HOD Unit I Exam: Chapters 2 & 3
Experiments
- The experiment is the gold standard for examining development because it is the only research method which can establish the cause of development - Scientific experiments test the impact of independent variables (which are manipulated) on dependent variables (to see what impact it will have) - Experiments involve a comparison/experimental group (experiences the manipulation of the independent variable and a control group (does not) - Experiments are powerful when there are more participants--> more certainty that any result we find was not found by chance - If there are other variables that might affect the dependent variable other than the independent variable they need to be controlled so that they do not affect the results in unpredictable ways--> one way to do this is to make sure that the manipulation and control groups are similar on these variables - Participants are divided into 2 groups with separate treatments (experimental designs)
non-stage theories
-Brofenbrenner's -Vygotsky's sociocultural -Information processing
multidirectional development
-forward progress (ex: adding on weight as you start working out/lifting more) -regression (ex: stop going to the gym and lose muscle) -lateral movement (ex: not challenging yourself and staying at the same weight)
continuous theories
-information processing -behavioral -Brofenbrenner's
unconditioned vs. conditioned response
-unconditioned reflex --> an unconditioned stimulus (food in dogs mouth) leads to an unconditioned response (salivation) -neural stimulus: the dog does not salivate when he sees the researcher -when the sight of the researcher is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, the dog salivates -conditioned reflex --> over time, the dog will salivate just when he sees the research assistant, who has become a conditioned stimulus and he now leads to a conditioned response (salivation)
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
1) Physiological needs (food, drink) 2) Safety (safety, security) 3) Love and belonging (human connection, love, be loved) 4) Esteem (positive self-esteem, sense of achievement, self-worth) 5) Self-actualization (need to fulfill one's potential) -arranged these needs in a hierarchy with physiological needs at the bottom (most basic) and self-actualization needs at the top (most advanced) -influential idea that it is often difficult for a person to meet higher needs if their most basic needs are not met -said you can tell a lot about a person by their motivations, which are dictated by what their immediate needs are
The 3 areas of development
1) biopsychological 2) cognitive 3)socioemotional
Piaget's Stage Theory
1) sensorimotor:infant explores the world through direct sensory and motor contact -object permanence and separation anxiety 2) preoperational: child uses symbols (words and images) to represent objects but does not reason logically - ability to pretend, self-centered 3) concrete operational: child can think logically about concrete objects -can add and subtract, understands conversation 4) formal operational:the adolescent can reason abstractly & think in hypothetical terms
Longitudinal studies
A group of people is recruited and followed over time (ex: recruit a group of 25-year old's and test that same group of people at 45 and 65-years old - Results can be affected by historical events that take place over the course of the study - Participants who drop out may differ in important ways from those who stay - Time consuming and resource intensive
Exosystem
A system of institutions in which I am not an active participant, but which influence me nonetheless (Ex: parents' workplaces affect children even though children are not a part of these workplaces)
Targets in Resistance
Acknowledgement and questioning of the cumulative experiences of oppression and their negative effects lead targets to the Resistance stage - Targets generally begin by questioning previously accepted "truths" about the way things are, gradually become more skilled at identifying the oppressive premises woven into the fabric of their social experiences, and may begin to feel intensified hostility toward agents and other targets who collude with agents - The overt expression of hostile reactions to oppression marks the transition from the entry to the adoption phase of Resistance - target group member has a fully internalized antithesis of the earlier Acceptance consciousness and may experience overwhelming anger and pain - At this stage, members of the target group often adopt a posture as anti-agent--> identity is defined in opposition to the oppressor - Some targets may find the Resistance stage results in losing benefits acquired when the colluded with the Acceptance consciousness and may chose a path of Passive Resistance, in hopes that they will be able to stay in favor with agents, while rejecting oppression (usually proves frustrating and contradictory to sustain) - For most targeted people at Resistance the primary task is to end the pattern of collusion and cleanse their internalized oppressive beliefs and attitudes--> often discover that they have become proactive and do have some power (though not the same as what's available to agents) - The targets begin to recognize that a considerable amount of energy has been put into "Who am I not?"--> move toward the new question "Who am I?" as they exit Resistance and enter Redefinition
Agents in Resistance
