LA Final

Latin American Debt Crisis

Financial crisis in early 1980's known as the "Lost Decade". Latin American countries reached a point where their foreign debt exceeded earning power and they were unable to pay. Specific examples= Mexico defected on loans in 1982; Latin America owed 315 billion to banks. Countries in most debt were Argentina , Brazil, and Mexico. The crisis was due to heavy borrowing for industrialization and infrastructure purposes, high risk lending by banks, and increase in interest rates. Some of the effects of the crisis were poverty, wage drops, reduced purchasing power by consumers, income and imports dropped, economic growth stagnated, and money that would have been used to address poverty and social issues was used to pay off debt. Most Latin American countries responded by leaving import substitution industrialization and adopted the neo-liberal strategy of export-oriented industrialization.

Violleta Barrios de Chamorro

First elected female president in Latin America. President of Nicaragua from 1990-1997. She was supported by anti-sandinista alliance and backed by the US. She was viewed as a mother figure of Nicaragua and held conservative views. She worked to end contra war, demobilized the military, and sought for peace in her country. She also implemented neo-liberal economic policies and cut government spending

Fidel Castro

(1926-2016) led attack on Moncada Army Barracks in Santiago de Cuba July 26 1953. Fidel was not originally a communist and initially was against it, he wanted to run for congress 1952 but it never happened so he planned the attack on the army base. Fidel and his brother were arrested. Fidel urged for history and Cuba to change, once out of prison he meet with radicals including Che Guevara and joined the "26th of July Movement" Fidel head started the Cuban Revolution with Che Guevara in order to overthrow Cuban president Batista. Using guerilla warfare they were able to win small battles and they gained support from the general population to help their cause. Batista ended up fleeing Cuba with large sums of money February 1959 and Castro became the prime minister.

Never Again Reports:

-Nunca Mas (Argentina)= In Argentina Alfonsin created the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons to investigate the victims of forced disappearance during the dirty war. Research of the investigation was documented in Nunca Mas- Never Again report. It was a complete summary that was published as an official report which led to the Trials of the Military Juntas. Has been a best seller in Argentina since 1984. -Nunca Mais (Brasil)= A book in which episodes of torture under the military dictatorship in Brazil from 1964-1979 are documented. The book was kept secret for five years under the dictatorship and was released upon the return to a democratic government. The book depicted accounts of torture and imprisonment and denounced the presence of torture in Brazil.

Victor Jara

1932-1973 Chilean teacher, theater director, poet, singer/songwriter, and political activist. Was killed during the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. He established the "New Chilean Song Movement" He was torchered and captured after the Chilean Coup of 1973 that overthrew president Allende. He wrote about peace, love, and social justice. He also directed the song group "The three bearded men".

Manuel Noriega:

1934-2017 He was a Panamanian politician and military officer who was the de facto ruler of Panama from 1983-1989. He was removed from power by the US invasion of Panama. He grew up poor and studied at the School of the Americas. Noriega worked closely with the US and the war on drugs even though he made mass amounts of money due to his large drug trafficking endeavors. He also worked closely with the CIA and was a primary source for the weapons money and equipment for the US backed insurgent groups in Latin America. His support relied largely on military nationalism. He had no specific social or economic ideology during his reign. 1988 he was indicted by the federal grand jury in Miami for money laundering and drug smuggling. He was sentenced to 40 years in prison and then later died from a brain tumor.

Evo Morales

A Bolivian Nationalist President who took office during the "new left turn" or the "pink tide." An indigenous Aymara, he grew up herding llamas and growing coca plants. He believes that coca plants play a part in a rich indigenous narrative, and is against the destruction of them. However, he is against the production of cocaine from these plants. The plants provide a livelihood for the indigenous Aymaras. He created a new constitution for Bolivia in 2009 that improves the lives of the systematically oppressed indigenous majority. The Santa Cruz economic elite are strongly opposed to his rule, founded on regional economics and with the desire to grow economically in urban centers.

