IB ESS: Case Studies for All Topics

CH7: The Thames Barrier in London

- A giant barrier on river Thames that protects it from severe flooding. - Before its construction in 1982, 116km2 were at risk. - Without flood defences, 420 000 homes would be at risk of flooding. - The chances of flooding are predicted to increase as sea levels rise. - Thanks to the Thames barrier, the probability of London flooding is very low. - However, by 2030 its protection will decline unless improvements are made. - If the barrier closes more frequently and over long periods of time, shipping will be disrupted.

CH7: National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs)

- A list of ranked priority adaptation activities and projects. NAPAs focus on urgent and immediate needs, those for which further delay could increase vulnerability or lead to increased costs at a later stage. - Here are the steps taken by NAPAs: - synthesizing available information. - assessing vulnerability to current climate and extreme events. - identifying key adaptation measures as well as criteria for prioritizing activities. - selecting a list of prioritized activities. - By 2008, the UNFCCC had received NAPAs from 39 developing countries.

CH3: Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA)

- A protected area in the Malaysian state of Sabah on the island Borneo. - This is a good example of how effective conservation can be matched with local economic needs. - The DVCA was under threat of commercial logging until the late 1980s. - Due to the rainforest now being protected, endangered species such as orang-utans and the Borneo elephant are able to survive. There are 120 different mammal species in the DVCA. - In the 1990s a hotel was built on the edge of the DVCA, which increased ecotourism. This was both good for the economy and it also raised awareness.

CH1: DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

- An insecticide that was used all over the world during the early 1940s and reached a maximum usage during the 1960s. - Due to concerns about the possible adverse effects upon the health of humans and wildlife, application of DDT was prohibited in 1972 in the U.S. - Most MEDCs banned the use of DDT; however, some countries still continue to use DDT. It's banned by WHO.

CH7: The Scramble for the Arctic

- Another potential conflict is over the oil and gas reserves in the Arctic Ocean. - Scientists believe rising temperatures could leave most of the Arctic ice free in summer months in a few decades' time. This would improve drilling access. - Denmark is trying to prove that a detached part of the underwater Lomonosov Ridge is an extension of Greenland, which is Danish territory. - Russia has staked a claim by sending a submarine to plant a flag some 4 km below the North Pole. - In 2008 Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the US met in Greenland to discuss how to divide up the resources of the Arctic Ocean. - According to the US Geographical Survey, the Arctic could hold 1/4 of the world's undiscovered gas and oil reserves. This amounts to 90 billion barrels of oil and vast amounts of natural gas. Nearly 85% of these deposits, they believe, are offshore. - The five countries are racing to establish the limits of their territory, stretching far beyond their land borders. - Environmental groups have criticized the scramble for the Arctic, saying it will damage unique animal habitats, and have called for a treaty similar to that regulating the Antarctic, which bans military activity and mineral mining. - Under the 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention, coastal states own the seabed beyond existing 370 km zones if it is part of a continental shelf of shallower waters. While the rules aim to fix shelves' outer limits on a clear geological basis, they have created a tangle of overlapping Arctic claims.

CH5: Degrading Soil Quality of Australia

- Australia is losing precious soil on a scale comparable to Ethiopia's desertification, causing an economic disaster that now costs AU$2 billion a year. - But far more serious is the actual loss of the land, which will cost a further AU$2.5 billion to repair where possible. - More than half of Australia's farming country is in need of treatment due to years of neglect, coupled with a refusal to change inappropriate farming practices. - The problem lies in the great age and fragility of the Australian landscape and the devastating toll that 200 years of European settlement has taken on the relatively fertile soil. - Cleared vegetation, cultivation, grazing animals and construction has placed immense pressure on the land. - 40% of good farmland needs to be better eroded. Victoria is particularly badly hit by salinity, with 650000 km2 affected in varying degrees. - Most of South Australia is prone to wind and gully erosion. - In Western Australia, salinity and coastal erosion is the problem. - Over 40% of Australia's exports are produced directly from agriculture. Problems now include erosion, salinity, acidification, the effects of introduced animals, and chemical pollution from agrochemicals. - Australia has been described as 'an ecological disaster, characterized by a squalid history of greed, shortsightedness, and ignorance.'

