Lesson 7: Cultural diversity in making a living and social life

Jane Fortier on foragers:

- key attributes of foragers in S. Asia, which is home to more hunter-gathers than any other area. o In Nepal, about 40 societies and an estimated 150,000 people derive their subsistence from full/part time foraging. o Hill Kharias and Yanadis are the largest contemporary S. Asia foraging population, with about 20,000 members each. Several other groups are highly endangered o Despite having lost many of their natural resources to deforestation and the spreading of farming populations, some foragers have been unwilling to adopt food cultivation and its cultural correlates o These hunter-gathers typically share: small social groups, mobile settlements patterns, sharing of resources, immediate food consumption, egalitarianism, and decision making by mutual consent o Foragers living in the mountain of S. Asia focus their hunting on medium-sized prey (langur monkey, macaque, porcupine. Other groups pursue smaller species or practice broad spectrum hunting of bats, porcupine, and deer. Larger groups use communal hunting techniques, such as spreading nets over fig trees to entangle bats. o Some south Indian foragers focus on such wild plant resources like yams, palms, taro, and hundreds of local plants. o Harvesting honey has been prominent in many South Asian foraging societies

Social Life

- recognizable, durable, male-female, pair bonds we call marriage. the familial incest taboo prohibiting mating and marriage with anyone referred to as mother, father, brother, sister, son or daughter. - the existence of the family or social group consisting of at least one marital link and offspring that reside together in a household performing domestic acts like food procurement and processing, child care and cooperative labor. - people beyond the domestic group or immediate family who are also recognized as relatives, ancestors and descendants.

kinship terminology

- who is or is not labeled a relative. The kinship terminology system refers to the social construction of kinship or the perceived similarities and differences among people. - define social positions and status. - map that helps locate who may or may not be treated in the same way - we recognize only one person that we think of as our father. however, it is not uncommon for the father's brother to be also referred to as father or for mother's sister to be referred to as mother as well - - People perceive and define kin relations differently in different societies. Kinship terminology is a classification system, a taxonomy or typology. - It is a native taxonomy, developed over generations by the people who live in a particular society and is based on how people perceive similarities and differences in the things being classified - There is a limited number of patterns or systems by which people classify their kin. People who use different languages may use exactly the same system of kinship terminology. There are 4 main ways of classifying kin on the parental generation: lineal, bifurcate merging, generational, and bifurcate collateral - Kin terms provide useful information about social patterns. If two relatives are designated by the same terms, we can assume that they perceived as sharing social significant attributes

- We designate genealogical kin types with the letter and symbols shown below:

o As with uncle, a kin term may lump together multiple genealogical relationships. o Grandfather includes mother's father and father's father o Cousin lumps together several kin types. First Cousin includes mother's brother's son (MBS), mother's rother's daughter (MBD), mother's sister's son (MZS), mother's sister's daughter (MZD), father's brother's son (FBS) father's brother's daughter (FBD), father's sister's son (FZS) and fathers sister's daughter (FZD) - Even the kin term father, which is usually used for one kin type- the genealogical father- can extend to an adoptive father or step father, or even to a priest or God. - We use uncle to include both mother's brother and father's brother because we perceive them as being the same sort of relative. o Calling them uncles, we distinguish between them and another kin type, "F", whom we call Father/dad/Pop. o In many societies, it is common to call a father and father's brother the same term

Marriage can but not always accomplish edmund leech

o Establish a legal parentage o Give either or both spouses a monopoly on the sexuality of the order o Give either or both spouses right to the labor of the other o Give either or both spouses rights over the other's property o Establish a joint fund of property—a partnership—for the benefit of the children o Establish a socially significant "relationship of affinity" between spouses and their relatives Incest and its avoidance

labor (means of production)

o In nonindustrial societies, acces to both land and labbor comes through social links such as kinship, marriage, and descent o Nonindustrial societies contrast with industrial nation in regard to another means of production: technology o In certain societies, they promote specialization. Craft specialization reflects the social and political rather than the natural enviornments. Everyone know how to make pots, but not everyone does so. Promotes trade

pastoralism

o Pastoralists: herders of domesticated animals o They reside in Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa, The middle east, Europe, and Asia. o Symbiosis is an obligatory interaction between groups—humans and animals—are beneficial to each other. Herders attempt to protect their animals and to ensure their reproduction in return for food and other products o Natives of the North American plains used horses as "tools of the trade" meaning they were used to help supply and hunt other food sources o Pastoralists typically use their herds for food. o It is impossible to base subsistence's solely on animals. Supplementing their diet by hunting, fishing, cultivating or trading o 2 patterns of movement occur with pastoralism: nomadism and transhumance

