Latin America Exam 1

Colonialism

1600-1810 were crucible years. 1492-1600 were formation of colonies. viceroyalties to break up area to rule. forced indigenous and then african to work fields and mines. pay tribute to viceroyals. caste system, social hierarchy white on top. mixed people in between people that above indigenous and slaves but below white. as time went on started to push for more caste freedoms. issue between europeans coming over to rule and descendents of colonial crusaders who were originally ruling. made white descendents mad. end 1810: stability. nobody saw imperial collapse coming. outcome more conservative with exception of Haiti with slave revolt and took over. social hierarchy stayed pretty much the same. when Spanish King ousted by Napoleon Spanish Americans professed loyalty to king but in doing so also rejected idea that Mexico of Peru of Granada were colonies. Instead, they reaffirmed the old idea that the Spanish King's throne had two pillars of support: his European kingdoms in Iberia and his American kingdoms in the New World. argued that although loyal to king, American kingdoms were equal to the European ones and not subservient to them. Invoke principle of popular sovereignty against Spain itself. soon began to form own juntas to rule locally in kings name.

Consequences of the Wars of Independence

Few revolutionary leaders really wanted to see social equality from nativism and liberal ideology of popular soveriengy with the people, americanos, governing. Most wanted popular support to win independence, leaving social hierarchy more or less intact. As long as hierarchy remained in place, Creoles expected to be leaders of emerging sovereign nations. Broad contours of colonial culture and society underwent no profoudn sudden change. Liberal ideas had never been popular driving force of independence movements that derived more nergy from identitty politics. Old hierarchy of status and race created by colonizatio nremained substanially unaltered. Language and laws of colonizers became those of new nations and Creole descendents continued to profit from ill-paid labor of conquered and enslaved. Indipendence didnt undo colonialsim in nations, made them postcolonial-now self-governing, but still shaped by colonial heritage. Women find republics nearly as patriarchal as old colonies although fought and died for independence. Long term impact more important. Wherever patriot cause had resorted to mass mobilization, fighters of indigenous or African of mixed blood gained political prominance. Old social hierarchies no matter how stubborn, lost their explicit public justification in new republics with liberal constitutions. To gain independence, white elites from Mexico to Argentina had vigorously waved the banner of popular sovereignty. Now ould have to gover through new institutions such as elected assembleis, always in the name of hte people. Old rallying cry Americanos no longer sufficient as shattered into dozen national pieces. Take years fo new nations to aquire much legitimacy in people's minds. Much harder to sell common political purpose uniting all Brazilians or Chileans or Colombians whether they be mighty plantation owners or peasants. Despite achievement of independence, the struggle to decolonize latin america in a deeper sense only just beginning. New ipmortant political innovations, suchas the writing of constitutions and hte holidng of important elections. Also brought notions of national identity and racial equality to the fore. Political life would never be the same. Had an impact on economic and social life in former colonies. Traditional barriers to international trade were liftd by newly independent governments. Difficult to assess extedn to which changes had any tangibleeffect on everyday lives of ordinary Latin Americans. Despite promises, slaves in some countries were not automatically freed and were not given the same equality as freed people. In brazil especially were not granted freedom until much much later. Many said it wasnt good but the current economic conditions and the supposed lack of alternative sources and labor and property rights of slave owners made abolition impossible for time being. Despit opposition, by 1825 almost every Spanish American county had banned further imports of slaves and enacted programs of either gradual or immediate emancipation. Extended stuggle not finally resulved until 1850s and 1860s. Wars gave slaves more opportunities to oppose slavery and fighting granted freedom and promise of gradual emancipation. First governments had few resources and faced big obstacles creating disastrous results trying to put liberal ideas into practice. Many overturned within only few years and presidents and constitutions kept changing. Hopes for ture democracy crushed by old habits of conservative hierarchy. recurring patterns of political violence and corruption alienated most people from govs that supposedly represented them. Politics became above all a quest for the personal benefits of office. The first postcolonial generation saw Latin America going nowhere fast. Despite caste system legalness abolished teh elite had hard time accepting idea of broad social equality. Basic contradiction between political theory and social reality fatally undermined stability of new republics. Conservative leaders soon rose to challenge the liberal agenda. They openly proclaimed the common people should know their place and leave governing to their betters. Conservative defense of traditional values appealed to many common people. ex with church state conflicts. separation of church and state and take them out of the public schools was liberal thought. church represented reverence for colonial traditions in general. church was cihef issue distinguishing liberal from conservative cultural outlooks and winning issue for conservatives. Economic devestation during wars of independence hard to come back from. elites of colonialism same basic elites of postcolonialism. lighter, creole, with a few darker faces mixed in. whites in power still exercised subtle resislient power of cultural hegemony, now representing civilization. civilization being free trade, steam power, romantic poetry- things from European cities. trnasculturation had created societies that shared basic values and attitudes despite huge differences in wealth. result was continued hegemonic control for elite minority. Iberian patriarchy remained virulent in postcolonial Latin America. women's exclusion from new political arena of public life merely continued a colonial practice, but found new justification in republican theories assigning women specifically to domestic sphere. Women in higher status continued to suffer tyranny of the honor system limiting expeiences and movement. honor was evolving. always been partly assigned by hierarchy and partly earned behavior. after independence more modern definition increased in importance. women who achieved ideals of chastity or motherhood could demand social recognition as honorable people, despite having been born in poeverty or with wrong skin color. as caste system declined, honor served as auxiliary sorting principle for new class system. class easier to change than caste. class dependent on wealth. european norms defined what was civilized and stylish and ultimately decent in eyes of postcolonial. those at top of social hierarchy an dmost in touch with Europe had easier time. Some went on for decades o Economics, politics, new social systems o Economic destruction o Death blow to slavery in most of Spanish America except Cuba o Development of highly militarized society o Lack of social control and social order, lack of centralized control o Struggle for big nations similar for U.S. struggle between federalism and local gov. rights • Political tension between people living in capital and rest of Argentina o Independence without revolutionary changes • Change whose on top • Economic, social matters many stayed the same What fought for didn't really happen o Issue of slaves and freedom and what they thought their due • How will different groups interpret liberalism in different ways?