Juan Perón

A Populist leader of Argentina who won strong support from the working class. He won the presidency in 1946 and served until 1955 before a military coup d'état by a catholic faction. As president he and his wife Eva were celebrated by the industrial poor and eschewed by the elite establishment. Eva's attitude towards the poor having grown up in that social class drew much for their social service programs and worker unionization under their government. Under Peron, woman gained the right to vote and the government attempted to buy back most foreign owned entities, allowing Argentina to be owned by itself. He would be excommunicated by the pope, upsetting catholic establishment within the military, who sent him in exhile. He would return in 1973 for a brief period before his death in 1974, leaving his third and unpopular wife Isabel in control.

Populism

A leadership style that focused on mass politics and winning elections. With postwar Latin America extending voting rights to women, those above 18, and no longer requiring literacy, millions were enfranchised. Populists relied on a new coalition of the middle class and the industrial working class, replacing the old coalition of land owning oligarchs and foreign interests. No longer believing in imperialistic intervention for the betterment of their country, populist relied on new programs that would attract the working class: radical improements of living conditions but not to the point of class warfare. They believed they should give the working class the dignity they deserve. Among the examples of populist leaders in post war Latin America, Juan Peron, exhibits major qualities of this profound leader loved by the working class.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

A major part of the implementation of Neoliberal Economic Policies within Mexico. It was a Free Trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico with the goal of eliminating barriers to trade and investment within the North American Bloc. It allowed for cheaper goods in the middle class of mexico. Though it created jobs, these jobs are typically for low wage workers, like those in maquiladoras, who are not brought out of poverty with such employment. It also makes agricultural production more difficult in Mexico as they have to compete with American farmers. Mexicans began to migrate more to cities and near the US border as a result, looking for jobs. Environmental regulation in Mexico is not as stringent, and so manufacturers also take advantage of this on the Mexican side of the border.

Neoliberal Economic Policies

A set of liberal policies that propagated through Latin America after the end of the Cold War overtaking Nationalism. It was based on Capitalism with emphasis on Free Trade, export production and comparative advantage. It involved privatization of telecom companies and other state-run corporations as declaration of Economic Independence. They slashed import tariffs, deregulated foreign capital flow, and took off multination corporate profit caps. This allowed the countries to grow economically, bringing them out of the Latin American Debt Crisis, curbing hyperinflation and increasing foreign capital inflow. The passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) allowed the middle class of Mexico to grow, gaining access to cheaper technologies and products that they previously were unable to afford. The policies were detrimental to the lower working class, as capitalism typically is, and did not afford them the new luxuries that the middle class had been granted. With maquiladoras, or assembly plants of cheap labor and imported parts, multinational organizations were able to supplant their operations to Mexico. Another free trade zone, MERCOSUR between Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay opened up the borders to allow competitive advantage of the countries to flourish. Millions of lower class workers faced long term unemployment as free trade allowed Latin America to become more economically efficient and middle class focused.

Nueva Trova Movement:

A social and musical movement associated with the Cuban Revolution. Music style embodied afro/cuban culture with lyrics supporting and criticizing the cuban revolution, politics, and society. This style music was seen as an alternative to US consumer songs and spread a political message -Both Nuevo Canción and Nueva Trova represented the uniting of Latin Americans across borders with the idea that they all experience similar struggles

Import Substitution Industrialization:

A trade and economic policy which advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production adopted in Latin America from the 1930's-1980's. It is implemented on the basis that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign dependency through the local production of industrialized products. During the LAtin American Debt Crisis most nations abandoned this policy and adopted export oriented industrialization. The great depression in the US led to an incentive for the domestic production of the goods needed in Latin America. However import substitution excaterbated inequality and led to financial crisis in the 1980's in Latin America

Bay of Pig

After Fidel Castro took power in Cuba during the Cuban Revolution, he took Cuba's business to the Russians, putting himself and the island nation directly in the middle of the Cold War, escalating in 1960 to a full US embargo of Cuban goods. Anti-Castro Cubans were trained by the CIA to invade the Bay of Pigs in Cuba and incite revolution from the Castro regime. These 1500 Cubans failed to excite the will of the people for a new rebellion. The Cuban Army had total loyalty to Castro and quickly defeated the efforts of these invaders.