incest facts

1. Certainly one of the most reasonable and compelling of these explanations stems from genetics and population biology. The argument is that since humans produce relatively few, slow-maturing offspring, compared to other mammals, inbreeding between close genetic relatives could rapidly lead to the expression of deleterious genes. - did not allow familial incest had an adaptive advantage over those that did and survived - offspring were too immature and infertile to mate successfully with biological parents while under their care. The main problem was primarily how to prevent sibling incest. Childhood familiarity and aversion, so the argument goes, mitigated that concern. 2. A third explanation for the familial incest taboo can be labeled the family conflict theory. The idea here is that important parental roles like nurturance, socialization and cooperation could easily be compromised by, and are indeed incompatible with, competitive sexual activity among family members. - Therefore, those societies that prohibited incest survived, while those that did not, did not survive due to these failed family functions. 3. alliance theory. It focuses on the positive side of out-marriage or territorial exogamy. Marrying distant, unrelated, individuals, it is argued, not only makes good genetic sense, but makes good economic and political sense as well.

26. patrilocal residence:

A A. couple lives with or near groom's parents

genitor (20)

A child's biological father.

potlatch (16)

A competitive feast on the North Pacific Coast of North America. o Sponsoring communities would give away items such as blankets, food, and tools and in exchange receive prestige o These tribes wer foragers but very atypical ones. They were sdentary and had chiefs and accessed a wide variet of land and sea resources o Thorstein Veblen emphasized the lavishness and supposed wastefulness of potlatching. People strive to maximize prestige at the expese of their material well-being o Customs like potlatching are cultural adaptions to alternating period of local abundance and shortage

cultivation continuum (16)

A continuum of land and labor use running from horticulture (noncontinuous, nonintensive) to agriculture (continuous, intensive). o Horticultural systems are at one end of the continuum (low-labor, shifting plot) o Agricultural systems are at the other end (labor-intensive, permanent plot) o South American Kuikuru grow two or three crops of cassava before abandoning plots o Cultivation is more intensive in certain densely populated areas. In Papua New Guinea, plots are planted for two of three years, allowed to fest for three to fice, and then recultivated o One key difference between horticulture and agriculture is that horticulture always has a fallow period, agriculture does not

reciprocity continuum (16)

A continuum running from generalized reciprocity (closely related/deferred return) to negative reciprocity (strangers/immediate return).

levirate (20)

A custom in which a widow marries the brother of her deceased husband.

sororate (20)

A custom in which a widower marries the sister of his deceased wife. This occurs frequently in societies where there is a high maternal loss at childbirth. These relationships keep the families of the husband and wife connected, even when one spouse dies.

ambilineal descent (19)

A flexible descent rule, neither patrilineal nor matrilineal.

descent group (19)

A group based on belief in shared ancestry.

expanded family household (19)

A household that includes a group of relatives other than, or in addition to, a married couple and their children

extended family household (19)

A household with three or more generations. - Extended families contain more than one marital link. This may take the form of a man and his wife and their children living with the man's father and his wife or mother. - There may be a need for family women to work together in food and/or craft production and in childcare. Extra-familial support institutions are often absent. If married females must work both inside and outside of the home and married males are away at war, work or trading, extended families, such as grandparents, can be useful in providing childcare. - Collateral household: which includes siblings and their spouses and children - Matrifocal household: headed by a women and includes other adult relatives and children

collateral relative (19)

A relative outside ego's direct line, e.g., B, Z, FB, MZ. (lineal)

peasant (16)

A small-scale farmer with rent fund obligations.

mode of production (16)

A specific set of social relations that organizes labor. - in a capitalist mode of production, money buys labor power, and there is a gap between the people involved in the production process (bosses and workers) - In a kinship mode of production, mutual aid in production is one amony many expressions of a larger web of social relations - Societies representing each of the adaptive strategies tend to have roughly similar modes of production

lobola (20)

A substantial marital gift from the husband and his kin to the wife and her kin.

transhumance (16)

A system in which only part of a pastoral population moves seasonally with herds.

economy (16)

A system of resource production, distribution, and consumption. - Focus on modern nation and capital systems - Also concerned with gathering data on nonindustrial economies - Economic anthropology brings a cross-cultural perspective to the study of economics

lineage (19)

A unilineal descent group based on demonstrated descent Members of a lineage are related to one another, because they all acknowledge descent from an apical ancestor who may not be remembered but is presumed to have existed. This may include hundreds or even thousands of people.

clan (19)

A unilineal descent group based on stipulated descent.

polygyny (20)