Colonial Legacies

For indigenous, created patterns of social domination that became internal givens. Disease wiped out many indigenous populations and their cultures. Large African population brought over as slaves to work cash crops and mining. Mestizos from colonial men and indigenous women as well as African slaves. As Spanish women came over most mestizos were illegitimate. Forcing Catholicism on indigenous and African peoples creating a now very Catholic area along with religions that have mixed influences. Mixing cultures but mix not deemed correct or good until early 1900s. second class citizens. legacy of conquest and slavery in 1800. hierarchy of race imposed by conquest and slavery and adapted themselves to it. by 1800 most Latin Americans accepted Catholicism and rule of kings. Colonization was social and cultural, even psychological process. Resulting patterns of domination constitute worst product of colonial crucible. Legacy of Patriarchy. Transculturation. • Legacies of Colonialism o Racial heritage for colonialism o Written by Steins couple in 1960s • 1960s shaping way historians look at colonial history in latin america Cold War context lot of concern about foreign influence, soviet influence Emphasis communism is foreign ideology, anxiety about relationsihp between developed world and developing world Civil rights movement In Africa lots of countries becoming independent- decolonization movement • Made think about similarities and differences of decolonization in Latin America Manufacturing boom goes through collapse in post world war II era in Latin America • Relationship between lat am economic and political development Brazilianists- study Brazil o Typical school of thought prominent in 1960s and 1970s • Dependency Theory Idea of keeping colonies dependent on conquerers Keeping colonies weak, limiting access to education, ideas, political power Latin America has been in a dependent position still in 1970s when written • Exporting cotton, metals, tin, sugar • Less valuable in world market than manufactured good • Hasn't been incentive in lat am nations to industrialize • Less economic power in world market so less power politically in global world • Trap hard to get out of o Race • White people from U.S. in time of Civil Rights era, lived in Latin America, geographically specific ideas of race • In Latin America more categories and fluidity, still have racial hierarchy but not two category system • People mixed didn't fall into category and felt misplaced • Mixed race succeed because could adapt to both sides of spectrum -Brazil Never have laws of segregation Racial democracy in comparison to U.S. Multicultural place Not institutional barriers based on race • Partly true • Didn't have to have segregation laws • Racial hierarchy and segregation functions without the law • U.S. and Brazil are two big post slave societies How did race categories and laws become so different? Share so much, why are we now different? • Way we categorize race is specific • Racial hierarchies is different in Latin America • Stein's view is too static focus on metropole and not colony Act as if latin america had no other choice Need Look at how people udnerstood these heritages and perpetuated or fought agaoinst them Need Less european view of latin america Stein view is imperialistic More recent historian view • Think about colonial instutions were important and shaped what happened next • Patterns of Settlement- help understand modern latin America o Spanish major interest in Mexico and Peru • Silver mines • Access to labor since sedentary so large civilizations survive o Portugal interest northeast Brazil • Sugar plantations • Semi-sedentary people so less access to labor so brought in lots of slaves • Easiest place to get to africa from Big influence in Africa for long time • Dependency theory No printing press, elite have to go to portugal for higher education, trade restriction • Political legacies o Viceroyalty • Emphasis most of governing done by people of Spanish birth Create distinction between Creole and Peninsular Making sure governed by people who have spanish interest o Portugal trying to farm out early colonization so give grants of land to do as they will then start to set up local gov o Spanish govt. more tightly interlaced political system, Latin America more valuable to them than to Portugal o Thought where you are born affects your development at the time • Exposure to tropics make them weaker and more corrupt over generations • Casta painting o Casta- spanish system of categories to divide people into groups • Based on race, quality- social class, economic status, legitimate or illegitimate • Mutable Siblings have same parents but in different casta groups because of skin differences or one gone to school and other didn't o Produced in latin america for people back in Spain to understand racial mixture • Who marries who and what type of child will get and what casta they will be a part of o Race is destiny • Mestizo person will be capable of learning but timid • Racial sterotypes o Paintings trying to naturalize hierarchy of difference by showing this is the way it is o Documents to understand complex racial hierarchies in colonial era o Document purchase legitimacy -purchase whiteness • Important for social mobility • Economic, political, social conditions important how they see themselves, post colonial, independence fighting

Diego Rivera

Great Mexican painter married to Frida Kahlo. Illustrated Mexico's revolutionary nativism. Muralist depicting indigenous heritage. Glorifies indigenous and makes colonials as evil murderers. during time of natinalism early 1900s. nationalist message. joined communist party.

Porfirio Diaz

Mexican dictator 187-1911. imposed strict political control, encouraged European and US investment, and gave special influence to a group of positivist thinkers called Cientificos. president and dictator during era of neocolonial growth late 19th early 20th century epitome of neocolonial dictatorships. kept up constitutional appearances but only his candidates ever won elections. had circle of technocratic advisors steeped in the positivist "science" of gov" Cientificos. used new revenues of import export trade to stengthen mexican state. curbed regional caudillos by crushing them or buying them off. created public jobs for middle class urbans by vastly enlarging bureaucracy. offered carrot or stick. subsidized press to keep it friendly and jailed journalists who spoke against him. acquired national rail system. part Mixtec, man of strongly indigenous south, authenitc war hero who rose in ranks during struggle against french. indigenous roots led to popular image as national leader without making him a defender of indigenous identities. founded famous rurales mounted naitonal police in countryside to secure environment for investor confidence. oversaw massive sale public lands. welcomed foriegn investments As disatissfied of rule, questioning european models and ideals of gov and progress, why finally rebel • Growth massive middle class • Comes to head as growing well educated professional middle class become increasingly alientated from gov as feel like not getting their share of export oriented growth • Subsistance crisis • Economic depression 1907 in Mexico, slow growth then sudden decline • How started similar to independence • Elite question of who rule, what right does Diaz have, should he remain in power or bow to middle class pressure to hold free elections • What kind of alliances are possible, what are different groups fighting for Factions work together at times and eventually crumble over course of revolution Millions dissatisfied but what want after is radically different • Diaz in power since 1876 Agrees to hold elections 1910 from poliitcal pressure • Reformist party calling for his removal, put forth candidadte Francisco Madero From Mexico City Moderate reformists, went to UC Berkley, educated Paris, elite northern family Elite rule but want greater integration and cooperation from middle class • Thrown in jail by Diaz, escapes • Crosses into U.S. • Diaz claims he has been elected but was rigged o Madero in exile take of plan of San Luis Potosi 1910 • Political proclamation saying election was rigged, its null and void, need to get rid of Diaz, return inidgenous lands, power should spring from will of people, if with me on nov. 20 1910 will take up arms, save country from dark future of dictatorship Tell what to wear to show if follower • Diaz flees when people show up

Scientific Racism

idea of mid 1800s influenced by Europeans, contradiction to liberal equality tinking. race mixture disgrace. use of science to make distinctions between races and show whites superior and more civilized and evolved than darker colored people.

African Diaspora

movement of the population from its original homeland.[2][3] Diaspora has come to refer particularly to historical mass dispersions of an involuntary nature, such as the expulsion of Jews from Judea, the African Trans-Atlantic slave trade,During the Atlantic Slave Trade, 9.4 to 12 million people from North, West, West-Central and South-east Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Western Hemisphere as slaves.[28] This population and their descendants were major influences on the culture of English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish New World colonies. Prior to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, millions of Africans had moved and settled as merchants, seamen and slaves in different parts of Asia and Europe. In Black Europe and the African Diaspora Alexander Weheliye (2009) writes a section and clearly explains diaspora this way: "Diaspora offers pathways that retrace laverings of difference in the aftermath of colonialism and slavery, as well as the effects of other forms of migration and displacement. Thus, diaspora enables the desedimentation of the nation from the 'interior' by taking into account the groups that fail to comply with the reigning definition of the people as a cohesive political subject due to sharing one culture, one race, one language, one religion, and so on, and from the 'exterior' by drawing attention to the movements that cannot be contained by the nation's administrative and ideological borders"The African diaspora refers to the communities throughout the world that are descended from the historic movement of peoples from Africa, predominantly to the Americas, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, among other areas around the globe. The term has been historically applied in particular to the descendants of the West and Central Africans who were enslaved and shipped to the Americas by way of the Atlantic slave trade, with the largest population in Brazil despite some misconceptions (see Afro-Brazilian), followed by the USA[1] and others.[2] However, African Diaspora discourse and scholarship is changing in recent years to include various other populations of African descent who have been displaced and dispersed due to enslavement, genocide, and other global forces. As such, theories about mythical homelands, collective memory, the experience of racism, and the emergence of Pan-African sentiment are common among notions about the African Diaspora. In the contemporary moment, the ever-increasing demand for labor accounts for the ongoing displacement of Africans.[3] Although four circulatory phases[4] of migration out of Africa has been identified to talk about the African Diaspora, other scholars have entertained the possibility for various forms of diasporization among African-descended people (e.g. McKittrick, 2006). With regard to all historic migrations (forced and voluntary), the African Union defined the African diaspora as "[consisting] of people of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union." Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union."people of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union." Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union."

Cortico

tenement housing for poor in urban areas. bad conditions and hygiene. created during massive move from rural areas to urban in late 1800s.