As a result of experiences and information that challenge the accepted ideology and self-definition, agents entering Resistance reject earlier social position and begin formulating new world views - Dramatic paradigm shift from an ideology that blames the victims for their condition to an ideology that names one's own agent group as the source of oppression as agents become aware that oppression exists and causes the disparity between agent and target groups - Agents begin investigating their own role in perpetuating oppression (ex: a white person may become aware of white privilege for the 1st time) - Anger is a prevalent feeling in this stage (towards other agents and the nature pf the agent's social identity group)--> some agents wish they weren't members of their dominant group and distance themselves from other agents who don't share their new consciousness, some zealously confront other agents for their group's oppression actions and attitudes, and others are ostracized because their behaviors and attitudes threaten agents in the Acceptance stage - Agents in Resistance begin to develop a systemic view of how their identity has been shaped by social factors beyond their control and they re-examine the roles agents play in supporting oppression - This new understanding helps some move beyond guilt and feeling overwhelmed by personal responsibility--> they begin to move toward a new identity, but not one that is necessarily positive (yet)
Naive/No Social Consiousness
At birth and during early childhood, agents and targets are unaware of the complex codes of appropriate behavior for members of their social group - Naively operate from their own needs, interests, and curiosity about social group differences and break rules/push against boundaries of social identity group membership - through these boundary violations they begin to learn lessons about what it means to be a member of their social identity group- agent or target - In the transition from Naïve to Acceptance consciousness, agents & targets become aware of the difference between themselves and members of the other social groups (not completely comfortable but also not hostile) - Children at this stage display an interest in understanding differences between people and often ask questions that embarrass or threaten adults (ex: Why do people have different skin color?) - Transition stage is brief and covers the period before 3 to 4 years of age -2 major changes as the young agent or target moves into the Acceptance stage: 1) they begin to learn and adopt an ideology or belief system about their own and other social identity groups and 2) they begin to learn that the world has institutions, rules, laws, and authority figures that permit certain behaviors and prohibit others - Children are transformed from a naïve or unsocialized state to a stage of acceptance by parents, the education system, peers, the larger society
Naive/No Social Consciousness
At birth and during early childhood, agents and targets are unaware of the complex codes of appropriate behavior for members of their social group - Naively operate from their own needs, interests, and curiosity about social group differences and break rules/push against boundaries of social identity group membership - through these boundary violations they begin to learn lessons about what it means to be a member of their social identity group- agent or target • In the transition from Naïve to Acceptance consciousness, agents & targets become aware of the difference between themselves and members of the other social groups (not completely comfortable but also not hostile) • Children at this stage display an interest in understanding differences between people and often ask questions that embarrass or threaten adults (ex: Why do people have different skin color?) • Transition stage is brief and covers the period before 3 to 4 years of age 2 major changes as the young agent or target moves into the Acceptance stage: 1) they begin to learn and adopt an ideology or belief system about their own and other social identity groups and 2) they begin to learn that the world has institutions, rules, laws, and authority figures that permit certain behaviors and prohibit others • Children are transformed from a naïve or unsocialized state to a stage of acceptance by parents, the education system, peers, the larger society
Bioecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner's central premises - One way of looking at development that brings together different cultural influences; the idea that we should consider ourselves as nested in a set of systems that interact to influence our development - At the center of this set of systems is the developing person (with their level of physical growth, personality, cognitive, and emotional abilities) - The person is surrounded by systems that impact their development (ordered closest influences on development to more distant ones ,but they all interact with and influence each other): microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem
Cross-sectional studies
Compares different groups of people of different ages (ex: a group of 10-year old's, a group of 12-year old's, and a group of 15-year old's) - Cross-sectional because we are taking a cross-section of the population - Sometimes called cohort studies because we are comparing different cohorts (groups of people born at different times) - Useful because they can be done quickly and efficiently - Major disadvantage is that they do not control for historical differences
Microsystem
Consists of those relationships in which the person is directly involved/takes part - Ex: family relationships, peer relationships
Operationalization
Defining the elements of our hypothesis in clear ways so that they can be testable - Measurement is an extremely important part of this phase (how will we measure our outcomes?)