A variant of plural marriage in which a man has more than one wife at the same time. by far the most numerous form of marriage (83 percent), a man is allowed to be married to more than one woman at a time. Frequently this takes the form of sororal polygyny, in which a man may marry sisters. - Much more common in patrilineal than in matrilineal societies - Nor is polygyny characteristic of most foraging societies, where a married couple and nuclear family often function as an economically viable - The age difference between spouses meant that there were more widows than widowers. Most widows remarried, some in polygynous unions - Favored in situation in which having plural wives is an indicator of a man's household productivity, prestige, and social position. The more wives, the more workers. Increased productivity means more wealth

polyandry (20)

A variant of plural marriage in which a woman has more than one husband at the same time. - Rare and is practiced under very specific conditions. Most living in South Asia, polyandry seems to be a cultural adaption to mobility associated with customary male travel for trade, commerce, and military operations. - Polyandry ensures there will be at least one man at home to accomplish male activities within gender-biased division of labbor

29. Levirate: A

A. marriage with brother of deceased husband

lineal system

All of the offspring of siblings of the same or different sex on either mother's or father's side are lumped as cousins.

Foraging (16)

An economy and a way of life based on hunting, gathering, and/or fishing. - Animal domestication (sheep and goats) and plant cultivation (wheat and barley) Foraging survived into modern times in certain forest, deserts, islands, and very cold areas- place where cultivation was not practicable with simple technology

Marriage

Anthropologists have never observed a human society that practices random mating. - We can define marriage as a socially sanctioned, approved, legal form of relatively durable mating with coresidence most of the year and with reciprocal, though not necessarily similar, rights and duties involving sexual access, reproduction of progeny, property and labor

28. matrilocal residence:

B (B) couple lives with or near bride's parents

31. Sororate:

B (B) marriage with sister of deceased wife

market principle (16)

Buying, selling, and valuation based on supply and demand. - in todays capitalist society, the market principle dominates. It govern the distribution of the means of productions—land, labor, resources, technology, knowledge, and capital. - With market exchange, items are bought and sold, using money, with an eye to maximizing profit, and value is determined by the law of supply and demand

32. cross cousins

C (C) children of mother's brother or father's sister

27. neolocal residence:

C couple lives away from parents of both bride and groom

cross cousins (20)

Children of a brother and a sister.

parallel cousins (20)

Children of two brothers or two sisters.

33. sororal polygyny:

E (D) marriage to sister's husband

lineal relatives (19)

Ego's direct ancestors and descendants. Lineal relatives are one's parents. Grandparents, great-grandparents, and other direct forebears, including children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren

generalized reciprocity (16)

Exchanges among closely related individuals.

24. Affinals is a term in a lineal kinship terminology system that includes sibling, nieces, and nephews. True False

F

25. Levirate marriage refers to the custom by which a widower marries the sister of his deceased wife. True False

F

11. In a patrilineal descent group, which person is a relative? MoBr FaSi MoSi Husband Mo

FaSi

Food collection

Food collection refers to the subsistence of populations that get most of their caloric intake from wild foods. They gather wild plants and honey, hunt animals, fish and to some extent, scavenge. This form of subsistence characterizes approximately 99 percent of human existence. In the last 10,000 years humans shifted to food subsistence, namely food production

lineal kinship terminology (19)

Four parental kin terms: M, F, FB=MB, and MZ=FZ.

bifurcate merging kinship terminology (19)

Four parental kin terms: M=MZ, F=FB, MB, and FZ - Splits the mother's side from the father's side. - Its also mergers same-sex siblings—sisters with sisters, brothers with brothers - Thus (1) one's mother and mother's sister are merged under a common term. (2) one's father and father's brother are merged under a common term. (3) there are different terms for mother's brother (4) and father's sister - Ego regards them as social equivalents and calls them by the same kinship term However, the mother's brother belongs to a different descent group, lives elsewhere/different kin.

plural marriage (20)

Having more than two spouses simultaneously; polygamy. a man is allowed to be married to more than one woman at a time and a woman is allowed to be married to more than one man at a time. Each spouse, in other words, may have more than one spouse at one time.

pastoralists (16)