Mexican Constitution (1917)

third movement better-connected more urban middle class finally gained upper hand drafted new revolutionary constitution 1917. Constitutionalists typical of nationalist core constituency throught were winners of revolution. Constitution showed strong nationalist inspiration. reclaim all mineral rights from forieng companies, helped start villages recover common lands, great estates subdivided and distributed to landless peasants. protections of wage and hour laws, pensions, and social benefits and right to unionize and strike. limited privileges of foreigners and curbed rights of Catholic Church.

Free Birth Law

1871 Brazil the conservative gov caved to liberal pressure and enacted law. Slaves would remain slaves but children would be born free. Free birth signaled public commitment to end slavery sooner or later since slave trade stopped 1850s. Children born officially free were still required to work until adulthood for mother's owner so not perfect. liberal progressivism influence. obstacle to progress. overwhelming public pressure forced total abolition 1888 Golden Law.

Caudillos

A strong political leader who commands the personal loyalty of many followers. the mid-1800s was the heyday of caudillismo. Although Brazil has also seen strong leaders, caudillismo has operated more powerfully in Spanish America. Typically large landowners who could use their personal resources for patronage or for maintaining private armies. firs rose to prominance during wars of independence and then carried their wartime fame as leaders of men into peacetime politis. Often war heroes who embodied ideal masculine qualities- bravery loyalty generosity and sexual glamour. charismatic to convince people of all classes. defined by their army of followers. Majority continued liberal ideal of constitutions and elections despite their illegitimacy. constitutions mattered enough for people to keep writing them. remained essential symbols of popular sovereignty despite actual practice not being so. people gradually lost faith in promise of democracy. by middle 1800s most Latin American countries ruled by conservative caudillos whose sole public service was to maintain order and protect property.

Hipolito Yrigoyen

Argentina. civic caudillo representing urban interests overthrew the country's landowning oligarchy by means of election in 1916. revolution of the ballot box. led essentially middle class reform party with considerable working class support, the Radical Civil Union. Radicals won election. created first truly mass-based political party in history of latin america. used patronage. reforms enacted not impressive. talked economic nationalism but role of foriegn capital didnt diminsih. one significant act of economic nationalism was creation of gov agency to supervice oil production. marked by important change because of what he represented. poorly dressed and lacking in social graces, was man of people. hated elite. framed politics in moral terms as a kind of civic religion. cared little about europe and also maintained an Argentine dipolomatic tradition of resisting US hemisphereic intitiatives. violent repression of organized labor during Tragic Week 1919 and strike of Patagonian sheep herdres 1921.

Alberto Nisman

Argentine lawyer who worked as a federal prosecutor, noted for being the chief investigator of the 1994 car bombing of the Jewish center in Buenos Aires, which killed 85 people, the worst terrorist attack in Argentina's history.[2][3] On 19 January 2015, Nisman was found dead at his home in Buenos Aires.The death of Nisman is under investigation by prosecutor Viviana Fein. It is unknown if the death was a suicide, a forced suicide, or a murder.[22] Several items from the crime scene have been considered so far, attempting to clarify the circumstances of the event.he accused President Cristina Kirchner, Foreign Minister Héctor Timerman and other politicians of covering up Iranian suspects in the case. Days earlier, Mr. Nisman had accused President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and top Argentine officials of trying to cover up a deal to shield Iranian officials from responsibility in the 1994 bombing of a Jewish community center in Buenos Aires that killed 85 people. "I might get out of this dead," Mr. Nisman was reported to have said the day before he died.Mrs. Kirchner changes her position on Jan. 22 and says that Mr. Nisman's death was not a suicide but part of a sinister plot by rogue spies to destabilize her government. "They used him while he was alive and then they needed him dead," Mrs. Kirchner wrote in a letter, which she subtitled, "The suicide (that I am convinced) was not suicide."Damián Pachter, the first journalist to report the suspicious death of Mr. Nisman, flees to Israel on Jan. 26, saying that he fears for his life in Argentina. In a televised speech that day, Mrs. Kirchner says the intelligence services "have not served the interests of the country," and she says she'll move to disband the agency.In a televised address on Jan. 30, Mrs. Kirchner blames unspecified outside forces that she said were trying to disrupt the country and undermine her government. She pleads with Argentines to remain united and to "not let them bring conflicts here that are causing desolation, death and strain on other countries."The dead prosecutor had drafted a request for the arrest of the president before he died, the lead investigator into Mr. Nisman's death says. Viviana Fein, the investigating prosecutor, says on Feb. 3 that the 26-page document seeking the arrest of Mrs. Kirchner and Héctor Timerman, the foreign minister, was found in the garbage outside Mr. Nisman's apartment.Tens of thousands of Argentines flow into the center of the city on Feb. 18 for a demonstration organized by a group of prosecutors in honor of Mr. Nisman. Opposition political figures and Mr. Nisman's former wife, Sandra Arroyo Salgado, a prominent judge, participate as rain falls. Political analysts say that the gathering reflects growing concern over judicial independence in Argentina.

19th Century Liberalismhttp://quizlet.com/72040322/study

Common philosophy that came out of European Enlightenment that was shared throughout Latin American movements for independence. theory meant legal equality of all citizens. created during independence wars to help bring people of different ethnicities and social classes together. popular sovereignty major for Spanish America. First political force after colonialism. a cluster of political ideas, emphasizing liberties of various civil, political, and economic kinds. Latin American liberalism focused on European and later US models. Favors progress over tradition, reason over faith, universal over local values, and free market over government control. Liberalism advocates equal citizenship over entrenched privilege and representative democracy over all other forms of gov. These last two sometimes been treated as icing on cake, finishing touch too often put off. Latin American experience has been mixed. • New liberal ideas circulating what it means to be a citizen and in relation to gov. 19th Classical Liberalism is key idea for them, system of ideas • Defining goal of leaders, unifying principle by leaders for calls for action • Politically- emphasis on the individual, role of gov. not to stand in people's ways • Progress achieved by freeing individual to maximize potential • Contract between citizens and gov. • Mutual responsibilities between citizens and state • Doesn't have to be democratic system just clearly definied roles and mutual right and responsibilities • Has to be separation between Church and State • Point of tension that emerges • Freedom press and exchange of ideas • Economic- interested in Economic liberalism • Rights on property, • Favor of low or no taxes, getting rid of tariffs and trade regulations • Gov. shouldn't stand in front of indivudials capitalist ways • Suspicious of communal land systems • Suspicious of Church who is big land owner • Social liberalism- big fans of self determination • Rights of citizens • Relationship between citizens and state o Tensions from liberal ideas of leaders • Separation from church and state Church is big part of life, church is big land owner, gives lots of social institutions and benefits which state doesn't give Governing indigenous people was majorly through religion Troubling for people who have deep Catholic belief Church gave sense to people's lives, controlled them to extent • Central to identity and way people lived lives • Self-determination- difficult because such a mix, so difficult to decide who has right to self-determination and who doesn't • Economic- mercantilism, if trade be with homeland and no one else limits trade, heavy taxation and tariffs doesn't help • Sanctity of property difficult with quesiton of large landholders and rest of population • Self-determination, sanctity of property, Rights of citizens- does it extend to slaves or not At time liberal thinkers not concerned with slaves, not talking about them Early abolitionists worried more about what happens on slave boats then what happen in americas and effects on family, white morality corrupting • Land promised to slaves and mixed to fight in the wars- whose land do they get- royalists

United Fruit Company

During neocolonial 1880-1939. fruit companies multinatinal corporations. banana empire in Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela. Company overmatched governments of small host countries in economic power. made several central American nations into banana republics where it could keep governors, cabinet ministers, presidents in its corporate pockets. acquired milions of acres for plantations and millions to head off possible competition. created company towns filled with US families running area. reserved managerial positions for US. natives for machete work. one company controls most of production. problem focusing on single product if demand goes down or blight on bananas. if pull out, national screwed economically.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Mexican famous caudillo and political opportunist. Creole who fought against patriot cause of Hidalgo and Morelos, finally accepted independence with Iturbide and then helped overthrow him making him basically founding father of Mexican republic. During 1830s and 1840s thanks to his influence over army and status as war hreo seemed to install and remove presidents at will. made himself presidents over and over first as liberal and then conservative. opportunism displayed by many caudillos. source public popularity was military victories agains Spainsh invasion of Mexico 1829 and against small French intervasion 1838. keen sense political theater, lost leg famously buried it with full military honors. president during liberal uprising the Reform and left for exile 1855.