Nonmalefisence
Do not harm--> take every effort to make sure that participants are not distressed by the experiment
Psychosocial Stage Theory
Erikson- more to it than just sexual gratification, people are more complicated than Freud made them out to be -bigger picture than physical/sexual gratification--> social desires/needs
Causation vs. Correlation
Experiments are the preferred method of studying development, but they are not always possible--> correlational method looks at relationships between variables - A correlation is a statistic that tells us the extent to which change in one variable is accompanied by change in another variable (this is a statistical number ranging from +1 to -1, depending on how strong/weak the correlation is) - Positive number means that an increase in one variable is accompanied by an increase in another and negative number means that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in another - Correlation does not demonstrate causation, but they can still identify patterns in development
Psychosexual Stage Theory
Freud- said that our id is the most interested in sexual activity
Representation concerns
Given the reality of the diversity of development, developmental researchers need to take particular care that they to the effort to recruit diverse participants (ex: not all white middle class females) - One ethical question is how representative samples are of the general population
Eriksom's Stages of Psychosocial Development
Infant-18 mo: Trust vs. Mistrust 18 mo-3 yrs: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 3-5 yrs: Initiative vs. Guilt 5-13 yrs: Industry vs. Inferiority 13-21 yrs: Identity vs. Role Confusion 21-39 yrs: Intimacy vs. Isolation 40-65 yrs: Generativity vs. Stagnation 65+ yrs: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Social Identity Development Theory
Naive/No Social Consciousness--> Acceptance--> Resistance--> Redefinition--> Internalization
Observation
Observations can be naturalistic (field), in which people are observed in their natural environment without any interference from the researcher, or they can be conducted in a laboratory - Scientific observation is not the same as casual observing- researchers observe in a systematic way, noting specific behaviors and using structured observation measures - The use of observation alone does not establish cause
Informed Consent
Participants must be asked for their consent to take part in the research after being told what is involved in taking part and told that they can withdraw from the study at any time - When telling people exactly what the research is about might affect the results, participants must be debriefed after to let them know what the study was really about - Child consent is particularly complex because both children and parents are involved
Agents in Active Acceptance
People raised in this stage are instructed about the inadequacies, weaknesses, and basic inferiority of targeted people - this occurs in a very direct manner (told "that's just how those people are") - The key difference between Active and Passive messages is whether they are overt (put out in the open) or covert (covered up) - Agents of oppression who have adopted an Acceptance consciousness are generally unaware that they have privileges as dominant group members of an oppressive society, usually unaware that they think of themselves and other agents as superior, subtle assumption that their experience is normal - Agents of oppression who move from the Naïve stage into the entry and adoption phase of Active Acceptance tend to express their superiority more directly (extreme form would be designed to promote supremacy, ex: KKK) - Many agents who are in the Active Acceptance stage devote their lives to maintaining their dominant perspective and privilege - Most agents are well into their adult years before encountering events of circumstances which begin the transition to the Resistance stage (ex: personal connection or friendship with a target), which is a confusing, painful period as their identity is placed under scrutiny)
Chronosystem
Refers to two aspects of time: 1) your own personal time line or history (what has happened to you over time) 2) the historical time period in which you grow up - Ex: due to the prevalence of social media today, growing up in the 1950s will lead to different influences on development than growing up in the 21st century
Critique on Piaget's Stage Theory
Student Development Theory - studied college students, focused on sources of knowledge --> hypothesized that cognitive development continued beyond age 12/onset of adolescence - found that adults progress from assuming a single source of knowledge to awareness of multiple sources
Surveys
Surveys involve gathering information from a large group of people, usually by asking a set of questions - Conclusions can be drawn by analyzing the relationship between different answers to the questions, but surveys cannot establish cause--> they generally describe a situation rather than explain it - The sample needs to be representative (the smaller group selected to participate needs to be representative of the larger group from which it is drawn)
Targets in Passive Acceptance