CH7: BedZED - An Environmental Friendly Housing Development in Wallington, London

- Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED) is an environmentally friendly housing development near Wallington, in the London Borough of Sutton. - The 99 homes, and 1405 m2 of work space were built in 2000-02. - Because of BedZED's low energy-emission concept, cars are discouraged; the project encourages public transport, cycling, and walking, and has limited parking space. - It is close to the tramline that runs between Croydon and Wimbledon. - Monitoring conducted in 2003 found that BedZED had achieved these reductions in comparison to UK averages: ● heating requirements were 88 per cent less ● hot-water consumption was by 57 per cent less ● electric power usage was 25 per cent less (and 11 per cent of the power used was produced by solar panels) ● car mileage of residents was 65 per cent less. BedZED has achieved this through a combination of: ● a zero energy import policy - renewable energy is generated on site by 777 m² of solar panels; tree waste is also used ● energy efficiency - houses face south, are triple glazed, and have high thermal insulation ● water efficiency - most rain water falling on the site is collected and reused ● low-impact materials - building materials were selected from renewable or recycled sources within 35 miles of the site, to minimize the energy required for transportation ● waste recycling ● encouraging eco-friendly transport - public transport, car-sharing, cycling

CH4: Rice-fish farming in Thailand

- Cultivating rice and fish together has been a tradition for over 2000 years in South East Asia. - This polyculture system (paddy rice field stocked with fish) was gradually abandoned due to population pressure and decreasing stocks of wild fish. - The fall in fish stocks was due to the toxic effects of the pesticides and herbicides used in high-yield rice monoculture. - However, this farming method experienced a revival in the early 1990s, as concerns over the widespread use of pesticides emerged. - Implementation is relatively inexpensive and low risk. The system requires farmers to dig small ponds or trenches in low-lying areas of rice, which become refuges for fish during rice planting and harvesting, or when water is scarce. The excavated soil is used to raise banks around the field to grow other crops on (e.g. vegetables and fruit trees). Once the paddy fields are flooded, young fish (fingerlings) are introduced to the trenches: carp, tilapia, catfish, or other species. After 3 weeks, when the rice is well established, the fish are let into the rice fields. They obtain their food from the fields, but carnivorous species can be fed if necessary. - The fish contribute to a decrease of disease and pest incidence in the rice, and rice yields are higher. Because rice productivity increases, farmers do not need to use fertilizers (the fish produce faeces and excreta which naturally fertilize the soil). - Rice-fish culture may increase rice yields by up to 10%, and increase income by 50-100% over rice alone, while providing farmers with an important source of protein. - The process counters the decrease in available wild fish in many countries. The most common and widespread fish species used in rice-fish farming are the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Both feed on the vegetation and plankton available and do not attack. - Once the newly planted rice is established, fish are released into the flooded fields from holding pens. - This food production system is an example of intensive subsistence farming. The cost of feeding the fish is low but demands on labour are high. Technology is low. - Other inputs include water for irrigation, and the cost of the breeding stock

CH6: Montreal Protocol on Substance that Deplete the Ozone Layer

- Formed in 1987. - An international agreement for the reduction of use of ODCs signed under the direction of UNEP. - National governments who complied with the agreement made national laws and regulations to decrease the consumption and production of halogenated organic gases such as CFCs.

CH7: The Kyoto Protocol

- In 1997, at an international and intergovernmental meeting in Kyoto, Japan, 183 countries signed up to an agreement that called for the stabilization of GHG emissions at safe levels that would avoid serious climate change. - It aimed to cut GHG emissions by 5% of their 1990 levels by 2012. - It is currently the only legally binding international agreement that seeks to tackle the challenges of global warming. - Came into force in 2005 and had an expiry date in 2012, but it was extended. - Countries within it were allocated amounts of CO2 that they were allowed to emit. The agreement also encourages avoiding fossil fuels and using alternative energy sources. - This agreement mainly targets MEDCs, but in the future it's important that LEDCs are involved as well as they are predicted to be increasigly responsible for GHG emissions.

CH8: Ecological Footprints in Peru vs Canada

- In 2001, the per capita ecological footprint in Canada was 5.4, and in Peru it was 0.9. - Peru is an LEDC with an energy component of 16% in its ecological footprint, while Canada has 53.7%. Canada has a larger consumer-driven economy, a greater car culture, uses more energy for heating, and has a higher consumer spending per capita than Peru. - Canada uses non-renewable energy, which increases its footprint. - Peru's higher rates of photosynthesis and NPP due to its location near the equator contribute to its lower atmospheric CO2 levels.

CH7: The Paris Agreement

- In 2014, politicians met in Lima, Peru to finalize a draft for the 2015 Paris Agreement in which it's hoped that the world's leaders will be able to sign a binding agreement on climate change. - Obama was keen to cut CO2 emissions by 26-28% of 2005 levels by 2025. But then Trump came and left the agreement. - China's president offered a time-scale for peak emissions by 2030. - The EU agreed to a 40% cut in GHG emissions by 2030 compared to 1990. - Even though this sounds great and all, huge countries like China, Brazil, India, and Russia haven't obliged to cut their emissions which is highly problematic.