Emiliano Zapata

Mexican indigenous Revolutionary leader allied uprising with Madero's against Diaz. image broad sombrero and black mustach, cartridge belt across chest, riding white stallion became icon of Mexican revolution. Represents only one of many local leaders of rebellion all over Mexico. southern. assassinated by constitutionalists to strengthen their rule in 1920s.

International Immigration

Neocolonial 1880-1930 needed more workers for export boom to work fields. slaves didnt want to work plantations anymore, although many had to to survive. also encouraged to help whiten countries, seen as more civilized.

Virgin of Guadalupe

Patron saint of Mexico. folklore of indigenous god adopted and catholicized. Apparition of Virgin Mary. Symbolic importance as local apparition of Mary. the virgin Mary who speaks to indigenous people, helps them accept Christianity. Big example of transculturation. Supposedly appeared on a site already sacred to Aztecs. Her image sometimes had a dark face, and Nahuatl-speaking Mexicans continued to call her by name of indigeous earth goddess, Tonantzin. o Our Lady of Guadalupe as patron saint of Mexico • Folklore of indigenous and adopted and catholicized Apparation of Virgin Mary Symbolic importance as local aparition of mary • Virgin mary who speaks to local indigenous people

Francisco Madero

Reformers backed Madero for president against Diaz 1910 from northern Mexico. Wanted Diaz to share more power among elite but he refused and exiled him. Madero then became radical. Wanted to return lands unfairly taken from indigenous communities. leader of indigenous Zapata allied uprising with Madero's national movement along with others. Diaz left 1911 exile. Madero tried to rule but removed by Diaz's general and then assassinated 1913.

Peninsulares

Spaniard residents in the New World during the Independence period. The conflict between Peninsulars and native-born Creoles became important at that time. way to distinguish between Iberian born whites and native-born whites. creoles resented peninsulars who got preferred gov jobs and competed socially with. got key positions and access to wealth and power over American born Creole whites. rivalry existed only at top of Spanish American society

Creoles (Americanos)

americanos- spain and portugal, the nativist term used during the wars of independence to suggest a natural alliance among all people born in America against the Spanisards and Portuguese. Creole: a person of Spanish descent born in the New World. Brazilians of Portuguese descent tended to be simply called barasileiros. Creoles native born whites were leaders of rebellions for wars of independence. called creoles to distinguish from Iberian born Spaniards and Portuguese called Peninsualres. generally owned the land and much of population lived under thumb of landowners so rest of society generally disliked Creoles more than peninsulars.it was Creoles who feared the social climbing of prosperous people of mixed race and fought to keep them in "their place." majority of Spanish Americans had plenty of reasons to revolt but not particularlly against Peninsulars. Creoles leaders of newly independent coutries in postcolonial but liberal emphasis on governing by liberal principles not easy and its emphasis on legal equality for all citizens had radical disruptive implications in societies that were still fundamentally hierachical.

Nationalism

common philosophy that came out of the European Enlightnement shared throughout Latin American movements for independence.sense of shared history and common identity which was complicated by legacies of conquest and slavery. first created during independence wars to bring people together who otherwise had nothing in common. Second political force after colonialism following liberalism. A political movement dominant in mid 1900s espousing a strong state, national pride, and economic development. Latin American nationalists oppose "imperialist" outside influence. Often, but not always, they show a real commitment to defending the poor majority. Eventually became liberalism's rough opposite. Both emerged together in struggle for Latin Independence. Different in different countries but always built on similar themes and is deeply embeded in region's historical experience. Provided an ideological self-defense against imperialism, a positive force for equality, and an antidote to white supremacy. for nations to be united internally, have to know who they are; need clear and positive sense of national identity. transculturation over 4 centuries gave rise to multitude in differences in speech, in customs in attitudes and process of race mixing created national populations also distinctive. during oclonial difference had negative meaning. nativism in independence but faded. new natinoalism in 1900s was another wave of earlier nativist spirit now with strong economic agenda. nationalists often urban, middle class people, recent immigrants of racially mixed heritage. benefited less than landowners from export boom. elites created glass bubbles of European culture but middle class nationalists didnt fit so committed themselves to larger more ambitious and more inclusive vision of change. shattered neocolnial bubbles, feel pride in industrialization which was goal most desired. nationalism fostered self-respect by positively reinterpreting meaning of Latin American racial and cultural difference. nationalists declared psychological independence from Europe. create style of own. wide appeal beyond middle class urban gave it special power. everybody belonged and benefits of Progress hsould be shared and industrial development a priority offered an important principle of cohesion. critiques of imperialism also provided clear external focus for resentment- foreign intervention both military and monetary and shared enemy is politically useful. rejected premise of white superiority and directed practical attention to neglected matters of public welfare. attracted support of people across social spectrum. celebrates particular historical experience, paticular culture- ethnic nationalism, signs of ethnic identity take on nationalist importance and emphasize idea that race, emphasizes mixed race mestizo identities. racial optimists of neocolonial believed national populations should be whitened over time through immigration and intermarriage. racial pessimists claimed race mixing caused degneration. people of color in majority were to be excluded or phased out from neocolonial vision of future. nationalists celebrated mixing indigenous, European, African genes. each country's unique physical type was adaptation to environment. idea inferior races dying out. nationalism started Mexico with 20th century first great social revolution. Reformers backed presidential candiadte Francisco Madero who became radical and wanted to redistrubute land. Emiliano Zapata indigenous leader allied uprising with Madiro's national movement. Mexico full of revolutionaries with different goals. Madero tried tor rule but removed by general and assassinated. upheaval 1914-1920 armies fighting. Pancho Villa built army of former cowboys, miners, railroad workers. third movement better-connected more urban middle class finally gained upper hand drafted new revolutionary constitution 1917. Constitutionalists typical of nationalist core constituency throught were winners of revolution. Constitution showed strong nationalist inspiration. reclaim all mineral rights from forieng companies, helped start villages recover common lands, great estates subdivided and distributed to landless peasants. protections of wage and hour laws, pensions, and social benefits and right to unionize and strike. limited privileges of foreigners and curbed rights of Catholic Church. urban based and urban-oriented. only in mexico, where peasants in arms helped make a revolution, did naitonalism transform rural society too.

Simon Bolivar

despite previous failures, tenacious man became most important leader of Spanish American independence. The Liberator. Began triumphs 1817. Participated in Venezuelan independence from start. Early defeat of patriot forces by royalist llaneros was Bolivar's defeat. Learned and planed to get llaneros on patriot side. Set up bas in Orinoco plains far from Caracas, used feats of physical prowess and Americaon nativism to attract llaneros. Caracas aristocrat that they respected. When llaneros switched sides, momentum moved to patriot cause. 1819, Bolvar's army of llaneros crossed plains climbed Andes and surprised Spanish forces from behind. Bogota fell to Bolivar. by 1822 Bolvar's forces also captures both Caracas and Quito, now controlling all of South America. After independence became disillusioned. came to think that Spanish Americans didnt understand their own best interests and mood turned authoritarian. felt accomplished nothing. didnt think independeca and slavery went together and imposed programs of gradual emancipation on territories conquered.