Herders of domesticated animals. - - The first and most important feature of pastoralism is that domesticated animals play the dominant role in the food economy. Cattle, horses, camels, donkeys, goats, sheep, pigs. In the Andes in South America, llamas, alpaca and guinea pigs are useful. - Diverse uses of animals and animal products. Animals are used not only for meat but also dairy products such as milk, and cheese. Animals are used for transportation and portage. Their dung is used for house plaster, cooking fuel and insect fumigation. Hoofs, bones, hides and wool are used for tools and clothing. Social uses as well as religious services, brides wealth and progeny price and a medium of exchange - Symbiotic relationship between people and their animals. - Requires spatial mobility because the animals must be moved from place to place to balance out their need for food, water, and salt. In summer months, animals are used in higher zones away from flies and pests. During winter months, when the snow are too heavy and it is cold, animals are brought down to feed in the winter. - Pastoralists have a mobile lifestyle, not unlike that of food collectors and they tend to live in smaller groups or settlements of one hundred to two hundred people. - Animals are easily stolen, so there is a need for offense and defense. Accordingly, men work closely together in these societies.

generational kinship terminology (19)

Just two parental kin terms: M=MZ=FZ and F=FB=MB. -the term for siblings is generalized to cousins, so our mother's sister's children, our father's sister's children, our mother's brother's children and our father's brother's children are all referred to as brothers and sisters. - - like bifurcate merging kinship terminology, generational kinship terminology uses the same term for parents and their siblings, but the lumping is more complete - there are only two terms for relatives on the parental generation. "father" and "mother" more accurate translating to "male member of the parental generation" and "female member of the parental generation" - Exists in band-organized societies and reflects certain similarities between foraging bands and ambilineal descent group.

bilateral kinship calculation (19)

Kin ties calculated equally through both sexes.

means (factors) of production (16)

Major productive resources, e.g., land, labor, technology, capital.

14. Which of the following theories have not been proposed by anthropologists? The long dependency period of human children requires marriage to ensure that fathers help care for children. Marriage exists because it ensures an efficient division of labor between men and women. Marriage among humans reflects the general mammalian tendency toward pair-bonding. The continuous sexual receptivity of human females exists for durable pair-bonding. Marriage exists in order to ensure that males will help protect mother and her offspring and obtain food.

Marriage among humans reflects the general mammalian tendency toward pair-bonding.

endogamy (20)

Marriage of people from the same social group.

exogamy (20)

Marriage outside one's own group. 0 All human societies have exogamic rules prohibiting marriage between members of certain groups. One of the most powerful and widespread of these is the exogamic incest taboo which prohibits marriage within the family

unilineal descent (19)

Matrilineal or patrilineal descent. - Here we recognize people as kin who are related to us only through the mother's or the father's side. - ambilineal, patrilineal and matrilineal -In a patrilineage, you would be related to your father, father's brother, father's sister, father's father or father's father's sister. Looking at our generation, we would note that father's brother's children would also be related to us. We would also note that father's sister's children would not, since father's sister's children would be in the patrilineage of their father. So, in this sense they would not really be relatives

Egalitarianism

Men and women share in economic production. Women do most of the child care and food production, while men hunt, raid, and trade.

6. Which of the following statements about negative reciprocity is not true? Negative reciprocity usually involves dealing with people outside or on the fringes of your social system. Silent trade is an example of negative reciprocity. Stealing is an extreme form of negative reciprocity. Negative reciprocity cannot be practiced by a society that already practices generalized reciprocity. Negative reciprocity involves the attempt to get something for as little as possible.

Negative reciprocity cannot be practiced by a society that already practices generalized reciprocity.

horticulture (16)

Nonintensive, shifting cultivation with fallowing. - the forest is a garden. People make small efforts at clearing. cut branches or trees and burn them is a large swidden, hence the term "slash and burn" or "swidden agriculture". Women follow with digging sticks , poking holes and putting in crops. - Most horticultural groups are small, fewer than 200 people. -Cooperation takes place within multiple family units. House construction, weaving pottery, the making of tools, weapon, hammocks, or whatever else is necessary is common in these groups. Men are typically tasked with clearing, hunting, raiding, or trading to acquire goods from elsewhere and for preventing other population from encroachment - while women focus on the harvest cycle - Holticulture doesn't make intensive use of land, labor, or machinery. When food production arose, the earliest cultivators were rainfall-dependent horticulturalists -Has been, and in some places still is the primary form of cultivation in parts of Africa, Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, Mexico, Central America, South American tropical forests -Horticulturalist in the Andean foothill of Peru build small and easy to rebuild homes and relocate when they fallow their plots

pater (20)

One's socially recognized father; not necessarily the genitor.

negative reciprocity (16)

Potentially hostile exchanges among strangers

affinals (19)

Relatives by marriage. (lineal)

incest (20)

Sexual relations with a close relative. - All human societies have exogamic rules prohibiting marriage between members of certain groups. - it excludes as mates those individuals we refer to as mother, father, son, daughter, sister or brother. In most Euro-American societies, this rule is also extended to exclude first cousins—the mother's sister's children, mother's brother's children, father's sister's children and father's brother's children - incest turns out to be a universal prohibition as well as an abomination. These twin facts about the incest taboo as universal and aversive have spawned numerous inquiries into why this is the case.