Targets in the Acceptance stage have learned and accepted messages about the inferiority of targets and target culture - Often these negative/oppressive messages are held simultaneously and in contradiction to more positive messages about their social group conveyed by same group adults or social peers - Some targets operate at a Passive Acceptance consciousness, unaware of the degree to which their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors reflect the dominant group ideology (ex: women preferring to work for men)
Targets in Active Acceptance
Targets in the Active Acceptance stage more consciously identify with the dominant group and its ideology (ex: some people of color opposed to affirmative action because they believe people are color are less successful due to their own laziness and pathological culture) - Socialization of targets into the dominant world view is essentially an invisible process that is difficult to unlearn - Targets who retain this world view for life successfully rationalize efforts on the parts of others to changer their consciousness - Targets who reach the exit phase of an Acceptance world view begin to acknowledge the collusive and harmful effects of the learned logic system and behavior patterns (transition to resistance stage usually encouraged by extremely blatant external events or by encountering a powerful role model within their own group)
Macrosystem
The broader political and cultural system in which one develops - Incorporates the values of the society in which you live as well as its economic standing
Redefinition stage
The focus is on creating an identity that is independent of an oppressive system based on hierarchical superiority and inferiority
Confidentiality
The identity of participants should be kept confidential, any records related to the research should be stored confidentially, and reporting of the research should be done in such a way as to keep the identity of participants confidential
Mesosystem
The interaction of microsystems; relationships that you are not a direct part of but will affect you nonetheless - Ex: the extent to which your parents interact with your boyfriend/girlfriend
Biophysiological Theory
Theorists look at how our development is shaped by our biology and examine the way in which our physiology affects our behavior - Important aspects: the study of the brain and behavior at each stage of development; the examination of how our evolutionary past impacts our current development - Considering how neurological, physiological, genetic, and evolutionary factors interact with the environment to produce behavior - Neurological and physiological factors are considered to be intertwined (ex: brain controlling physical change, stress hormones released during finals week OR physical change sends feedback to the brain eat a large meal that changed blood sugar) - Genetic factors include the chromosomes we inherit at birth as well as changes to the activity of the genes on those chromosomes due to environmental factors (ex: exposure to toxins causing permanent changes in gene expression) - Evolutionary factors have helped to shape all human behavior to provide common behavioral and psychological mechanisms that aid in survival/reproduction - Findings can help us understand how similar behaviors/disorders are produced in humans and can sometimes lead to advances in treatment
Purposes of research
When researchers produce a report on a study they have a responsibility to ensure that those results are put to good use
shortening of the telomere
a sequence of DNA at the end of the chromosome
Classical Conditioning
a situation gets paired with a consequence, which leads to a behavior -over time, the situation presented on its own will lead to the behavior
Operant conditioning
a situation triggers a behavior, which is followed by a consequence - if the consequence is a reinforcer --> behavior will be repeated - if the consequence is a punishment --> behavior will not be repeated
conventional
activities that involve establishing order and routines; likes structure and values material and financial accomplishment; sees self as having technical skills; tends to be seen by others as conforming and careful; avoids unstructured and ambiguous situations
emerging adulthood
ages 18 to 29
early childhood
ages 3 to 7
middle adulthood
ages 30 to 65
late adulthood
ages 65+ till death
middle childhood
ages 7 to 12
Bandura's Social Cognition Theory
agrees with behavioralist theories of classical and operant conditioning, but adds: 1) Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses. 2) Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning
Theory
an organized set of ideas that tries to explain a phenomenon -look at what develops, how it develops, and why it develops in a particular way
adolescence
beginning of puberty, around 13, to 18
infancy
birth to age 3
cellular aging
cells deteriorate and die as we age
prenatal development
conception to birth
punishments
consequences that lead to a decrease in behavior -positive punishments: added to a situation in order to decrease behavior (ex: child throws toys and is made to clean his bedroom as punishment) -negative punishments: occur when something is taken away as a punishment (ex: child throws toys around and has his toys taken away)
reinforcers
consequences that lead to an increase in behavior; they reinforce the behavior and cause it to happen again (can be positive-adding or negative-taking away) -positive reinforcers: added to a situation in order to increase behavior (ex: give a child money if she does chores) -negative reinforcers: taken away from a situation in order to increase behavior (ex: child does her chores to stop her dad from nagging--> taking away nagging increases his behavior)