Juan Manuel de Rosas

dominated Argentina from 1829-1852 exemplifies caudillo rule. rancher of great cattle froniter and frontier militias stiffened his grip on city of Buenos Aires. made use of violence against his political opponents, also shrewd use of political imagery and mass propaganda. had picture placed on church altars and ordered everyone wear red ribbons signify their support or else beaten. presented himself as man of people able to identify with all classes and races while depicting liberal opponents as effeminate euroecentric aristocrats out of touch. powerful rancher saw him as one of them and he protected their interests. won patriotic glory defeating british and french interventions in 1830s and 1840s

Urbanization

during Progressive era 1850-1880 massive export boom and increased income of rich affecting lives of rich and poor. landowners and urban middle class prospered but agricultural poor didnt. agrarian capitalism laid waste to countryside and destroyed traditional ways of life impoverishing rural ppor spiritually and materially. brought new brand imperialism from US and GB. neocolonialism. rural migrated to cities at large rate during neocolonial. werent making enough to survive with agrarian capitalism. great prosperity of elite allowed for them to move to urban almost permanently. new cultural horizon. education became more important for elite many going to europe to study.

Neocolonialism

first constitutional republics. An informal sort of "colonization" by outside powers, associated in Latin America with the 1880-1939 period. Although politically independent during these years, Latin American countries experienced occasional military intervention as well as overpowering and cultural influence from Great Britain, France, and the United States. During this time oligarchies of large landowners held sway in many countries, when the most common alternative was dictatorship. Has postcolonialism aspect: the lingering effect of previous colonization on nations that have gained their formal independence. In Latin America, the language, laws, religion, and social norms implanted by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers carried over almost entirely between 1825-1850, making the new, politically independent countries postcolonial in cultural terms. Foreign influence from progressive era so pervasive and powerful that historians call 1880-1930 neocolonial period. despite changes, subordinate relationship to European countries and its basic hierachy didnt change. elite wealth came from what sold to European and US markets. relationshiph bewteen countries but also internal phenomenon. mestizos able to join middle class more and more. once in control, liberals forgot about political freedoms demanded under conservative caudillos. democracy came second to material Progress with export growth. governments became more orderly, only way to have economic growth was with law and order ruled by best and brightest, rich and whitests, philosphy justify was positivism- to achieve order and progress need authoritarian. stable authoritarian govs by 1900. still managed elections. gov preserved republican forms but actually funcitoned as dictatorshps and oligarchies. absorption of Latin America into an international system dominated by GB and US. ideological sway of GB powerful. center of progress and civilization that mesmerized liberals. model of party systems. US began to overtake in influence in 1890s. capitalist energies of industrializing US and military expansion. 1898 US declared war on Spain and invaded Puerto Rico and Cuba and Philippine islands. outcome war benefited US strategic and economic interests not those who were rescued. US seized island from spain and treated Cuban and Filipino patriots like bandits. Cuba remained protectorate of US for 35 years. Platt Amendment forced into Cuban constitution said US marines could intervene whenever US gov thought necessary. puerto rico colonized. US hegemony throughout South America in first quarter 1900s. civilizing latin america. white supremacy. Roosevelt Corollary made marines hemispheric police to prevent european military intervention. believed latin american govs needed help to learn how to gov correctly, wanted to make sure they would pay debts to US and European invesors and raders. teacher. created Pan-American Union organization based on ideals of free trad- reality of neocolonial inequality. members under thumb of US and voted for whatever US told them to. Ended with Great Depression. Nationalism took its place.

Catholicism

justification colonization. during colonizing and colonial period very important missionaries help bring people under control hegemony. influenced values of society. adopted and changed by groups. wealth, power, abuses. owned vast properties and chief moneylending institution of Mexico. priest like local leader. clergy had broad legal exemption. represent colonial traditioanl times and values. always at odds with liberals representing change and modernity. liberals against institution not religion.

Primary Source

source written in time that it takes place, first hand account, photo, data, census, artwork, anything that lets you talk about how people of time saw it • Need to ask Who wrote it? Bias? Point of view? No sources written by slaves- some perspectives haven't survived, value placed on records • Catholic church big source of information of colonial period Accuracy, could lie knowingly or unknowingly So what? Why this source, what does it tell us about the larger question • Should use multiple sources so don't get one point of view

Race

race mixing: socail interacation and shared experience, sex. mestizo in-between peoples. not white at top but above indigenous and African. products of centuries of transculturation able to negotiate various social worlds f coloinal environment. buying whiteness allowed Latin American tendencey to think of race as a negotiable spectrum, ldder families might ascend, could also climb ladder through marriage "up" lighter skin partners. Marrying up meant buying into logic of caste system with its premise of white superiority, race mixing provides tracer of transculturation in action. race mixing fact of colonial life no matter opinion. fastest growing group. people of diverse origin created shared identites and unifying webs of loyalty. • White people from U.S. in time of Civil Rights era, lived in Latin America, geographically specific ideas of race • In Latin America more categories and fluidity, still have racial hierarchy but not two category system • People mixed didn't fall into category and felt misplaced • Mixed race succeed because could adapt to both sides of spectrum -Brazil Never have laws of segregation Racial democracy in comparison to U.S. Multicultural place Not institutional barriers based on race • Partly true • Didn't have to have segregation laws • Racial hierarchy and segregation functions without the law • U.S. and Brazil are two big post slave societies How did race categories and laws become so different? Share so much, why are we now different? • Way we categorize race is specific • Racial hierarchies is different in Latin America • Stein's view is too static focus on metropole and not colony Act as if latin america had no other choice Need Look at how people udnerstood these heritages and perpetuated or fought agaoinst them Need Less european view of latin america Stein view is imperialistic More recent historian view • Think about colonial instutions were important and shaped what happened next • Patterns of Settlement- help understand modern latin America o Spanish major interest in Mexico and Peru • Silver mines • Access to labor since sedentary so large civilizations survive o Portugal interest northeast Brazil • Sugar plantations • Semi-sedentary people so less access to labor so brought in lots of slaves • Easiest place to get to africa from Big influence in Africa for long time • Dependency theory No printing press, elite have to go to portugal for higher education, trade restriction

Patronage

the granting of benefits by a wealthier or more powerful person, a patron, to a person further down the social hierarchy. Patronage is repaid by loyalty and various services. patronage politics made corruption a necessary part of the system in postcolonial years. went from top all the way down to local politics. Caudillo often person using patronage to come into power. elections from outside looked equal and democratic but always rigged or use some kind of patronage or threat of violence. example of caudillo is Rosas.

Gender

women judged both in colonial and post colonial by sexual purity and domestic virtue. honor extrememly important and only rich elite able to keep virtue. middle class and poor women had to work outside the homes and so did not qualify for domestic virtues assigned women. virtuousness above all else. limited educaiton. goal to better fill traditional roles. role of virtous women now to nurture republican virtues in members of their families. played limited role in political life. werent identified as citizens.