CH7: The Narmada River Dam Project in India

- In India, biomass is a traditional source of energy. A huge proportion of the population relies on local sources of firewood for energy because it is the most readily available source and is inexpensive. - Technology such as solar-powered stoves is neither available nor affordable. The Indian government, in a drive to develop economically, has sought to harness other sources of cheap energy to stimulate industrial development. - The government is promoting hydroelectric power, which historically has sometimes been extremely controversial for social and environmental reasons. - The most controversial dam development in India is the Narmada River Dam Project. Plans were initiated in the 1940s by the country's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Legal and logistical problems delayed the start of the project until 1979. - The plan involves the construction of some 3200 dams of varying sizes on the Narmada River. - The Sardar Sarovar Dam is the biggest dam on the river and its construction has been fiercely opposed. 200000 people could be displaced by the project, and major damage caused to the ecosystems of the region. - Those in favour of the project say that it will supply water to 30 million people and irrigate crops to feed another 20 million people. - In October 2000, the Indian Supreme Court gave a go-ahead for the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam, saying that the benefits of the project outweigh negative environmental and social impacts. - In 2014, the Narmada Control Authority approved a series of changes in the final height from 80 m to 163 m in depth. - The project is expected to be completed by 2025.

CH7: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

- It encouraged MEDCs to lead the way in climate change mitigation because they had the tech, were better at handling the costs of low-carbon energy, they have caused disproportionate amounts of historic CO2, and LEDCs require more time to develop their economies. - This was adopted in 1992 by the world's governments. However, it has not yet been very influential throughout the years.

CH4: Japan and Whaling

- Japan was, for many years, the greater hunter of whales. It reluctantly stopped commercial hunting in 1986. However, it continued to hunt whales for 'scientific research' to establish the size and dynamics of whale populations. - Japan clashed repeatedly with Australia and other western countries, which strongly oppose whaling on conservation grounds. - Australia took a case to the UN's International Court of Justice (ICJ) and argued that Japan's scientific research whaling programme was simply commercial whaling in disguise. Japan argued that the suit brought by Australia was an attempt to impose its cultural norms, and furthermore, that minke whales and a number of other species are plentiful and that its whaling activities are sustainable. - In 2014 the ICJ ruled that the Japanese government must halt its whaling programme in the Antarctic. The ICJ believed that the programme was not for scientific research as claimed by Tokyo. It claimed Japan had caught some 3600 minke whales since its current programme began in 2005, but the scientific output was limited. - Japan agreed to abide by the ruling but added it 'regrets and is deeply disappointed by the decision'.

CH3: Flagship Species + Example (Giant Panda)

- Large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation. - They are often cute or beautiful because that is how you get human empathy and attention. - E.g. giant pandas in China. Nobody cares about some nasty endangered insect, but people will care about adorable, soft bears. - This conservation approach is advantageous because raising money for a particular species is easy. - However, it causes favouritism. - Another disadvantage is that while the species may be preserved in zoos, their natural habitat continues to be destroyed, as with giant pandas.

CH5: Slash-and-burn Agriculture

- New land is cleared by cutting down small areas of forest trees and setting fire to them. The ash fetilizes the soil for a while and the clearing produced enables crops to grow. Once the area has been exhausted, the farmer moves on to a new area and repeats the process. Old land can be returned to once it has recovered. - This method is commonly used in tropical forest areas, such as the Amazon. - This type of farming works as long as there is a low population to sustain. Once it increases, so does the demand for food, and the farmers will then be forced to use soil that hasn't fully recovered.

CH4: Inuit and Whaling

- North American whaling is carried out by small numbers of the Inuit population. The only species hunted is the bowhead whale. Whaling is a central part of Inuit culture and provides a vital source of protein in their diet. - The 10 000 Inuit in Alaska were allowed to kill a total of up to 336 bowhead whales between 2013 and 2018, with no more than 67 whales in any one year. This represents about half of the meat in the Inuit diet. - Scientific research suggests that the bowhead whales are not an endangered species, and their hunt is sustainable. But conservationists take a very different view and state that whales have biorights and should not be killed, especially in a way that causes them great pain and suffering. - In Greenland, Inuit whalers catch around 175 whales per year, making them the third largest hunt in the world after Japan and Norway, which annually averaged around 730 and 590 whales, respectively from 1998 to 2007.

CH4: The closure of Grand Banks off Newfoundland

- Once a fish stack is overfished to the point of collapse, it's very hard for it to fully recover. - The Grand Banks off Newfoundland were once the world's richest fishery. - In 1992, the area had to be closed to allow the stocks to recover. - It was expected that it would only be closed for three years, but it remains closed today as well because fish species haven't recovered, especially cod. - Cod has a hard time to regain its numbers because langoustine, something that had previously been its prey, has now increased in numbers due to the cod's absence and then the grown up langoustines eat the baby cods - reversing the pattern.