Plan Colombia

An effort apart of the US War on Drugs, foreign aid to the Colombians to fight off drug wars. Passed by Clinton in 2000, it authorized $1.3 Billion to fight the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), a guerrilla fighting faction in the jungles of Colombia. It was mostly military aid for training and equipment for the Colombians, tripling their military budget. It lead to Environmental Contamination in efforts to fumigate and destroy the coca plants that the FARCs conspire with the cartels to produce cocaine with. It involved the Colombians abusing human rights with extrajudicial killings. All in all, from 2000 to 2010, the United States spent $7.3 Billion in Colombia.

Zapatista National Liberation Army EZLN

Began as a self-defense unit to protect indigenous people from land eviction. The EZLN was a left wing revolutionary political and militant group in Mexico founded in 1983, but went public with their movement on 1994, the day the North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA came into effect. Made up mostly of indigenous people the EZLN reflects Liberation Socialism but they rejected political classification. The EZLN embodies an anti-neoliberal social movement that seeks indigenous control over local resources. The day NAFTA came into effect the EZLN announced war on Mexico due to the fact that peaceful protesting wasn't working violent revolutionary tactics became a necessary mean for the EZLN to make an impact. The EZLN declared war on the basis that Mexico was out of touch the will of the people when allowing NAFTA. The EZLN took their name from Emillio Zapata, the leader of the Mexican Revolution. The EZLN strived to end poverty and inequality. They advocated for a participatory democracy, implementing new laws and political strategies. They believed that dictatorship was not the solution for the problems the people were facing but for the opportunity for everyone to participate in democracy. The EZLN used strategies such as armed revolt, a form of missionary trips in which EZLN representatives would travel to different locations in order to hear the voices of the people, they strived to create dialogue with foreigners in order to spread the message and create a united front. The EZLN wore masks to hide their identity and used them as a symbol to represent the idea that everyone is the same.

Contra War

Contras were various US backed and funded right-wing rebel groups active from 1979- early 1990's. They were in opposition of the Socialist Sandinista Junta of the National Reconstruction government of Nicaragua. The Nicaraguan Democratic Force NDF was the largest contra group and were united in the Nicaraguan Resistance. The contra war was between right wing rebel groups and the socialist Nicaraguan Sandinistas government. Ronald Reagan gave financial and military support to the rebels in their fight against the Nicaraguan Government. The war was very violent and somewhat secret. There were many human rights violations during the contra war especially by the US funded rebel groups. This was is another example of the US involving themselves in Latin American affairs in order to benefit the US. The US viewed the leftist Sandinistas as a threat to economic interests of American corporations that were located in Nicaragua.

Sandinista National Liberation Front FSLN:

Democratic Socialist political party in Nicaragua. Was named after Augusto Sandinista who led the 1930 Nicaraguan Resistance against the US occupation of Nicaragua. The FSLN overthrew Somoza dictatorship in 1979 and established their revolutionary government in its place from 1979-1990. The contras which were backed by the US maintained attempts to overthrow the FSLN since 1981. The FSLN implemented policies of mass literacy. There was a significant rise in health care resources, gender equality was a main focus as well. However the FSLN violated human rights through torture and mass execution and oppressed the indigenous people.

Salvador Allende

Elected president of Chile in 1970. He was apart of the Popular Unity Coalition, he only received 36% of the votes during election. He was known as the first Marxist to become president in Latin America. He put Chile on a road to socialism. His authority was deemed unconstitutional leading to the Coup D'etat in 1973 where the military ousted Allende. Later that day he committed suicide, leading to Chile being run by General Pinochet and the military Junta

Nicaraguan Revolution

Embodies the rising opposition to the Somoza dictatorship in the 1960's-1970's. The revolution was led by the Sandinistas National Liberation Front FSLN. Successfully ousted the dictatorship in 1978/1979. The FSLN attempted to govern Nicaragua from 1979-1990. From this came the contra war between the FSLN- led government and the US backed contras from 1981-1990

Maquiladoras

Factories in Mexico that import parts, take advantage of cheap labor, then export finished goods. These were popular as capitalism took hold after the populist and dictatorial eras in Latin America. These assembly plants often employ women for low wages, with no job security, and can fire women for being pregnant. The worker is not valued as a part of the company but is seen as a replaceable part of production. Often in Mexico, they import raw or semi finished goods with the goal of exporting these goods to the United States or advanced economies. These happened as a result of the Neoliberal Economic Policies including the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement meaning they can circumvent United States import tariffs by virtue of technically being a North American good after being completed in the continent.

Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)

Formed as an alternative to the Organization of American States without the United States or Canada, it is intended to promote economic, political, and cultural integration of the region. It is intended to be retribution for years of the United States meddling in the affairs of the nations of Latin America, and intends to promote their combined efforts against the US. Its activities include promoting Argentina as the owners to the Falkland Islands. They wish to have a fairer distribution of wealth, greater access to education, better salaries, and to eradicate illiteracy. It seems that the CELAC is in response to Neoliberal capitalism, and attempts to form itself as independent from the United States economically, a type of Latin American Nationalism espoused by the post-neoliberal politicians.

Liberation Theology

Formulated at an Latin American Catholic Bishop Conference in Medellin in 1968, concerning how the illiterate poor are treated as sub human by the rest of the hegemonic system. The belief steams from the idea that they are intelligent human beings that have not been able to take charge of their lives. It was not based so much on a belief system rather that they have no ability to live on earth. They organized Christian Based Communities to teach and education poor adults. Was intended to be neither Marxist nor capitalistic, but instead empowering to the illiterate poor. Denounced by Pope JP2 as too close to Marxism.

Cuban Revolution

In 1953 Fidel Castro attempted to overthrow the Batista dictatorship in a failed attack. This sowed the seeds of defiance within the Cuban populous against the US backed regime. During exile in Mexica, the Castro Brothers met the marxist revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevera. Though they did not agree in Marxist ideology, they agreed that the imperial rule of the United States backed Batista must end. They grouped togeather 82 invaders, and landed in Cuba in late 1956. From the landing only 12 survived. After sympathetic articles in the United States and after hide and seek games with the army over the next two years, the resistance to the dictator became virtually unanimous. On the last day of 1958, Batista left the country, and the guerrillas were welcomed to Havana. They tried and executed 483 of the Batista regime. They campaigned against the US' Economic Imperialism, and encouraged land reform and expropriation of US owned interests, from sugar mills to telephone companies. Though nothing of the Soviet-esq communism, Castro decided that it was the better of two evils to align with the Second World. This lead to the United States' embargo of Cuban goods.

The Disappeared

In the 1960s to the 1980s, many military rules within Latin America began a "Dirty War" to attack their "internal enemies" resulting to kidnapping, torture, and murder of hundreds of thousands of their own citizens. They "disappeared" any who dared subvert their rule, claiming they were sympathizers with the communist guerilla insurgency. Among those whom they took were student activist, labor leaders, and peasant organizers. After Peron's return in 1973, the attacks still occurred. After his death and the deposition of his third wife Isabel, a new military government took control in 1976, finally beating the guerrillas. This lead to the Mothers of Plaza de Mayo protesting the government for the whereabouts of their disappeared children, giving the issue attention on the world stage. The Nunca Mas report details the records of families of the disappeared ones, and survivors.

Shining Path

Is a guerilla challenge in Peru to Neoliberalism. It arose in the highlands which are heavily indigenous. Not based on Marxist theology, its following is more due to the charismatic leader, Abimael Guzman, who inspires the imagery of an Incan revival. Their dedication to a quasi-religious spirit condoned cataclysmic violence, gaining traction from the indigenous in ways the middle class Marxist could not bolster. As the indigenous began to migrate out of the highlands to Lima, the message of the Shining Path passed over the Andes east and made its way east into the Amazon Basin. With the support of this coca land, they could fund their violence campaign against capitalism. It lost momentum after the capture of Guzman in 1992.

Trial of the Juntas

Judicial trial of the members of the de facto military government in Argentina during Proceso de Reorganización Nacional (1976-1983). Trial took place in 1985 after President Alfonsin called for justice. This trial was the only example of a large scale procedure by a democratic government against a former dictatorial government of the same country in Latin America.

Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva:

Known as Lula, he was a Brazilian politician and union leader. He became president from 2003-2011. Highlights of his career were creating social programs such as Fome Zone and Bolsa Familia and playing a large role in global warming and Nuclear program of Iran. He was revered as one of the greatest politicians in Brazil and during his presidency one of the best in the world. He was later arrested for corruption and money laundering.