The Brazilian Empire

when Napoleon attacked Portugal the royal family fled to Brazil making the Portuguese crown have considerable more influence over Brazil and lasting much longer than Spanish Americans before independence was declared by the king Pedro 1822. Rich elite from Europe came with them. The presence of royals favored Brazilian elite. end of colonial trade monopolies favored Brazil as a whole. before could only trade with Portugal but now could trade with anyone and imported goods became less expensive. Brazil remained relatively undisturbed under rule of Joao VI as Spanish America underwent military upheaval and political mass mobilization during 1810s. Some discontent. Royal court expensive. A ruinous and unpopular war with neighbors on southern border. King caved in to Brit pressure and legally restricted slave trade which irritated slave owners, even though slave restrictions ineffective. Foreignors had been moving to Brazilian ports since 1808. Took advantage of free trade, brought liberalizing changes of attitude, and stimulated political ferment. Year 1817 saw localized but notable political explosion in major northeastern provence, an attempted liberal revolution for a few weeks. Liberal republicanism theoretically favored great majority of Brazilians, but liberalism was still too unfamiliar to inspire mass support in Brazil. Revolt 1817 easily crushed. Portuguese actions nudged Brazil closer to independence in 1820. 1815 Joao raised Brazil from legal status of colony to that of kingdom like Portugal. Declaratio made brazil and Portugal juridically equal with Joao king of both. Old aspiratin not to be a colony finally granted but Portuguese assembly wanted Brazil reduced once more to colonial status. Joao returned 1821 leaving son Pedro behind. Faced simultaneously with threat of recolonization and loss of control over provinces, Brazilian elite discovered patriotic pride of native birth and popular sovereignty. 1822, native elite formed Brazilian party claimed to represent Brazilian people against Portuguese recolonization. Defined people to be everone except slaves born in brazil. Pedro prepared for this and declared Brazil independen 1822 himself so monarchy would be preserved. Stayed in Brazi declared independent constitutional monarchy with himself as monarch and called for representatives of sovereign people to write a constitution. No mass mobilization of elite because would have threatened institution of slavery where half potential fighters were slaves. End of 1823 Brazilian party achieved its goal- made Brazil independent while maintaingng social hierarchy that kept slave-owning elite in charge. Pedro now Emperor of Brazil and embodied cause of Brazilian patriotism. For now legitimate monarchy provided political unity that contrasted with Spanish America. stability at heavy price. tight relationship between church and state; full commitment to institution of chattel slavery. imperial army unrivaled in power and generals unswervingly loyal to emperor. plantations also escaped destruction that hampered early republican Spanish America. still sugar but also now coffee as prime exports and slave labor. coffee became main focus. contributed directly to economic and political strength of imperial capital. Pedro fancied himself liberal but authoritarian temperament. created consitution assembly but closed it when took popular sovereignty too seriously. aimed to rule by grace of god not by permission of people. wrote new constitution with senate appointed for life and emperors moderating power above other branches. not really liberal. enemies against infationary policies, unpopular wars in south, adultery, continued involvement in portuguese politics. liberals found most popular issues in presence of many portuguese born merchants, bureaucrats, army officers still occupied positions of power. cries of brazil for brazilians. anti-portuguese rioting became frequent. surrounded with portuguese born advisers. fear of portuguese and brazil crowns reuniting and possible recolonization. left 1831 under pressure leaving 5 year old son Pedro in place. regency years 1831-1840 stormiest. regents represented liberal forces unseated Pedro I. wanted to limit power of central gov and reduce army they gave more authority to local and provincial officials. but wanted power back. hierarchical social organization contradiction liberal notion all equal. equality remained abstract concept. liberals needed allies of common folk and took up nativism and menace of portuguese recolonization. feared small rebelions and wanted more authoirty. Pedro II on throne 1840. liberalism failed wen back to way it was. with slaves coffee and monarchical stability and conservatism. Pedro II progressive philisophically liberal. just didnt think country was rady for him to step down. didnt use absolute power. hoped wouldnt need monarchy or slave labor some day. by 1860s liberals becoming more insistent on reforms. 1889 monarchy collapsed. military discontent grown strong and proclaimed a republic. pedro left for europe.

Carnival

• Carnival- celebration leading up to Lent • Traditionally wild excessive time right before fasting period of repentance • Become important in Latin America for community based parties and parades, important part of community identity • Form social commentary and dance at same time • Important time social inversion, lower classes have role and voice during this time • Some danger, possible riot sites, tension between escape valve or potential for revolutionary revolt social inversion letting off steam letting people from bottom take central role for set period of time, carnival king and queen almost always afro-brazilian, symbolic and in truth the most important and hold most power during carnival parade

Iemanja

• Saint Barbara o Iemanja • Religious festivals • Yoruba festival Cultural group from West Africa • During colonial era see syncretic religion develops • Same figure being worshiped in two guises • Saint barbara also iemanja- goddess of sea • Syncretic rich culture despite emphasis on whiteness in 19th century

"Whitening"

• Scientific Racism 19th century o Idea about whitening and pursuit of whitening • Intermarriage among white european settlers with native population so less advantaged people can have higher superiority, more power, status • "Mixture" o In US before civil war sizable amount race mixture, most white men with enslaved black women • Some long term situations like mistresses, sexual violence, rape People take status of mothe • Very few relationships between white women and black men, much more dangerous, men lynched Restrict sexual access to white women • Laws about racial intermarriage before and after war o Elites in latin America concerned scientists saying racial difference is real, hierarchy, white at top, civilized • Whitening immigration o Brazil promote idea over time through marriage brazil will become white nation o Immigration of people from Europe • Immigrants from Europe given labor contracts as Brazil trying to shift from dependence on slave labor • Latin America trying to encourage European immigration o Huge influx of people, Italy, Germany, o 1880-1930 ten million from Europe o Diasporic place o European immigrants will bring latin american up higher in world nations • Creates higher competition of jobs • Racist hiring practices More european makes easier not to higher africans for jobs and indigenous • See criminalized indigenous and african cultural forms Becomes illegal to practice capoeira- african indigenous martial art form Attempt to make afro-cuban worship deities illegal • Not just whites buying into ideology and racist thought of time o Lot of afro-latin american cultures are buying into ideas of white respectability and culture and trying to tap down more afrocultural forms o Trying to buy in get more economic mobility, not fight system at lower level

Manuel Hidalgo

1810 Spanish America's upheavals began in earnest. Creole conspiracy in Mexico's northern mining region sparked massive rebellion of indigenous and mestizo peasants. Man who started was Creole priest Father Miguel Hidalgo. Impulsive nonconformist. Spoke to people of need to defend Mexico against Peninsular usurpers of legitimate authority and enemies of king. Represented rivalry between Creoles and Peninsulars as a unanimous Spanish American revolt against Soain. While he had more in common with Peninsulars spoke that they and not Creoles who it actually was, stole lands from indigenous. Battle cry Long live the Virgin of Guadalupe and the death to the Spaniards. Poor rural people flocked by thousands to banner of Guadalupe, potent symbol of Mexican identity. Killed peninsulars by hundreds, creoles died too since resembled each other. Hidalgo's followers reached 80,000. Began to look to Creoles like own worst nightmare. Followers dispersed after a few months. Hidalgo captured, forced to repent publicly, then executed. One of generals Morelos mestizo better leader and continued rebellion.

1898

1898 US declared war on Spain and invaded Puerto Rico and Cuba and Philippine islands. outcome war benefited US strategic and economic interests not those who were rescued. US seized island from spain and treated Cuban and Filipino patriots like bandits. Cuba remained protectorate of US for 35 years. Platt Amendment forced into Cuban constitution said US marines could intervene whenever US gov thought necessary. puerto rico colonized.