CH8: China's Anti-natalist Policy

- One-child policy 1979. They maintained it by rewarding those who followed it and penalized those who didn't by increasing their taxes and making sure they couldn't reach certain positions in their jobs. Even extreme measures like forced sterilazation and abortions were done. - The policy has been relaxed since 1999. - A result of the policy has been gender imbalance, there being many more boys than girls (due to traditional values). The government thereby offered money if people got daughters. - The government offers wellfare incentives to couples with two daughters and they have tightened the prohibition on sex-selective abortions. - Statistically, the one-child policy was successful. It prevented 400 million births which ensured that China could combat rural poverty and improve living standards. - The one-child policy was loosened in 2013, allowing couples to have a second child if one parent is an only child. - Party conservatives are concerned about this because they fear the population might grow rapidly and perhaps there will even be a baby boom (unlikely).

CH5: Wet Rice Ecosystems of South East Asia

- Paddy field agriculture has become the dominant form of rice growing in South East Asia. - A good example of high labour and low tech. - There is a high demand for rice in Asian countries as it is a staple part of their diet and culture. - Paddy fields can be placed mear rivers or on hills by using terracing. - High rainfall facilitates this type of agriculture and allows farmers to lower irrigation levels. - Recently, less land has been available for paddy fields and soil fertility has decreased, which are two problematic aspects.

CH7: UN-REDD Programme

- Short for the United Nations Initiative on Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation. - Focuses on LEDCs. - Launced in 2008. - Collaborates with e.g. UNDP. - This program was initiated because deforestation and forest degradation make up about 17% of all GHGs (in 2007). - It supports 50+ countries by directly and indirectly supporting them through various actions. - REDD stresses the role of conservation, the sustainable management of forests, and the increase of forest carbon stocks. - In 2014, the total funding had reached $200 million, with Norway being the leading donor country.

CH5: A Success Story of Agriculture - Santa Rosa, Mexico

- The Popoluca natives of Santa Rosa, Mexico, practise a form of agriculture that resembles shifting cultivation, known as the milpa system. - This is a labour-intensive form of agriculture, using fallow periods. It is a diverse polyculture with over 200 species cultivated, including maize, beans, cucurbits, papaya, squash, watermelon, tomatoes, oregano, coffee, and chilli. - The variety of shifting cultivation reflects the variety of a natural rainforest. For example, lemon trees, peppervine, and spearmint are light-seeking, and prefer open conditions, not shade. Coffee, by contrast, prefers shade. The mango tree requires damp conditions. - The close associations found in natural conditions are also seen in the Popolucas' farming system. - For example, maize and beans go well together, as maize extracts nutrients from the soil, whereas beans return them. Tree trunks and small trees are left because they are helpful for many purposes, such as returning nutrients to the soil and preventing soil erosion. As in a rainforest, the crops are multi-layered, with tree, shrub, and herb layers. - This increases net primary productivity (NPP) per unit area because photosynthesis occurs on at least three levels (with the highest NPP in the forest canopy), and soil erosion is reduced because no soil or space is left bare. Animals include chickens, pigs, and turkeys. These are used as a food source, and their waste is used as manure. - Thus, whereas there is widespread degradation in Veracruz, the Popolucas can maintain soil quality by working with nature.

CH4: Water and Conflict in the Nile Basin

- The River Nile runs through 11 countries in Africa with a total population of 450 million, which all depend on the river for their food and water security. - The population is expected to double in 25 years, which will put immense pressure on the river for water for agriculture, industry, and domestic uses. - Egypt and Sudan have built mega-dams to exploit the water for irrigation. - There have been decade long negotions between the 11 countries regarding each country's water use. In 2010, 6 countries signed some kind of agreement but it was rejected by both Egypt and Sudan. - However, the use of the Nile is more balanced today because they managed to figure something out. - The Nile is threatened by various environmental problems, like climate change, salinization, pollution, land degradation, reduced river flow, and increased chances of drought and flooding.

CH5: Soil Erosion in Sierra de Marta, Mexico

- The Sierra de Santa Marta is a remote, mountainous region in the humid tropical state of Veracruz, Mexico. - Soil erosion and soil fertility loss are major problems and result in: ● reduced agricultural productivity ● decreased availability of drinking water in nearby urban centres ● increased road maintenance ● falling hydroelectric potential ● a decline in the fishing industry in coastal lagoons. - Soil degradation can be severe when annual crops are grown on steep hillsides using practices that do not include cover crops or surface mulch. This is especially serious when fallow periods are reduced. - In traditional shifting cultivation systems, the soil degradation occurring during the years of cultivation is offset by a fallow long enough to rebuild the soil's productive capacity. Such a system generally collapses with increasing land pressure, as fallow periods are reduced. - In Texizapan, the erosive ability of the natural environment, the high erodibility of the soil, and the limited soil cover provided by the annual crop leads to high rates of soil degradation. Perennial crops such as coffee, especially when grown under shade trees, generally provide better soil protection. - However, in Veracruz, as in other areas in Central America, annual crops such as maize and beans provide most of the food and cash needs of the population. Resource-poor farmers are generally reluctant to stop growing these crops, even when others appear economically more attractive or environmentally less degrading.

