallic coffin
aka "Mummy Case". Patented in 1848 as form-fitting, airtight metallic coffin designed to improve ability to preserve the body; also had a glass plate to allow for viewing of the face. Produced for 14 years. Expensive.
Ogee design
an innovation introduced to square sided caskets in order to reduce the excess space and weight, particularly of metal caskets; characterized by an "S" shaped curvature.
Gravity injector
apparatus used to inject arterial fluid during the vascular (arterial) phase of the embalming process; relies on gravity to create the pressure required to deliver the fluid (0.43 pounds of pressure per foot of elevation)
Style 'E' state coffin
cloth covered coffin designed for ex-President U. S Grant by Stein Coffin Co. in 1885 helped elevate acceptance of cloth covered caskets.
Life signals
due to the fear of pre-mature burial, many early American coffins were designed and patented with a method to alert the living if someone was buried alive. (Bells, Flags, Air Vents)
Casket
from the French term 'casse' meaning 'jewel box' or container for something valuable; came into dominant use in patent literature for burial receptacles in 1890's in America. FTC definition: A rigid container which is designed for the encasement of human remains and which is usually constructed of wood, metal, fiberglass, plastic, or like material, and ornamented and lined with fabric.
Trocar
long hollow tube patented in 1868 by Samuel Rogers of Philadelphia; used by embalmers to inject fluids into cavities and remove excess liquids.
Hand pump
method to apply a continuous flow of embalming solution via manual manipulation of a handheld mechanism.
Undertaker's buggy
name given to the vehicle used by undertakers to transport the necessary mortuary paraphernalia to the homes where funerals were typically held. These vehicles sometimes had an appearance similar to a hearse, but were much less ornate.
Cooling board
portable table on which the body was placed while the corpse cooler was in use; later became the embalming table when embalming was done in the home of the deceased.
Funeral undertaker
provided services of organizing and facilitating funeral details as an occupation; aka undertaker, different from furnishing undertaker.
Church in 1800's
still handled/oversaw the funeral ceremony
Metallic Burial Case Design
straight sided, simple; airtight construction; two large sections of plate glass allowed for viewing of the body allows for the presentation of the dead rather than the simple "encasement" of the body; durable
Corpse cooler
type of ice chest placed over the torso the body in order to slow down the process of decomposition prior to the funeral. It was typically a responsibility of the undertaker to provide ice and change the ice when it melted
17th Century surgeon/anatomist
viewed embalming by the undertaker as "crude"; protested it