Amnesty Law

Law that retroactively exempts a select group of people after prosecution. Argentina- Military and political leaders that were liable for crimes committed after the case of the Trial of the Juntas were pardoned. Alfonsin passed two amnesty laws in order to avoid escalation of trials against militaries involved in human rights abuses. The Two laws were Ley de Punto Final and Ley de Obediencia Debida. However persistent activism demonstrated by the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo led to the overturning of the amnesty laws by the Argentinian Supreme Court in 2005. Brazil- 1979 Amnesty Law passed after the violent dictatorship from 1964-1979 Uruguay- Post dictatorship politics passed 1985 Amnesty Law for all political prisoners to be pardoned

National Security Doctrine

Led by Latin American leaders in alliance with the US. This doctrine granted the military a greater role with the justification being that they were the only force able to protect national security and western civilization. This was viewed as Bureaucratic Authoritarianism. Implemented policies to repress any political movement deemed as a "Communist Threat" Security forces were used for arrests kidnappings torture and murder of political enemies to the US and its Latin American allies.

Dirty War

Period of state terrorism in Argentina by the civic military dictatorship "military Junta". The dirty war was part of operation Condor, an operation originally planned by the CIA in 1974 with the goal to hunt down anyone involved with socialism or anyone in opposition to Neoliberalism economic policies. Military Junta was trained through the school of Americans and utilized many of the learned strategies during the dirty was to make people disappear.

Jose Mujica

President of Uruguay (2010-2015) Was apart of the revolutionary group the Tupamaros from 1966-1972, was then imprisoned for 13 years. Once out of prison he became a senator and then shortly after became the Minister of Livestock. During his presidency he nullified Expiry Law, legalized weed, legalized abortion, and legalized same sex marriage.

Nueva Canción Song Movement:

Social movement and musical genre. The music portrayed a folk style with socially committed lyrics. First surfaced in the 1960's in Chile and was associated with the New Left, Liberation Theology, and human rights. Chile- Nueva Cancion was popular during the 1970 Allende campaign and after the death of Victor Jara. Argentina- Nueva Canción artists were among the 30,000 that disappeared during the military dictatorship in 1976-1983

War on Drugs in Latin America

Some of the US strategies that were used to fight drugs in latin america were → Making Coca leaf an illegal substance (1961) → Focus on supply rather than demand → emphasis on military and law enforcement, creation of DEA (1973) and Plan Colombia (2000), which was the military and diplomatic initiative aimed to combat Colombian drug cartels and left-wing insurgent groups, this was head started by Colombian president Pastrana and Bill Clinton → elimination of drug cartels → Annual Congressional Certification of Drug-Producing Countries To Receive Foreign Aid (1986) → Leahy Provision (1997), stated that human rights violations should not receive anti-narcotic aid. -Invasion of Panama= (1989-1990) "Operation Just Cause" US to overthrow and capture Noriega the corrupt dictator. Noriega sentenced to 40 years, 3000 deaths occurred during this mission -Cocalero Movement (Bolivia)= Evo Morales led the movement to defend traditional use of Coca leaf. He demanded the coca leaf be taken off the illegal substance list and for the US to end war on drug activities -Merida Initiative (Plan Mexico)= 2008 law passed to support Mexico and Central America to end drug trafficking. The plan spent 1.6 billion on a 3 year initiative.

Subcomandante Marcos

Spokesman and leader of the Zapatistas. He was a poet, writer, and philosopher. His ID was hidden but discovered as "Rafael Vicente" he took the name Marcos after his friend was killed by the military. In 1983 he moved to the mountains of Mexico to work with the indigenous people. He was largely focused on the government's lack of interest in the people and he attempted to be a voice for the unheard.