CH7: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

- The international body for assessing the science related to climate change. It provides a scientific basis for governments to develop climate-related politics. - The WMO and UNEP set it up to provide policymakers with regular assessments of climate change, its impacts, and future risks. - The report states that: - it is economically affordable. - carbon emissions will eventually have to fall to 0. - global poverty can only be reduced by halting global warming. - carbon emissions (mainly from the burning of fossil fuels) are currently rising to record levels. - The IPCC thinks CCS is essential and a key to decreasing CO2 emissions. They also think that changing to plant-based diets can have a role in cutting emissions.

CH5: Commercial Farming in East Anglia, UK

- This area in the UK is an area of intensive arable farming, with large open fields and heavy use of agricultural chemicals. - As a result, the once-fertile soil is much depleted and requires further use of fertilizers for commercial crops to be grown successfully. - There are a number of options for soil conservation on commercial arable farms in East Anglia: ● avoid inappropriate weather conditions (e.g. heavy rain) for ploughing and harvesting ● add organic matter to the soil to increase water retention ● add clay to the soil to improve soil cohesion ● practise crop rotation so that soils do not become exhausted (this is less common now due to specialization in farming) ● use wind breaks to reduce the risk of wind erosion ● use cover crops to protect the soil in winter ● mulching - plough in the remains of the previous season's crop to improve nutrient retention in the soil ● leave some land fallow so that it can improve its fertility.

CH7: Al Gore on Global Warming

A former US Vice president who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 because he raised awareness about climate change and debunked arguments about it not being humans' fault. He wrote a book called An Inconvenient Truth which was also made into a movie.

CH7: The Stern Report - Financial Implications of Climate Change

A report by Sir Nicholas Stern that was comissioned by the UK government and it analysed the financial implications of climate change. It had a simple message, namely that: - climate change is fundamentally altering the planet. - the risks of inaction are high. - time is running out. A few of the report's main points are: - CO2 emissions have already increased the global mean temperature by 0.5 C. - if we don't do anything and continue like we do today, temperatures will raise by 2-3 C within 50 years. - poor countries will suffer first and the most. - actions should include carbon taxes, new tech, and robust international agreements.

CH3: Keystone Species + Example (Agouti)

A species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend on, such that if it was removed the ecosystem would change drastically. E.g. the agouti in tropical parts of South and Central America that feeds on nuts. The agouti is the only species there with teeth strong enough to crack the nut open. The agouti burries the nuts throughout the forest for later use, but some of these nuts germinate and grow into adult plants. So, without the agouti the Brazil nut tree wouldn't be able to distribute its seeds in the same way. And in turn, species that depend on the tree for their habitat, e.g. harpy eagles, would lose that possibility. Humans also depend on the nuts as they extract oils from them. Keystone species are therefore very important to preserve. However, sometimes it's hard to identify them because ecosystems are complex. It's always better to conserve entire ecosystems rather than individual species.

CH3: Mass Extinction - The End Triassic extinction

About 199-214 million years ago. Massive amounts of lava erupted from the mid atlantic rift which led to the break up of Pangea. It killed 80% of all species.

CH3: Mass Extinction - The Late Devonian exctinction

About 364 million years ago. Caused by global cooling and then global warming. It killed 75% of all species.

CH3: The Ordovician-Silurian extinction

About 439 million years ago. Caused by a drop in sea levels as glaciers formed, then by rising sea levels as glaciers melted. 86% of all species died.

CH3: American bald eagle's (Improved by intervention)

American bald eagle. It only lived in North America and, therefore, became the USA's symbol. These birds can live up to 40 years in the wild. They live near large bodies of water and nest in trees. They primarily feed on fish but also eat smaller animals like rabbits. In the 1700s, there were 300,000 - 500,000 birds, and their population size declined to fewer than 500 pairs by the early 1960s. This was mainly due to shooting them, using pesticides on crops, destroying their habitats, etc. DDT caused their eggshells to become thinner. The population size was restored by banning DDT and having laws protecting them. In 2007, there were 10,000 pairs of them, and they were removed from the list of endangered animals.

CH8: Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) on Population Growth

An English Reverend who in 1798 wrote an essay that stated that the there was finite optimum population size in relation to food supply and that any increase in population beyond that point would lead to a decline in the standard of living and to war, famine, and disease.

