Metabolism
____-carbon fatty acid yields ____ acetyl CoA
16, 8
For each acetyl coA that enters the TCA cycle, ___ carbons are given off as CO2
2
net yield of ATP from glycolysis
2
Fatty acids from triglycerides are broken down into ___ carbon fragments that combine with ___ to form ____.
2, coA, acetyl coA
Glycolysis converts one glucose molecule to: __ _____ molecules each of which have ___ carbons
2, pyruvate, 3
glycerol is a ___ carbon molecule
3
Oxaloacetate is a __-carbon molecule
4
Oxaloacetate to makes a __-___ compound
6 carbon
State where the concentration of insulin is HIGHER than glucagon which favors energy STORAGE, blood glucose is elevated and glycogen storage increases
Fed
acetyl CoA can enter the ____ cycle
TCA
During high intensity exercise, the muscles rely on ____ ____ to produce ATP quickly
anaerobic glycolysis
Before entering metabolic pathways, amino acids are _____
deaminated
As body's cells use glucose, blood levels ____
decline
Blood leaves the aorta to go to the upper body and head or blood may leave the aorta to go to the lower body---> Blood may go to the ___ ___ and then the _____.
digestive tract, liver
When a person eats in excess of energy needs
feasting
___ and ___ also enter glycolysis but at different places
galactose, fructose
Catabolic reactions ____ energy
generate
Low blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release _____
glucagon
alpha cells of the pancreas release
glucagon
Amino acids used to make GLUCOSE
glucogenic
The making of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources
gluconeogenesis
2 Anabolic pathways: transformation of energy substrates for re-distribution
gluconeogenesis ketogenesis
Amino acids and glycerol can be converted to pyruvate and therefore can provide _____ for the body
glucose
Fatty acids are converted to acetyl CoA and therefore can't make _____ for the body
glucose
Fatty acids can't make
glucose
Insulin stimulates the uptake of ___ into cells, storage as ___ in the ___ and ____, stimulation of ___ synthesis in the ____ and ____ for storage. Insulin suppresses _____.
glucose, glycogen, muscle liver protein muscle lipogenesis lipolysis
Goals of pathways in starvation are securing adequate ____ availability and minimizing loss of ___ ___.
glucose, muscle tissue
2 Anabolic pathways: storage of surplus
glycogenesis lipogenesis
Process of splitting glucose and generating pyruvate
glycolysis
the only process that the cell can use to generate ATP without the involvement of the electron transport chain
glycolysis
the splitting of glucose and generation of pyruvate
glycolysis
1. Glycerol enters the ____ pathway midway between _____ and _____ 2. Glycerol can easily be converted to ____ and then to ____
glycolysis, glucose, pyruvate, pyruvate, acetyl coA
cells of the liver
hepatocytes
The reactions in the TCA cycle release ____ atoms with their electrons which are carried by ____ to the ____.
hydrogen, coenzymes, ETC
ETC 1. Coenzymes deliver _____ and their _____ to the ETC 2. Passing these ____ from carrier to carrier along the ETC releases enough energy to pump ____ ions across the membrane to the ___ ___ of the mitochondria 3. ____ accepts the ___ and combines with ___ to form ____. 4. ____ ions in the ___ ___ flow ____ through ____ ____ which powers the synthesis of _____ which can then be used for energy.
hydrogens, electrons, electrons, hydrogen, outer compartment, oxygen, electrons, hydrogen, water, hydrogen, outer compartment downhill ATP synthase ATP
Part of mitochondria where pyruvate is converted to acetyl coA, fatty acid oxidation occurs and the TCA cycle occurs
inner compartment
Part of mitochondria where the ETC is
inner membrane
beta cells of the pancreas release
insulin
high blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release
insulin
Products formed before a metabolic pathway reaches completion
intermediates
Line GI tract, absorb nutrients, ATPase, energy consumer
intestine
pyruvate to acetyl coA is an ______ process
irreversible
carbon structure without its amino group
keto acid
Lowered blood pH, results in nausea, coma and death and often occurs in patients with uncontrolled type I diabetes
ketoacidosis
severe ketosis
ketoacidosis
Amino acids used to make KETONES, FATS, OR STEROLS (CONVERTED TO ACETYL COA)
ketogenic
Can be used to make energy, glucose, ketones, cholesterol or fat
ketones
High levels of ketones in the blood
ketosis
Causes a subsequent drop in blood pH, burning pain and fatigue
lactate
If needed, cells in the ____ can make glucose from pyruvate and requires energy and different enzymes
liver
Transformation of energy substrates when we don't eat Soaking up nutrients
liver
major site of gluconeogenesis
liver
the metabolism center
liver
Elimination of nitrogen 1. Ammonia from deamination 2. The ____ combines ammonia with ____ to make ____ 3. This is realized into the ___ where it passes through the ____ which filters it out of the blood for excretion in the urine
liver, CO2, urea, blood, kidneys,
Glucagon stimulates ____ cells to break down _____ and release ___ into blood
liver, glycogen, glucose
all chemical reactions in the body
metabolism
cofactors
minerals
Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the _____
mitochondria
oxidation of fatty acids takes place in the
mitochondria
Aerobic conditions for pyruvate: 1. Pyruvate enters the _____ 2. ____ is removed from pyruvate to produce a __ carbon compound that bonds with a molecule of _____, becoming _____ which goes to the ____ cycle. 3. The ____ group removed from pyruvate becomes ___, which is released into the ___.