Changes in North American Kinship

Shift away from the nuclear family, later ages of marriage, higher divorce rates. - - Factors that have changed American families include: o Women joinging the workforce o The median age of marriage increased from 21 to 28 o More than a third of americans have never been married

dowry (20)

Substantial gifts to the husband's family from the wife's group

22. An anthropological analysis of the potlatch shows that this custom is a cultural adaptation to alternating periods of local abundance and shortage, and not an example of irrational wasteful behavior, as Christian missionaries and proponents of classic economic theory argued. True False

T

23. Clans typically have more members and cover a larger area than lineages. True False

T

economizing (16)

The allocation of scarce means (resources) among alternative ends.

nomadism (pastoral) (16)

The annual movement of an entire pastoral group with herds.

redistribution (16)

The flow of goods from the local level into a center, then back out; characteristic of chiefdoms. - operates when products, such as a portion of the annual harvest, move from the local level to a cent from which they eventually flow back out - The center is typically a capital or regional collection point. Products often move through a herarchy of officials. Those official may consume some, but never all of the products. Eventually reaching the common people

neolocality (19)

The living situation in which a couple establishes new residence. - There are significant differences involving kinship between poverty and single-parent households. Another example is the the higher incidence of expanded family households among americans who are less well off

balanced reciprocity (16)

The midpoint on the reciprocity continuum, between generalized and negative reciprocity.

family of procreation (19)

The nuclear family established when one marries and has children.

family of orientation (19)

The nuclear family in which one is born and grows up.

9. Which of the following is not true of a potlatch? Some tribes still practice potlatch to this day, as a memorial to the dead. The potlatch made enemies of local groups along the northern Pacific Coast. Potlatching served to prevent the development of socioeconomic stratification. Potlatching was practiced by the Salish. Potlatching tribes were foragers.

The potlatch made enemies of local groups along the northern Pacific Coast.

reciprocity (16)

The principle governing exchanges among social equals. - The act of giving back, returning a favor, repaying a debt ·- Refers to exchanges between social equals, people who are related by some kind of personal tie, such as kinship or marriage - Dominant exchange principle in the more egalitarian societies- foragers, cultivators, and pastoralists

kinship calculation (19)

The relationships based on kinship that people recognize in a particular society, and how they talk about those relationships. - People who aren't genealogical relatives can be socially recognized as kin - Ethnographers strive to discover, in a given society, the specific genealogical relationship between "relatives" and the person who has named them- the ego

kin terms (19)

The words used for different relatives in a particular language and system of kinship calculation. - kin terms give us a guide to the structure, if not the content, of the kinship system. The basic principle is that people referred to by the same term will be treated similarly - The specific words used for different relatives in a particular culture and language - Kin terms reflect the social construction of kinship in a given culture

2. What is one primary reason food collectors don't work harder? They are too ill from disease and malnourished. Their upbringing has made them lazy. They spend too much time on rituals. There is no need to, and it would overexploit resources. It is prevented by government and settled agriculturalists.

There is no need to, and it would overexploit resources.

adaptive strategies (16)

Yehudi Cohen (1974) used this to describe a society's main system of economic production. He argued that the most important reason for social and cultural similarities among unrelated societies is their possession of a similar adaptive strategy. Similar economies have similar sociocultural characteristics

30 parallel cousins:

(D) children of mother's brother or father's sister - are considered brothers and sisters. For example, your mother's sister's children and your father's brother's children would no longer be referred to as cousins, but rather as brothers and sisters

incest avoidance

- Adolescent primate males (among monkeys) or females (among apes) often move away from the group in which they were born reducing the frequency of incestuous unions, but it doesn't stop them. Wild chimps has confirmed incestuous unions between adult sons and mother, when residing in the same group. o Human behavior with respect to mating with close relatives may express a generalized primate tendency, we see urges and avoidance - Early anthropologists speculated that socieiteis ban incest because humans have an instinctive horror of mating with close relatives. - No one would even want to have sexual contact with a relative. However incest is more common that we might suppose - Incestuous unions tend to produce abnormal offspring. A decline in survival and fertility does accompany brother-sister mating across several generations - Human marriage patterns are based on specific cultural beliefs rather than universal concerns about a decline in fertility several generations in the future - In most societies, people avoid incest by following rules of exogamy, which forces them to mate and marry outside their kin group. Exogamy is adaptively advantageous because it creates new social ties and alliances