CH4: Eutrophication of Lake Erie (USA-Canada border)

During the 1960s, Lake Erie (on the USA-Canada border) was experiencing rapid anthropogenic eutrophication and was the subject of much concern and research. Eutrophication of Lake Erie caused algal and cyanobacterial blooms, which caused changes in water quality. The increase in cyanobacteria at the expense of water plants led to a decline in biodiversity. With fewer types of primary producer, there were fewer types of consumer, and so the overall ecosystem biodiversity decreased. Cyanobacteria are unpalatable to zooplankton, thus their expansion proceeds rapidly. The cyanobacterial blooms led to oxygen depletion and the death of fish. In addition, algal and bacterial species can cause the death of fish by clogging their gills and causing asphyxiation. Many indigenous fish disappeared and were replaced by species that could tolerate the eutrophic conditions. Low oxygen levels caused by the respiration of the increased lake phytomass killed invertebrates and fish. The death of macrophytes on the lake floor increased the build up of dead organic matter in the thickening lake sediments. Rotting bacterial masses covered beaches and shorelines.

CH8: Ether Boserup (1910-1999) on Population Growth

Had an opposing theory to Malthus. She believed that people have the resources to increase food production. The greatest resource is knowledge and technology. When a need arises, someone will find a solution. While Malthus believed that food supply limits population growth, Boserup suggested that it instead stimulates populations to come up with technology and techniques to increase the supply. She examined different land-use systems according to their intensity of production and eventually concluded that people knew the techniques required by more intensive systems, but adopted them only when the population grew.

CH2: Secondary Succession Due to Human Impact

Heather Moorlands, Northern England - Logging in the Middle Ages removed deciduous woodland - Invasive species Heather reach the new equilibrium Management strategies to burn and graze dominant heather in small patches Promote the growth of birch, pine, oak trees

CH8: Plastic Waste in the Thames

In 2012 scientists collected trash from the river Thames in seven locations over 3 months. They got over 8400 items, including plastic cups, food wrappings, and cigarette packaging. The two most contiminated spots were close to sewage treatment works, which suggests that the filters do not work as they should and are not filtering out larger waste. It could also be because of sewage overflow due to heavy rains. The possible impacts on wildlife are far-reaching: not only are the species that live in and around rivers affected, but also those in seas that rivers feed into.

CH1: Chernobyl disaster

In Ukraine in 1986 a power plant exploded, causing severe radiation and death. People were exposed to radioactive iodine up to 4 years later. It made Europeans more aware of potential environmental hazards, leading to the rise of environmental advocacy groups.

CH7: The DESERTEC Project

It is designed to link North Africa, the Middle East, and Europe into a single grid. This system would tap the strong solar and wind potential of North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula both to supply energy for these economies and to export the surplus to Europe - A key to solve Europe's unsolved challenge of deep decarbonization. - Big boost to economies of North Africa and Middle East.

CH3: World Conservation Strategy (WCS)

It was created in 1980 by the IUCN, UNEP, and WWF. It was a guide that outlined a series of global priorities for actions that each country could take and strategies they could have to conserve natural resources. The WCS focused on: - Maintaining essential life support systems (climate, water cycle, soils) and ecological processes. - Preserving genetic diversity. - Using species and ecosystems in a sustainable way.

CH2: Desert Characteristics

Location: 30 degrees North and South of the equator. Temperature: Extremely high (45-49 degrees Celcius) Precipitation: Low (under 250mm annually) Productivity: Very low Species Diversity: Low Example: Sahara, Africa

CH2: Temperate Forest Characteristics

Location: Between 40-60 degrees North the equator. Temperature: 10 - 21 degrees Celcius Precipitation: Average (500-1500mm annually) Productivity: Second highest after tropical rainforest Species Diversity: Much less than rainforest as its structure is less complex. Example: Vancouver, North America

CH2: Tropical Rainforest Characteristics

Location: Near equator (tropics of Cancer and Capricorn) Temperature: Constant high (26 degrees Celsius) Precipitation: High (over 2500mm annually) Productivity: High Species Diversity: High Example: Amazon, South America

CH2: Tundra Characteristics

Location: Places with high latitudes and low insolation Temperature: Extremely low (often snowing, can reach -50 degrees Celcius) Precipitation: Low Productivity: Low Example: Iceland, Europe