Gilberto Freyre

1933 the positive qualities of racial and cultural "fusion" had been promoted in a landmark study, The Master and the Slaves, by young anthropologist Freyre. Argued that Brazil's AFrican heritage far from constitution a national liability as in racist theories, had created Brazil's distinctive national identity and imbued all Brazilians with aspects of African culture. Unifying message well received and whole field of Afro-Brazilian studies arose with official encouragement. during Vargas Estado Novo government all about nationalism. • Influence of portuguese culture within colonization • Even just within portuguese culture there are different groups like different religious groups • Racial diversity within Brazilian people as result of colonization should be viewed as a positive thing rather than negative Pivotal idea What makes Brazil special is mixture of race and heritage • Cultural contribution of all types peoples • Nationalism double edged sword Use as tool to gain independence and benefits to country but also culturally teach people to have resentments towards peoples never met • Problematic- erasing all racism, and structural barriers saying to be brazilian is to be mixed culturally, ignoring the fact that there is prejudice and discrimination

Caste System

A social hierarchy encoded in law and based on inherited characteristics, real or imagined. Latin America's colonial caste system corresponded more or less to what we call race. Caste can be usefully contrasted to class, which is based more on socioeconomic factors. To exercise control over colonial societies, Iberian Crowns sorted people into fixed categories called castes. All about pedigree so it more or less corresponded with race. Also factored in other characteristics including education, clothing, especially wealth. money whitens. caste had laws about which jobs could have. mestizos confounded the categories and strained the system. caste paintings. low caste could buy official exepmtion to make them legally white and eligible to occupy positions of distinctino and authority. complained by pure whites whose privilege was all they had, undermine caste system. buying whiteness allowed Latin American tendencey to think of race as a negotiable spectrum, ldder families might ascend, could also climb ladder through marriage "up" lighter skin partners. Marrying up meant buying into logic of caste system with its premise of white superiority, race mixing provides tracer of transculturation in action. race mixing fact of colonial life no matter opinion. fastest growing group. people of diverse origin created shared identites and unifying webs of loyalty. official legal end with indpendence.

Jose Marti

Cuban poet began literary movement in defense of Our America which didnt include US. Began to fight Spanish colonialism at young age. exiled from Cuba and devoted life to freedom of Cuba. warning against US influence. helped created nationalist sentiments and its rise. • Anti-Spanish rule in Cuba, writer, key factor in terms of gaining support for independence and getting other forces like U.S. to help kick Spain out • Intellectual and practical fighter • Cubans had been fighting for independence for much of 19th century on and off Spanish control not very stable • Jose Marti established Cuban Revolutionary Party exiled to New York where wrote and gathered support Goes back and killed in battle Remains central figure in Cuban identity today Show what it means to be Cuban Relationship between Cuba and US • How are latin americans thinking about the U.S.? Nationalism and identity o Jose Marti Cuba • Cant lead gov without knowing its history and its people • Natural men • Working class lazy • Europeans bad • Frustrated • Nationalistic • Countering immense power of US with immense rhetoric- connect people back to their roots Problem with whats authentically ours and what is foreign

Patriarchy

Hegemonic force omnipresent. General principle that fathers rule. Spanish and Portuguese rigidly patriarchal so hegemony of fathers is understood as legacy of colonialism. Structured all colonial institutions including male hierarchy of church. Iberian law based on patriarchal principles.

Jose Maria Morelos

One of Hidalgo's officers still raised torch of rebellion. Also priest but modest and practical unlike grandiose visionary Hidalgo. Father Jose Maria Morelos not Creole but Mestizo and more able leader. Army well organized and main goals clear: end to slavery, to caste system, and to tribute paid by indigenous people. Prohibited use of caste classifications. All born in Mexico were "Americanos."-nativist term. 1813 decalred independence. Movement didn't attract many Creoles but had staying power until caught and executed 1815. By then small band of patriot guerrillas had been fighting for years in several regions and continued to defy gov causing heavy military expensis, living off land like bandits, and gradually gnawing away at fabric of colonial rule. His beliefs were famously expressed in 1813 document Sentiments of the Nation. A list of 23 points presented to representatives of Congress of Chipancingo, which by endorcing the document was in effect declaring Mexico's independence from Spain. Considered struggle for independence a mission in the Christian sense of the term. Gave as much importance to social equality as it did to Mexican independence. Alleviate condition of indigenous people and the plight of the mixed who bore the indelible mark of slavery, advance proposals like right to move from place to place, freedom of contract, cancelatino of tributes paid by Indians and castas, and abolition of legal inferiority. Color of skin shouldnt determine rank occupied in society. Utopian vision for society. kingdom of Christian equality.

Debt Peonage

Peon: an agricultural worker who lives and works on a large estate, such as a Spanish American hacienda. Peons were not slaves, but they commonly lacked freedom of movement, being tied to the hacienda, at times by debt. The peon's situation is called peonage. rural people lived as "attached workers" on the property of large landowner and became in effect his economic and political clients. worked part time for patron and part time growing food for themselves. • Debt peonage along with some farms • Only place to shop is store run by land owner, company owner who set prices and terms • Workers end up owing more than make so tied to land and company • If go on strike, husband dies, kicked out of house • Owner enterprise has control over lives of workers despite not being slaves Families owning land, exploit workers taking advantage of system, huge gap between rich and poor, access to who owns land always been important, rural have no hope to be self sustaining outside of wage economy, many get jobs as industrial workers urban life better quality life than rural life, access to health care, schools, culture, leisure Huge exodus from rural to city for better life People with political and economic ties to european and us investors • Small percentage benefiting from labor of majority • Economic picture impacts majority rural workers o Rural consequences export growth • Greater concentration land in urban elites • More poverty • Denial land titles to original owners of land- indigenous • Less independent authority over own life and work o Debt peonage- people tied to land similar to sharecropping, owe more than they get paid, taken out loans for food, seeds, medicine, owe more cash to company store than can earn in year so not legally allowed to leave the land

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento

Represented Argentine liberalism. literary, exiled during conservative years by caudillo Rosas to Chile. Wrote passionate political literature. liberal infatuation with all things European. wanted to transform people through education, and physically through European immigration. Wrote Civilization and Barbarism: The Life of Facundo Quiroga and the Geography and Customs of the ARgentine REpublic. Denunciation of caudillor rule and Rosas as well. embraced inrnational culture available through writing and education. Became president Argentina 1868 Promoted public education. effort to promote immigration from Europe. wanted culture and people to transform country to be more like Europe. Also wanted to whiten population. rejected rural culture as barbaric and non-European racial heritage. race mixture a disgrace. scientific racism part of Progress. little faith in mass of people, rigged election.

Nativism

Winning strategy for patriots during Wars of Independence. Glorified an American identity defined by birthplace, something Creoles shared with indigenous people, mixed blood, and African slaves. Americanos was nativist keyword. Patriots defined theirs as the American cause, and enemies as everyone born in Spain or Portugal. Nativism had many advantages. Name Americanos fit easily and comfotably over multihues Spanish and Brazilian populations, contrasting them with Europeans. Nativism drew on powerful emotions. Resentment always at heart of nativist attitudes, resentment of foreigners and foreign influence. Resentment against idea of colonial inferiority and resident Europeans, now foreigners in nativist eyes, was widespread in America at all social levels. Nativsm linked arms with liberal ideology in who should govern- the people who are the Americanos. All patriot fighters used rhetorical appeal of nativism. In reality, few revolutionary leaders really wanted to see social equality, most wanted popular support to win independence leaving social hierarchy more or less intact. A political attitude pitting all those of native birth against those born elsewhere. Nativist attitudes, promoted by the patriots during the independence wars, were part of the early development of nationalism. Nativism can also be an attitude of prejudice against poor immigrants, as in Argentine and US history. remained strong for several decades after wars of independence influencing transculturation acceptance, literature, dances. as years went on remained antiforeign but lots its liberal emphasis on social equality.