mitochondria, COOH, 2, coA, acetyl coA, TCA, carbon, CO2, blood
erythrocytes don't have ____, they use ___ for energy
mitochondria, glucose
consumers
muscles
cells of the muscles
myocytes
cells of the brain
neurons
NAD+ form of B vitamin ____
niacin
When amino acids are deaminated, they lose their ____ containing ____ group and there is a production of _____.
nitrogen, amino, ammonia
Ammonia produced from deamination is used to make ___ ____ ____ and other nitrogen-containing compounds
nonessential amino acids
building materials, regulatory agents and fuels
nutrients
these are important within cells to organize metabolic reactions
organelles
coenzymes are usually
organic
Part of mitochondria where Fatty acid activation takes place
outer membrane
When molecule A transfers its electrons to molecule B it is
oxidized
oxidized or reduced pyruvate
oxidized
You do not need ____ for glycolysis but do need it for the ETC
oxygen
Energy is released when a ___ bond in ATP is broken and becomes ___
phosphate ADP
Energy is required when a ___ group is attached to ADP making it ____
phosphate ATP
Accepts blood leaving from the digestive tract
portal circulation
Amino acids used to make ____ can make glucose and amino acids that enter the ___ cycle directly
pyruvate, TCA
2 key intermediates of energy metabolism
pyruvate, acetyl CoA
Amino acids can enter the energy pathways by: 1. Amino acids converted to _____ 2. Amino acids converted to ______ 3. Amino acids enter the ___ cycle directly
pyruvate, acetyl coA, TCA
Oxaloacetate made primarily from ____ but can also be made from certain ___ ____
pyruvate, amino acids
When molecule B receives electrons from molecule A it is
reduced
oxidized or reduce lactate
reduced
Vehicle for unused nitrogen
urea
As glucose breaks down to pyruvate, hydrogen atoms with their electrons are released and carried to the electron transport chain by coenzymes made from ____ and ____
vitamin B, niacin
coenzymes
vitamins
vitamins, amino acids and glucose are ___ ____ nutrients
water soluble
Glycolysis steps: 1. Start with a __ Carbon molecule: ______ 2. Conversion of this molecule to similar __ carbon molecules, using __ ___ in the process 3. The ending __ carbon molecule is split into __ ___ carbon molecules. 4. ____ carry the ____ and their ____ from the conversions to the ____. 5. __ ____ is released 6. These compounds go through a series of conversions producing other similar compounds. 7. Eventually the final __ ____ compounds are converted to _____.
6, glucose, 6, 2 ATP, 6, 2, 3, coenzymes, hydrogens, electrons, ETC, 4 ATP, 3 carbon, pyruvate
Each turn of the TCA cycle releases ___ electrons
8
___% of fat that cannot be used to make glucose
95
Energy currency in cells
ATP
From the ETC, ___ is synthesized and ___ atoms react with oxygen to form ____.
ATP, hydrogen, water
series of proteins that serve as electron carriers
ETC
Pyruvate is converted to Lactate when the ____ can't accept ____ ions from coenzymes from glucose breakdown
ETC, hydrogen
Accepts electrons from glucose to become NADH which travels to the ETC
NAD+
pyruvate accepts electrons from ____ which becomes ____
NADH, NAD+
Molecule that is replenished and starts the TCA cycle
Oxaloacetate
Gluconeogenesis and Ketogenesis 1. ____ is diverted from the ___ cycle and used for ___ synthesis via glucongeogenesis 2. Fatty acids and ketogenic amino acids are ___ to ____ via ___ ____ 3. When ___ can't enter the TCA cycle, it goes through ketogenesis resulting in the production of ______ which are released into the ____ and taken up by ____ and ____ for energy.
Oxaloacetate TCA glucose oxidized acetyl coA beta oxidation acetyl coA ketones blood tissues metabolized
Gluconeogenesis 1. Pyruvate from lactate, glycerol and some amino acids 2. Pyruvate converted to _____, rather than _____. 3. This is converted to ____ releasing ____. 4. ___ ____ molecules are combined to produce ____.
Oxaloacetate, acetyl coA, PEP, CO2, 2 PEP, glucose
Organ responsible for release of Insulin and glucagon
Pancreas
State where insulin decreases and glucagon increases because blood glucose decreases. There is increased liver glycogen broken down for a source of glucose and an increase of fatty acids for energy.