CH5: Intensive Beef Production in MEDCs vs the Maasai Tribal Use of Livestock

MEDCs: - Cattle are housed all year round and fed a diet of rolled barley mixed with a protein concentrate (often beans, soya, or rapeseed meal), fortified with vitamins and minerals. - In the USA, cattle are put into pens containing up to 10000 or 100000 cows and fed corn for the last weeks of their lives, which can double their biomass before slaughter. Their movement within the pens is restricted. - Intensive beef production is an energy inefficient form of farming, with yield as low as one tenth the level of energy as is invested in energy inputs. - However, it's cheap. - There is not much space for the animals to move about, so they use less energy. This means less food is required, which leads to cheaper product. - On the other hand, the animals are fed continuously for maximum growth and selective breeding has produced cows with high yield and good quality meat, which adds to overall costs. - Inputs are therefore high (technology, heating, food) but so are the outputs (cost-effective production), although there may be hidden costs, such as transport. - Environmental impact is high - energy usage releases greenhouse gases, and cows produce waste. - Restraining animals in this way also has ethical implications Maasai tribe: - The Maasai are an indigenous group living semi-nomadically in Kenya and parts of Tanzania. - Their livestock are able to wander freely, herded by their owners (i.e. this is a nomadic form of farming). - The Maasai diet is traditionally meat, milk, and blood supplied by their cattle. Once a month, blood is taken from living animals by inserting a small arrow into the jugular vein in the neck. The blood is mixed with milk for consumption. - Virtually all social roles and status derive from the relationship of individuals to their cattle. - This is an example of extensive subsistence farming - inputs are low (the animals are allowed to roam freely so fences and pens are not required, only human labour is used) and so are outputs (enough food to feed the community). - As with other subsistence methods, efficiency is high and environmental impact is low (the Maasai use their natural environment to raise their animals). - Socio-cultural factors can, however, lead to problems: for the Maa

CH8: Example of Non-renewable Natural Capital Being Mismanaged

Minerals are needed to provide food, clothing, and housing. A United States Geological Survey (USGS) study found a significant long-term trend over the 20th century for non-renewable resources such as minerals to supply a greater proportion of the raw material inputs to the non-fuel, non-food sector of the economy; an example is the greater consumption of crushed stone, sand, and gravel used in construction. Large-scale exploitation of minerals began in the Industrial Revolution around 1760 in England and has grown rapidly ever since. Technological improvements have allowed humans to dig deeper and access lower grades and different types of ore over that time. Virtually all basic industrial metals (copper, iron, bauxite, etc.), as well as rare earth minerals, face production output limitations from time to time, because supply involves large up-front investments and is therefore slow to respond to rapid increases in demand. Minerals projected by some to enter production decline during the next 20 years: Gasoline (2023) Copper (2024). Zinc. Minerals projected by some to enter production decline during the present century: Aluminium (2057) Coal (2060) Iron (2068)

CH2: Secondary Succession Due to Natural Cause Example

Mount St Helen, US - Volcanic eruption in 1980 caused disturbance in meadows and forests. This destroyed the community - Colonization Pioneer species survived in burrows and ice-covered lakes colonize Vine maple resprout in soil, logs held fungi and microbes - Competition Diversity increase rapidly In 20 years, plant growth grew 66% Old climax species migrate back (Roosevelt Elk) - Stabilization There is little additional increase in diversity

CH3: Oil Palms and Habitat Destruction

Over 90% of the world's oil palm exports are produced in Malaysia and Indonesia. The global demand for palm oil has increased rapidly due to it being used in both food products and as an ingredient in bio-diesel. This means that an immense amount of trees are being chopped down and that disrupts the harmony.

CH8: Example of Renewable Natural Capital Being Mismanaged

Pacific bluefin tuna fishing. It's heavily priced for its meat in Japan (sashimi) which has lead to its numbers declining by over 30% over the last 20 years. It is classed as 'vulnerable' on the Red List by IUCN. Catching fish has environmental impacts including use of GHGs for transport, use of dynamite on coral, and over-fishing. Also, the processing of fish uses fossil fuels to run machines. Fossil fuels are also used when transporting the finished product.

CH7: Bjorn Lomborg on Global Warming

Quite opposite to Al Gore, this man wrote a book where he said that problems like global warming, over-population, and biodiversity losses lack statistical analysis. He argues that such problems are often localized and related to poverty instead of being global. He agrees that humans contribute to global warming and states that politics and policies are responsible for it. He thinks that a global cost-benefit analysis should be done before deciding how to deal with global warming.

CH1: Green Revolution

Rapid diffusion of new agricultural technology in the 1950s-1960s, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizers.

CH3: The Iberian Lynx (Critically Endangered)

Spanish Lynx. It is a predator that hunts small animals, especially rabbits. Its specialized diet made the species decline in number because rabbits did too. It also only lives in isolated locations. Therefore, habitat destruction, deterioration, and alteration have negatively impacted the lynx. Hunting it was banned in the 1970s, which helped, but it's still hunted somewhat. The lynx is fully protected under national law in Spain and Portugal, and public awareness in education programs is also in place. Breeding and reintroduction facilities have also been made, as well as national parks.