foragers today

- Africa contains two broad belts of contemporary or recent foraging. One is the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa. This is the home of the San ("Bushmen") who include the Ju/'hoansi. - The other main African foraging area is the equatorial forest of central and eastern Africa. Home of the Mbuti, Efe, and other 'pygmies' o Forest of Madagascar, S and SE Asia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, and on islands off the Indian coast. The Aborigines of Australia o On the Western Hemisphere, foraging units included the Eskimos, or Inuit, of Alaska and Canada- but now use modern technology in their subsistence activities. North pacific coast natives (California, Oregon, Washington, BC and S Alaska. § For many native Americans fishing, hunting, gathering remain important activities o There were also coastal foragers along the southern tip of S. America Patagonia. Additionally the plains of Argentina, Southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay

food production (16)

- An economy based on plant cultivation and/or animal domestication. - human control over the reproductive cycles of plants and animals, and it contrasts with the foraging economies that precede it and that still persist in some parts of the world today. -foragers hunt, gather, and collect what nature has to offer. They may hunt animals but they don't domesticate them. - It is known for accelerating human population growth and led to the formation of larger and more powerful social and political systems.

same sex marriage

- As with the Nuer of South Sudan (mentioned earlier) situations in which women, sich as prominent market women in West Africa, are able to amass property and other forms of wealth, they may take a wife - Sometimes, when same-sex marriage is allowed, one of the partners is of the same biological sex as the spouse, but is considered to belong to a different socially constructed gender o The two-spirit (native Americans) was a biological man who assumed many of the mannerisms, behavior patterns, and tasks of women, such a two-spirit might marry a man and fulfill the traditional wifely role - Beginning with the Netherlands in 2001, the legalization of same-sex marriage in modern nations has snowballed throughout the worlds - On June 26, 2013 US Supreme Court struck down a key part of DOMA and granted legally married same-sex couples have the same federal rights as any other couple o Although opposition continues, public opinion has followed the judicial shift toward approval of same-sex marriage

agriculture (16)

- Cultivation using land and labor continuously and intensively. - Exists when people stay in one place and continue to farm one plot year-in and year-out. This form of agriculture is typical of commercial farming in the United States. -permanent farming and surrounding permanent towns and settlements - this type is widespread -stable farming, intensive agriculturists are required to replenish soil by means of manuring, or fertilizers. Control pests, weeds, and diseases through herbicides and pesticides to improve soil structure and prevent soil erosion, farmers have to ride and irrigate. This type of farming has a higher input of labor - permanent settlements and begin to plant orchards and develop craft specialization and markets. In general, more complex societies arise in conjunction with these farming systems. Large population and permanent settlements because of the lack of available land.

Family and foragers

- Foragers are far removed from industrial nation in terms of population size and social complexity, but they feature geographic mobility, which is associated with nomadic or seminomadic hunting and gathering - A mobile lifestyle favors the nuclear family as the most significant kin group, although in no foraging society is the nuclear family the only group based on kinship - Nuclear family and the band are both based on kinship ties - Although nuclear families are ultimately impermanent among forager as they are in any other society, they are usually more stable than bands are - Foragers lack year-round band organization - In certain season such families got tougher to hut cooperatively as a band; after just a few months, they dispersed - In neither industrial nor foraging societies are people tied permanently to the land. The mobility and the emphasis on small economically self-sufficient family units promote the nuclear family

Typology (16)

classification of societies based on correlations between their economic and social features. - included 5 adaptive strategies: foraging, horticulture, agriculture, pastoralism, and industrialism

Descent and Kinship

- In all known human societies, people recognize bonds of relationship beyond their parents, siblings and offspring - Several individuals beyond the immediate family are therefore recognized as kin and can become integrally involved in social activities, trade, property holding and marital arrangements. In discussing these relationships, we are talking about kinship and descent. There are two basic patterns of kinship. Anthropologists call these systems unilineal descent and bilateral descent

Production in Nonindustrial Societies

- Many horticultural societies assigned a major productive role to females, but some make mens work primary. Among pastoralists, men generally tend large animals. Temwork in some cultivating societies may be carried out by smaller groups or individuals in other societies

bilateral descent

- Sometimes called cognatic descent, both mother's and father's families are recognized as relatives. Hence, mother and father, mother's and father's siblings, mother's and father's sibling's children are relatives and of course, the parents and siblings of our parent's parents are deemed relatives. The essential point is that both sides contain relatives - in-laws through marriage, are considered relatives on top of genetic or true, blood relative - For example, you and your father have a different kinship group, because your father's kin group would not include your mother's side, which of course yours would. The fact that we don't share large common groups of kin with each other makes it difficult to organize on this basis for functional tasks such as property or business holdings