Postabsorptive
building up
anabolism
All energy-yielding nutrients can be broken down to ____ ____
acetyl CoA
2 cells of pancreas
acinar, endocrine
cells of adipose
adipocytes
storage cells excess
adipose
Alcohol oxidation 1. Alcohol -enzyme ___ ____ 2. ______ -enzyme ___ ___ 3. ______ -_____ 4. ______
alcohol dehydrogenase acetaldehyde acetaldehyde dehydrogenase acetate coA acetyl coA
___ ___ and ___ ___ can give rise to the TCA cycle
amino acids, acetyl CoA
___ ___ and ___ ___ can give rise to acetyl coA
amino acids, fatty acids
As glycogen stores dwindle, the body begins to break down its muscle and lean tissue to ___ ___ to synthesize ____ needed from the CNS. The liver converts ____ to ___ ___ which serves as an alternative energy source for the brain.
amino acids, glucose, fats, ketone bodies
__ __ from protein, ___ from carbohydrates and ___ from fat can give rise to pyruvate
amino acids, glucose, glycerol
Products that result from deamination is ____ and a ____ ____
ammonia, keto acid
In liver disease blood ____ is high and in kidney disease blood ____ is high
ammonia, urea
when a person eats, __ __ rises
blood glucose
consume glucose as a primary energy substrate
brain
a diet that provides ample ____ ensures an adequate supply of Oxaloacetate
carbohydrate
metabolic pathways can be ___ or ____ or both
catabolic, anabolic
Breaking down
catabolism
Fatty acid Oxidation 1. The fatty acid is activated by the addition of ____ to its ____ end and is transported from the ____ to the ____ across its membrane by a molecule called ______. 2. The process of beta oxidation involves enzymes that cleave off __-carbon units from the fatty acid chain, forming ____. This process repeats until the entire 18 carbon fatty acid has been broken down, generating __ ____ + ___ and _____. 3. A total of ___ ATP are produced via the ____.
coA, COOH, cytosol, mitochondria, carnitine, 2, acetyl coA, 8 NADH, H+, FADH2, 40, ETC
Fatty acid-> Acetyl coA 1. Fatty acid is first activated by ___ which requires ____. 2. The fatty acids are taken apart ___ carbons at a tame through ___ ____ _____ reactions. 3. As each ___ bond is broken, ___ and their ___ are released and coenzymes pick them up. 4. The acetyl coA formed travels to the ____ cycle
coA, energy, 2, fatty acid oxidation, carbon, hydrogens, electrons, TCA
B vitamins are quite often _____
coenzymes
____ accept and donate electrons
coenzymes
anabolic reactions ____ energy
consume
Anaerobic conditions for Pyruvate: ______ Cycle 1. 2 Pyruvate molecules from glycolysis 2. Pyruvate accepts ____ ions from ____ and is converted to __ _____ molecules 3. ____ are freed and can return to _____ to pick up more ___ ions 4. Lactate travels from the ____ to the ____ and gets converted back to _____ which requires _____. 5. _____ then returns to the _____
cori, hydrogens, coenzymes, 2 lactate, coenzymes, glycolysis, hydrogen, muscle, liver, glucose, energy, glucose, muscle
Part of cell where glycolysis takes place
cytosol
glycolysis occurs in the _____
cytosol
cofactors are usually
elements
final product in the pathway
end product
Refers to chemical reactions involved in breakdown, synthesis, and transformation of energy-yielding nutrients that enable cells to obtain and use energy from nutrients
energy metabolism
Cells of intestine
enterocytes
Coenzymes and cofactors are ___ aids
enzyme
Coenzyme/Cofactor mechanism 1) The inactive ____ combines with the Coenzyme/Cofactor to form an ___ ___. 2) The ___ binds to the ___ ___ 3) This ____ a particular rxn 4) The ___ are released 5) The Coenzyme/Cofactor is ___ from the ____, thereby ____ it.
enzyme, active enzyme, substrate, active enzyme, catalyzes, products, released, enzyme, inactivating
catalysts and regulators of metabolic reactions
enzymes
carry oxygen which is needed when our cells need energy
erythrocytes
State where the concentration of glucagon is higher than insulin but liver glycogen stores are depleted Glucose is supplied mainly by gluconeogenesis, stored triglycerlides are broken down and ketogenesis increases.
fasting
When nutrients from a meal are no longer available to provide energy
fasting
Oxaloacetate cannot be made from ___
fat
when Oxaloacetate is insufficient, the TCA cycle ____
slows
end products of metabolic pathways can enter other metabolic pathways and become a _____
substrate
Enzyme mechanism 1) The ____ binds to the ___ ___ of the enzyme forming a ___ ___ complex 2) The shape of the active site alters the ___ structure of the ___ transforming it into the ____ 3) The ___ is released, freeing the enzyme
substrate, active site, enzyme substrate, chemical, substrate, product, product
Reactions so that liver cells can synthesize nonessential amino acids
transamination
Transferring an amino group from one amino acid to its corresponding keto acid
transamination