Sensorimotor Stage/Object Permanence: Piaget vs. Baillargeon
criticized Piaget's methodology: observed how 1 year olds pick up glasses and chew on them--> flawed because measurement was something babies couldn't physically do yet, maybe didn't understand (pincer grasp doesn't develop till 12 months, doesn't apply to a 6 month old) 2nd experiment: controlling factors: possible vs. impossible events--> babies look longer only when the event seems impossible (car passing through block on train tracks) -Baillargeon used more measurable increases (in breathing, sucking harder on a pacifier, more measurable things we can understand)
Agents in Passive Acceptance
e have learned and to some degree internalized codes of appropriate behavior, so conscious effort is no longer required to remind them of what to do and how to think - Dominant beliefs and actions are a part of their everyday life, and questions that arose during the naïve stage have submerged and repressed such that individuals are able to live their lives without doubt - People raised in the passive acceptance environment learn to blame the victim for the effects of oppression
Information Processing Theory
explains how information is taken in, stored, and used -continuous theory -every time there is sensory input, we either pay don't pay attention to it (goes away) or pay attention to it (short term memory) - if we do not rehearse it the info is lost, but if we do rehearse it we can move it into long term memory -however, it can still be lost over time if we do not stick with it
presbyopia
farsightedness (lack of ability to focus on objects that are close) brought on by age
Rogers
father of the humanistic approach in counseling and therapy -believed the main motive of human beings is to fulfill their potential and to strive for self-actualization--> they can if given an open/accepting environment and listened to
Erikson
focused on psychosocial needs (unlike Freud's psychosexual needs) -very influencial ideas about how developmental tasks are completed throughout the life span -proposes that we progress through 8 stages of development from birth to death and at each of these stages we try to complete developmental tasks in the context of culture/society
Behavioral Theory
focuses on how behavior is shaped or conditioned - behaviorists look at how cues in our environment trigger behavior (classical conditioning) and look at how the consequences of our behavior affect the frequency of that behavior
Cognitive Theory
focuses on how thinking develops -cognitive theorists look at the processes involved in developing and using knowledge and the development of thinking abilities -Piaget
psychoanalytic
focuses on needs; psychoanalysts believe that many of the needs we have are unconscious - Freud, Erikson
Humanistic Theory
focuses on what is good in all of us -humanists believe that we all have the potential to grow and develop in positive ways and that, given the right circumstances, our natural tendency is to develop positively -Maslow -Rogers
Hypothesis
forming a research question -a testable statement --> turn our question into a predication about behavior in order to test it
discontinuous development
happens in stages; like walking up the stairs: a series of steps that get you to the top -ex: children go from thinking literally to abstractly -qualitative and quantitative
social
helping, teaching, counseling professions; values social service; sees self as empathetic to others; seen by others as helpful and nurturing; tends to avoid mechanical or technical tasks
socioemotional development
how emotions and relationships develop and how they affect our development -ex: how parenting behaviors develop, how self-esteem develops over time
biopsychological development
how our biological and physical development influences our psychological development -ex: how out hormones affect our behavior at different periods of the life span
cognitive development
how our thinking develops, how we make sense of the world, and how that influences our development -ex: how our memory develops, how language develops
free radical theory
indicates that aging is caused by the byproducts of metabolic activity
Investigative
investigating and exploring natural and social phenomena; likes intellectual problems and challenges; sees self as analytical and intellectual; tends to not like sales or jobs requiring persuading of others
Realistic
manual or mechanical activities; values material rewards for tangible results; sees self as practical and conservative; others see this person as frank; may prefer not to work with others
agents
members of dominant social groups privileged by birth or acquisition, who knowingly or unknowingly exploit and reap unfair advantages over member of target groups; see themselves and are seen by others as normal or proper due to their power to define reality--> often unaware that they are members of the dominant group due to the privilege of being able to see themselves as a person rather than as stereotypes
targets
members of social identity groups that are disenfranchised, exploited, and victimized in a variety of ways by the oppressor and the oppressor's systems and institutions; likely to be labeled as defective or abnormal
artistic