CH2: Primary Succession Example

Surtsey, Iceland - Formed due to an undersea eruption in 1963 - 30 plant species had been established by 2008 - Forestation on the island may require 300-2000 years

CH3: The Falkland Island wolf (Extinct)

The Falkland Islands wolf was the only native land mammal on the Falkland Islands. It lived in burrows and ate ground-nesting birds. They became extinct because the people who came to live on the islands considered the wolves a threat to their sheep, so they shot and poisoned them. The wolves were very tame and easy to find, so they died out quickly. Nothing major happened after they went extinct, except that the numbers of its prey increased.

CH3: Threats to the Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier Reef is located on the northern coastline of Australia, and it is home to 1,500 species of fish, 359 types of hard coral, 1/3 of the world's soft coral, 6/7 of the world's species of threatened marine turtles, and more than 30 species of marine mammals. There are also 5,000-8,000 molluscs and 1000s of sponges, worms, and crustaceans. There are also 800 species of starfish and sea urchins and 215 bird species. In short, there are many species living there. The reef is degrading due to human impacts. One of these is tourism. Corals are super sensitive and therefore damaged by divers' fins and anchors. Tourists also break pieces off of the corals to have for souvenirs. Overfishing is also a massive reason for the decline in biodiversity. By fishing with giant nets, species not meant to be captured are captured, and the sea floor is damaged. Fertilizer runoff and sewage pollution contribute to excessive nutrients, increasing algal bloom. Global warming also affects the reef because increased temperatures cause coral bleaching. In 2002, a study showed that about 60% of all corals are at least somewhat bleached. Climate change can also cause fish to migrate, and that causes a chain reaction, e.g. the birds not having enough prey to feed on. All of the human effects have domino effects that cause the species to be highly vulnerable to natural threats like disease and predators. E.g. the crown-of-thorns starfish that feed on corals like an alien. One starfish can destroy 6 m of corals per year. These starfish have increased in population due to human activity because reductions in water quality make the starfish larvae thrive, as well as their predators being wiped out due to overfishing. Storms and cyclones can also damage corals. The consequences of all this can lead to irreversible damage to the reef and the species that depend on it.

CH1 (Sustainability): Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River

The Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydroelectric dam development in the world. Located on the Yangtze River in the People's Republic of China (Figure 1.30), construction began in 1993 and the dam was fully operational by the end of 2009. Project engineers estimated that the dam could generate an eighth of the country 's electricity. This energy would be produced without the release of harmful greenhouse gases. The Chinese government cites other improvements that the development produces: reduced seasonal fooding and increased economic development along the edges of the new reservoir.

CH1: The UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)

The UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment was the first major global audit of the health of ecosystems in 2005, highlighting their degradation (the loss of natural productivity through overuse and destruction). Gave an appraisal of the conditions in the world's ecosystems and the services they provide.

CH8: Millenium Development Goals (MDGs)

The UN's creation of eight goals for economic development and social progress in 2000: 1. Eliminate extreme poverty and hunger. 2. Guarantee universal primary education. 3. Promote gender equality and empower women. 4. Reduce child mortality rates. 5. Improve maternal health. 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases. 7. Ensure environmental sustainability. 8. Develop global partnership for development.

CH1: The Industrial Revolution

The rapid development of industry brought about by the introduction of machinery that began in the 18th century. It was characterized by the use of steam power, the growth of factories, and the mass production of manufactured goods.

CH2: Food Chain Example

Western wheatgrass (producer; autotroph) → club-horned grasshopper (primary consumer; herbivore) → Great plains toad (secondary consumer; omnivore/carnivore) → garter snake (tertiary consumer; carnivore) → Swainson's hawk (quaternary consumer; carnivore)

CH1: Minamata disease in Minamata, Japan

Year: 1956 Description: Chemical factories released toxic methyl mercury into waste water - mercury accumulation in fish and shellfish caused mercury poisoning in local people - severe symptoms (paralysis, death, or birth defects in newborns) Effect on Environmental Movement: Raised awareness of the risks of industrialization and the need for environmental regulations and checks to be imposed on industries.

CH1: Silent Spring by Rachel Carson

Year: 1962 Description: A book outlining the harmful effects of the pesticide DDT passing along food chains to the top predators. Effect on Environmental Movement: This led to widespread concern about the dangers of pesticide use and increased awareness of environmental pollution.

CH1: Rio Earth Summit

Year: 1992 Description: UN Conference on Environment and Development, attended by 172 nations -outlined that radical changes in attitudes towards the environment needed to limit the damage to the planet. Effect on Environmental Movement: Had a global impact - led to the adoption of 'Agenda 21' (a comprehensive action plan to ensure sustainable development) by over 178 parties.

CH1: An Inconvenient Truth

Year: 2006 Description: A documentary film of former US Vice President Al Gore giving a lecture on climate change and its consequences. Effect on Environmental Movement: The film got extensive publicity, reaching a huge worldwide audience and triggering a major shift in public opinion in the USA.