Design features of Horticulture

- The first and most important feature of pastoralism is that domestic animals play the dominant role in the food economy. - diverse uses of animals and animal products - symbiotic relationship between people and their animals - requires spatial mobility - tend to live in smaller groups or settlements of one hundred to two hundred people. - need for offense and defense. men work together closely - The life is marked by spatial mobility, portable material goods, trade and flexible social groupings so that people can move with the animals when necessary - self-reliance

21. Societies become more egalitarian as their adaptive strategies move along the cultivation continuum. True False

false

16. What is the term for a family in which an individual is raised? What is the term for a family in which an individual may later join through marriage? family of procreation; family of orientation family of orientation; family of procreation endogamous family; exogamous family exogamous family; endogamous family ambilineal family; bifurcate family

family of orientation; family of procreation

20. What is the term for the nuclear family that is formed when one marries and has children? family of procreation zadruga family of orientation tarawads clan

family of procreation

6 features of food collectors

flexible group size mobility sharing and cooperation egalitarian and individuals portable material goods no concept of private property

1. Which of the following subsistence strategies did all human groups use until 10,000 years ago? agriculture foraging horticulture pastoralism reciprocity

foraging

12. In a bilateral descent group, which person is not a relative? Br Fa Hu Si FaFa

hu

17. Which of the following has been proposed as an explanation for the universal incest taboo, as defined by kin term primitives? need for family competition to extrude adolescents the natural mutual sexual attraction to siblings inbreeding would lead to the expression of bad genes reduces chances of entangling marital alliances with other families None of the above.

inbreeding would lead to the expression of bad genes

19. Which of the following kinship terminologies is commonly found in societies with neolocal postmarital residence rules? lineal bifurcate merging generational bifurcate collateral bilineal collateral

lineal

18. Under which form of postmarital residence rule systems do couples move to the wife's community? patrilocal matrilocal unilocal generational neolocal

matrilocal

bifurcate collateral kinship terminology (19)

most specific Six separate parental kin terms: M, F, MB, MZ, FB, and FZ. where each kin type is designated by a separate term. This is not unlike an anthropologist's use of kin term primitives to specify particular kin. - . It has separate kin terms for each of the six types on the parental generation (mother, father, mother's sister, mother's brother, father's brother, and father's sister)

kin term primitives

mother (MO) father (FA) sister (SI) brother (BR) son (SO) daughter (DA) husband (HU) wife (WI)

intensification: people and the environment

o The range of environment available for cultivation has widened as people have increased their control over nature o Agriculturalists colonize many areas that are too arid for nonirrigators or too hilly for nonterracers and their use of land may lead to major demographic, social, political, and environmental consequences o Agriculturalists live in larger and more permanent communities located closer to other settlements. Growth in population increases contact between individuals and groups and there is a need to regulate conflicts and interpersonal relations o Irrigations ditches and paddies become repositories for organic waste chemicals and disease microorganisms o Agricultural economies are specialized. They focus on one or a few caloric intakes and on the animals that are raised and tend to aid the economy o Horticultural plots tend to mirror the botanical diversity found in a tropical forest § Agricultural plots, by contrast, reduce ecological diversity by cutting down trees and concentrating on a few staple foods o Agriculturalists attempt to reduce risk in production by counting on a reliable annual harvest and long-term production § Their strategy is to put all one's eggs in one big and dependable basket § If crops fail, famine may result o Tropical Horticulturalists attempt to reduce risk by relying on multiple species and benefitting from ecological diversity § Their strategy is to have several smaller baskets, a few that can fail without endangering subsistence § Associated with smaller, sparser, and more mobile populations

Land (means of production)

o Ties between people and land are less permanaent among foragers than among food producers. Foraging territories are neither precisely demarcated nor enforced. The borders between foraging territories are neither percielsy demarcated nor enforced o One aquires the right to use a bands territory by being born in the band or by joining through a tie of kinship or marriage. o Right to means of production also come through kinship and marriage. Descent groups( groups whose members claim common ancestry are common among nonindustrial food producers, and thos who descen from the found share the groups territory and resources

correlation of foraging

o such as food intake body weight, such that when one increases, or decreases, the other changes as well. o Ethnographic studies have revealed correlations between economy and social life. Associated with each adaptive strategy in a bundle of particular sociocultural features. - Correlation of foraging include: foragers often, but not always live in band-organized societies, flexibility and mobility, societies tend to be egalitarian. They make few status distinctions, and the ones they make are based mainly on age, gender, and personal qualities o achievement

ego

o the position from which one views an egocentric genealogy § The ethnographer also begins to understand the relationship between kinship calculation and kin groups: how people use kinship to create and maintain personal ties and to join social groups

kindred

one such bilateral kin group, does, as a rule, assemble for family rituals both sacred—baptisms, funerals, First Communions—and secular—reunions and golden anniversaries. It might be appropriately labeled an occasional kin group.