musical, artistic, and other creative activities; likes creative expression of emotions and ideas; sees self as open to experience, intellectual, and creative; can be seen by others as disorganized or disorderly; clerical activities are not a strength
continuous development
non-stop throughout life -ex: child learns to crawl, then stand, then walk -quantitative
Resistance Stage
one of increased awareness of the existence of oppression and its impact on agents and targets
plasticity
people can change --> development is not set or rigid, it is flexible -people are adaptable (ex: people who lose limbs) -the brain adapts and changes in response to experience, learning leads to change in our brain -development is not a straight line--> we can go forward, backward, and sometimes sideways
enterprising
persuading, selling, or influencing others; values material accomplishment and social status; sees self as having persuasive abilities; tends to be seen by others as energetic and outgoing
diversity
physical differences between people categorized as racially different do not explain differences in human behavior, but people have personal conceptions of race that are important for their identity development -the interpretation of race/ethnicity by individuals in a particular group and by the people around the can/does affect development
developmental psych domains:
physical, cognitive, emotional, and social
Frued
psychosexual needs- believed that our development is largely driven by attempts to meet unconscious desires throughout our lifespan -sexual desire/sensual pleasure that we get from our own bodies --> argues that we meet this desire in different ways through our life span -our success/failure in satisfying this desire and other unconscious desires shapes our development -some of our needs are unconscious and the way in which these needs are met early in life can shape our later development -parapraxis: psychodynamically the part of your brain (id) that isn't as filtered --> slips out and says what it's really thinking
presbycusis
reduced sensitivity to higher pitched sounds + degeneration of sensory cells, etc
hayflic limit
refers to the number of times a cell will reduplicate itself before dying
conscientious
relates to being hardworking and diligent; organized, dependable, self disciplined, efficient, thoughtful
extraversion
relates to being outgoing; affectionate, sociable, outgoing, assertive, energetic, adventurous, high spirited, joyful
Ethical considerations in research
relates to how our research can be conducted without causing harm to its participants - nonmalefisence, informed consent, confidentiality, purposes of research, representation concerns
neuroticism
relates to levels of anxiety; worrisome, brooding, resentful, pessimistic, self conscious, self indulgent vulnerable
agreeableness
relates to likability; honest, generous, empathetic, sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, and modest
openness
relates to openness to ideas; imaginative, self aware, expressive, unconventional; interested in the arts; creative; flexible
Acceptance Stage
represents some degree of internalization, whether conscious or unconscious, of the dominant culture's logic system - People at this stage have "accepted" the messages about the nature of their group's identity, the superiority of agents, & the inferiority of targets
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
suggested our thinking develops as part of our social, cultural, and historical context -You are here (current understanding, own mental capacities/knowledge base) --> on the opposite end of the spectrum is what information is currently out of reach to you -the people we spend time with help us to learn things that are out of reach to us by giving us their backgrounds/new perspective (scaffolding)--> hold the building up till it can stand on its own, this happens in the Zone of Proximal Development -ex: how to get to all your class buildings vs. memorizing their blueprints
autoimmune theory of aging
suggests that we age because of faults in the immune system
culture
the beliefs, customs, arts, etc., of a particular society, group, place, or time -what we consider to be typical (development) is in large part determined by our culture, or the dominant culture of time time and place we inhabit (cultural context) -ex: the important of academics in privileged families/communities vs. working farm children where academics/social are much less important than helping to feed the family
Importance of sharing results
the dissemination process (sharing research results) is linked to the replication process (repeating research to see whether we can get the same results and trust conclusions) as scientists replicate the results that they see published in journals in an effort to extend our knowledge
individual differences
the study of development is not just about common patterns, individual differences matter -sources: nature vs. nurture -we all have unique genotypes (nature) and we all develop in a unique environment (nurture)
Piaget
theorized that what develops are schemas or organized ways of looking at the world - these schemas develop through interaction of their child's biology and their experience - believed that at different points in our development the nature of our schemas changed qualitatively -the way people behaved changed qualitatively but also quantitativly --> discontinuous theory