Hegemony

a basic principle of social control, in which a ruling class dominates others ideologically, with a minimum of physical force, by making its dominance seem natural and inevitable. Hegemony usually involves some degree of negotiation. Colonial era: Conquered and enslaved gradually accepted basic premises of colonial life and principles of Iberian authority. religious authority helped. Resilient form of power and does devastating damage to people at bottom. when accept the principle of their own inferiority and "know their place" they participate in their own subjugation. religion one of clearest examples of cultural hegemony. when enslaved and indigenous accepted Catholicism, they accepted their own status as newcomers to the truth. All education institutions were religious so church monopolized knowledge power. Another hegemonic force was patriarchy, the general principle that fathers rule. Structured all colonial insitutions, including male hierarchy of church. Iberian law based on patriarchal principles. one aspect of colonial hegemony was acceptance of monarchs as rightful rulers

Benito Juarez

first fully indigenous to become governor of Mexican state provide highly symbolic example of liberal upward mobility that progress offered. Mexico's great liberal president, an indigenous Zapotec villager who learned spanish as a teenager. Represents hard-fought triumph of Mexican liberalism at mid-century. Liberalism had encouraged the rise of a few talented mestizo and even indigenous men though the upper classes remained white overall and prestige of racist ideas was on rise internationally. left Zapotex identity behind when started practicing law and then went to politics. didnt represent Zapotecs in particular or indigenous as a group. tried to lighten complexion. to many mexicans though personal rise confirmed promise of liberalism. Juarez Law 1855 one of first decrees of liberal Reform which attacked military and ecclesastical fueros (legal exemptions) and made Juarez famous. then Lerdo Law abolishing collective landholding. primarily attacked church. also jeopardized communal lands of indigenous. Reform credo enshrined individual effort, property, and responsibility. civil war and chose Juarez as leader and then became president despite conservative effort to bring in French help and Maximilian. nationalist symbol. US aid to Juarez.

"Wet Foot, Dry Foot"

name given to a consequence of the 1995 revision of the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966 that essentially says that anyone who fled Cuba and entered the United States would be allowed to pursue residency a year later. After talks with the Cuban government, the Clinton administration came to an agreement with Cuba that it would stop admitting people found at sea. Since then, in what has become known as the "Wet foot, Dry foot" policy, a Cuban caught on the waters between the two nations (with "wet feet") would summarily be sent home or to a third country. One who makes it to shore ("dry feet") gets a chance to remain in the United States, and later would qualify for expedited "legal permanent resident" status and eventually U.S. citizenship.Between 1960 and 1980, hundreds of thousands of Cubans entered the United States under Attorney General's parole authority, many of them arriving by boat. In 1982, a mass migration of asylum seekers—known as the Mariel boatlift—brought approximately 125,000 Cubans (and 25,000 Haitians) to South Florida over a six-month period. After declining for several years, Cuban "boat people" steadily rose from a few hundred in 1989 to a few thousand in 1993. After Castro made threatening speeches in 1994, riots ensued in Havana, and the Cuban exodus by boat escalated. The number of Cubans intercepted by the U.S. Coast Guard or the U.S. Border Patrol reached a post-Mariel high of 37,191 in 1994. Until 1995, the United States generally had not repatriated Cubans (except certain criminal aliens on a negotiated list) under a policy established when the government became Communist within two years of the 1959 Cuban Revolution. Not only the United States has been reluctant to repatriate people to Cuba, but also the Cuban government typically has also refused to accept Cuban migrants who are excludable under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) (Cubans who have been convicted of crimes in the United States pose complex problems, as Cuba is among a handful of nations that does not generally accept the return of criminal aliens).[citation needed] "Normalizing" migration between the two nations was the stated purpose of the migration agreement enacted by the Clinton Administration on September 9, 1994, when the U.S. policy toward Cuban migrants was altered significantly. The plan's objectives of safe, legal, and orderly immigration relied on six points.

Victor Manuel Haya de la Torre

nationalist politics was mass politics that often focused on such leaders. led Peruvian nationalists mostly from exile. first exiled from Peru 1920 for leading student protests against Peru's pro-US dictator. impressed by Mexico's revolution founded international party, the Popular American Revolutionary Alliance, collective self defense against economic imperialism in Latin America. Preferred the term Indo-America to highlight region's indigenous roots similar to Rivera. nationalist emphasis on indigenous roots called indigenismo. APRA didnt go far as an international party. still, by threatening to make indigenismo more than a theory or fiction, movement had a powerful impact on PEru. terrified conservatieves. mass rallies filled streets with poor and middle class who roared contempt of oligarchy, fury at imperialsim, loyalty to Maximum Leader Torre. 1932 APRA revolted after losing a managed election. army crushed uprsiing with mass executions and APRA banned from Peruvian politics. but popularity and exiled leader increased over time. main goal of indigenismo was changing its subjects to fit in the wider world.

Pancho Villa

northern leader of army of former cowboys, miners, railroad workers movement in Mexican Revolution. assassinated in 1920s by Constitutionalists trying to strengthen their control. Fought US intervention during revolution when raided town in New

Secondary Source

o Secondary source • Research on time periods, interpretive argument drawing on evidence from the past

Hisoriography

o Study of writings, sources and interpreting them o Study of secondary source literature o Like literature review o Look at key schools of thought on history • Change over time • Dominant view shapes the work

Export Boom

p.70 after liberal comeback after 1850s- 1880 long period of export-driven economic expansion. countires fully integrated into the free flow of international trade. Europeand and US trade influence. influenced transportation revolution to be able to export large amounts internationally. allowed previously isolated areas to become part of international economy. reordered societies. embraced materialism despite worry of erroding tranditional culture and values. liberals pushed for Progress. technological progress, wave of future. elite and middle class gained from Progress. stood to profit from great export boom over half century of rapid, sustained economic growth never seen before. all countries had own version with own dominant product. direct beneficiaries were large landowners and middle class urbans who performed secondary functions in import export economy. opened cultural horizons and brought material enrichment. majority still poor. landowners acquired more and more land from indigenous and poor rural. workers wages too small to support family. enrich landowners at expense of rural poor. created division of rich and poor even greater

Transculturation

the creative interaction between two cultures, resulting in a new culture. Transculturation among Europeans, Africans, and Indigenous Americans created distinctive Latin American cultures. People on top in social hierarchy able to impose broad outlines of things, with those below contributing subtle aspects more difficult to police from above- style, rhythm, texture, mood. Religion good example. Although church practice structured outer contours of collective life even among indigenous and slaves, inner spiritual content resisted colonial standardization. Slaves preserved African religion by dressing it in clothes of CAtholic saints so to speak. Blending of indigenous, African, and European religious attitudes often occurred. Blend might be covert, as wehn indigenous artists integrated own sacred plant and animal motifs into mural paintings of CAtholic cloisters, but could be more obvious, as in famous cape of Mexico's patrons saint, Virgin of Guadalupe. Indigenous and African religions infiltrated Catholicism. Happened especially in cities. Many indigenous and mestizo and black lived in city, more freedom and socialization. Different in rural life, plantation slaves worked in gangs and often locked in at night, rural indigenous had more chance to live apart speaking own language and following own traditions. white of countryside few and far between. white acquired indigenous habits and African tastes sooner than urbans. For subjugated minorities, transculturation blessing and curse. Fashioning colonizers' religion in own likeness, indigenous people more easily consented to basic ideology of colonization and moved more firmly under Spanish control. masters and servants became a bit more like each other in a positive result. often worked together with hegemony. give and take of New Latin American cultures, was encouraged by postcolonial prestige of national identity and rise of landowning class. mestizo folk dances now enjoyed by elites as native identity. provided substance to national identities. latin american literature played key role in elaborating and promoting new national identities.