Genealogical kin types

refers to biology, to an actual genealogical relationship o Father's brother is a genealogical kin type, whereas uncle is a kin term (in English) that lumps together, or merges, multiple genealogical kin types.

15. Exogamy is best defined as rules that dictate marriage outside a group to which a person belongs. being synonymous with cross-cousin marriage. rules that dictate marriage within a group to which a person belongs. forbidden sexual relations with a close relative. the custom by which the children of two brothers or two sisters marry.

rules that dictate marriage outside a group to which a person belongs.

4. What is the basic social unit of foragers? the tribe the clan lineage the band the totem

the band

kin reference term

the name you would give if asked by someone, "What relationship is he or she to you?" For example, your father's name might be Joe, and you might address him as dad. But if you were asked, "What relationship is Joe to you?" you would probably say my father. Hence the term father is the term of reference.

3. Which of the following does not characterize agriculture? the use of terraces irrigation systems the use of domestic animals the use of a fallow period intense cultivation

the use of a fallow period

5. Which of the following characterizes horticulture? the use of terraces the use of a fallow period the use of domestic animals irrigation systems intensive cultivation

the use of a fallow period

8. What is the market principle? the movement of goods, services and resources from the local level to a central administrative location, then back to the local level the exchange of goods, services and resources between social equals the rational allocation of scarce means to alternative ends the exchange of goods, services and resources in a marketplace the use of money to buy and sell things at prices determined by supply and demand

the use of money to buy and sell things at prices determined by supply and demand

7. What does the mode of production refer to? the way in which production is organized the major productive resources of an economy including the land, labor, technology and capital the profit-oriented system principle of exchange in which goods and services are bought and sold and values are determined by supply and demand the rational allocation of scarce resources to alternative ends the exchange between social equals

the way in which production is organized

10. What is one characteristic of pastoral societies? short fallow cycle large settlements permanent settlements almost exclusive dependence on meat for food trade

trade

The Family

we usually think of a coresidential group or what is commonly called a household, a group of people who live together throughout most of the year in the same place. But when we think of family, we think of more than people who simply coreside, because individuals who coreside aren't always related family members, such as roommates. So families can also be thought of as a set of relations, say between spouses and their offspring, as in the case of the nuclear family. - Whether a culture uses the matrilocal or patrilocal pattern depends on many circumstances. If there is large-scale herding and lots of internal warfare, males tend to stay together in a patrilocal residence to cooperate over a lifetime.

Nuclear family

which consists of a spouse-pair with or without children, found in a small percentage of societies. Couples tend to live neolocally or under a marital residence rule which expects them to set up a separate residence. - In societies where the nuclear family prevails, there are other institutions outside the families to handle these matters. Nuclear families are also common where there is spatial mobility and in urban settings.

13. Which of the following is your cross cousin? your mother's sister's daughter your father's brother's daughter your mother's brother's son your mother's sister's son your father's brother's son

your mother's brother's son

cost benefits of agrigulture

§ An agricultural field does not necessarily produce a higher single year yield than a horticultural plot § Agriculture requires a lot of labor to build and maintain as well as take care of animals § Agriculturalists have to work more hours than horticulturalists do § Agriculture's yield relative to labor time invested is lower § Agriculture societies tend to be more densely populated than horticultural ones because there is no need to maintain a reserve of uncultivated land as horticulturalists do

irrigation (agriculturists)

§ Horticulturists wait for the rainy season, agriculturalists can schedule their planting in advance (because they control water) § Philippines, the Ifugao irrigate their fields with canals that divert wter from rivers, streams, springs and ponds § Irrigation makes it possible to cultivate a plot year after year § Irrigation enriches the soil, acting as a fertilizers on top on the ecosystem that already eists § Irrigation is a capital investment that typically increases in value. It takes several years before it is profitable

Terracing (in agriculture)

§ Ifugao have small valleys separated by steep hillsides. With a dense population, they need to farm hillsides. § IF they simply planted on the steep hills, it would wash away in the rainy season § To fix this, they cut into the hillside and build stages of terraced fields. Springs above them are used to supply irrigation § Requires a lot of work. Terrace walls and canals need constant repair