School of the Americas

The US Army school of Americas was founded in 1963 by JFK. The school was assigned the specific Cold War goal of teaching anti-communist counter insurgency training to military personnel of Latin American countries. The scholl trained the "Military Junta" and the training was utilized in Chile during Pinochet's legal suits. The training helped the military Junta to make it so the bodies from all the killings were never found and also was utilized in Argentina during the dirty war. Example of the US creating a program and largely impacting Latin American countries in order to benefit the US

Brasilia

The planned city was created for a new capital of Brasil. Construction began in 1956 and the city was dedicated in 1960. Located on the interior of the country, it signaled an optimistic new frontier for the nation. In its ultra modern design on a massive scale, the government construted the city to the cost of surging inflation. Designed by Oscar Niemeyer, it is a "space age" urban conglomeration following principles from Le Corbusier. It is a symbol of the post-Vargas movement in Brasil.

Jacobo Arbenz

The second reform President of Guatemala, a 37 year old army officer who was peacefully chosen as the next leader after Juan Jose Arevalo in 1950. At the time, half the people were illiterate Mayan peasants, treated more or less like savages. Arbenz started to confiscate large estates and divide them amongst the peasants. While appropriating land from the United Fruit company, the US government became worried about Marxist ideas encompassing the newfound nationalism. Arbenz embraced unionization and other liberal policies. Revolutionaries within the government wanted to arm citizens in the case the conservative army took power, ordering guns from Soviet controlled territories. The US invaded from Honduras, and the army joined forces with them in 1954. In the decades after, military rule was murderous.

National Liberation Movement-Tupamaros

Urban guerilla organization most active in Uruguay from 1970-1972. Their slogan was " words divides us, action unites us" They robbed banks and businesses and gave money and food to the poor people. Seen as a "Robin Hood" group. They also took part in armed resistance and political kidnapping. One of the larger kidnappings was the capturing and execution of Dan Mitrione a US official who was in Uruguay working to modernize the police force.

Hugo Chávez

Venezuelan politician who was president from 1999-2013. Chavez created the United Socialist Party of Venezuela which he led until 2012. Before his presidency he was imprisoned for leading an unsuccessful revolutionary coup d'etat against president Perez. After prison he formed the Fifth Republic Movement and became president in 1998. He created a new constitution in 1999 and enacted social reforms as part of the Bolivarian Revolution. He lead the country to economic decline and to a violent state with murder rates skyrocketing. His presidency was seen as part of the Socialist "pink tide" in Latin America. He was very vocal about his criticism against US capitalism and neoliberalism. He promoted Chavismo, a political ideology very closely related to modern day socialism.

Mothers of Plaza de Mayo

Were a group of Argentine Mothers who protested for their "disappeared" children in the late 1970s. Gathered in the main square of Buenos Aires, they carried pictures of their children. They provided the world with proof of the "dirty war" waged by the oppressive argentine military. The argentine military denounced them las locas: the crazies. With their white scarves embroidered with the names of disappeared children, they became the conscience of a nation. The military could not touch the mothers, who represented the traditional ideal of motherhood. Through peaceful protest, they were able to put the government on trial in the morals of the argentine people, forcing the military regime to lose its legitimacy in 1983.

Gioconda Belli

grew up in an upper-class milieu in Managua in Nicaragua. In her father's eyes, she was always expected to be a typical upper-class girl: get a good education so that she may find a good husband. She was schooled at elite schools, sent to boarding school in Madrid, and eventually made her way to Ad-school in Philadelphia. These experiences cause her to be engrossed in much solitude, developing an intellect and feminine identity. Through talks with her mother she was provided a strong feminine role model for a different life prescribed for her by society. In addition, her professional career as the first female publicist in Nicaragua provided an avenue for her to meet members of the FSLN, people concerned with social issues, and wanting to change Nicaragua for the better. The members of FSLN allowed for her to be treated as an intellectual equal in a bohemian scene that eschewed the traditions of her conservative Christian upbringing. She was able to see an avenue by which she could achieve the social change she wanted for her country. In her time with the FSLN she was still discriminated against for being a woman. She was able to join and achieve her goal of revolution, her ultimate goal, but paid a price for romanticizing ideals over procuring power as someone who happens to be a woman. She continued this romantic fault after the revolution, and accepted "womanly" jobs, something she seems to regret about her post war years. In her years with the PIE, she reinvigorated her pursuit of influence of women in government issues, eschewing men dominated beliefs in favor of the equal treatment of women's issues: the treatment of democracy as true equality, not just pushing back issues that do not seem to be the most prevalent.