Meyer's AP Psychology - Unit 1

Francis Bacon

1561-1626 English politician and writer. Advocated that new knowledge was acquired through an inductive reasoning process (using specific examples to prove or draw conclusion from a general point) called empiricism. Rejected Medieval view of knowledge based on tradition, believed it's necessary to collect data, observe and draw conclusions. This was the foundation of the scientific method.

Rene Descartes

1596-1650 French scientist and philosopher. Argued for free will. Proponent of dualism. Argued that "threads" within the body control movement and that some behaviors occur without thought. Believed in the existence of innate natural abilities. Dissected animals. Among first to understand that nerves control muscles. Addressed relationship between mind and body.

John Locke

1632-1704 English philosopher. Advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people. Also said people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Dorothea Dix

1802-1887 Reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820s. She was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. Succeeded in persuading many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. Served as Superintendent of Nurses for the Union Army during the Civil War.

Charles Darwin

1809-1882 English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection.

Wilhelm Wundt

1832-1920 German physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science. 'Father of Psychology'. Created approach of structuralism. Wanted to know structure of mind. Introspection. Opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879.

William James

1842-1910 Founder of functionalism. Studied how humans use perception to function in our environment. First to offer psychology course in the United States.

G. Stanley Hall

1846-1924 American psychologist. Established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States. Founded the American Psychological Association.

Christine Ladd-Franklin

1847-1930 Completed requirements Math/Logic for Ph.D. 1883 John Hopkins University, but not awarded Ph.D. until 1926. Became leading theorist in color vision. Daughter, Margaret, became prominent member of Suffrage movement.

Ivan Pavlov

1849-1936 Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs.

Sigmund Freud

1856-1939 Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis. Said that human behavior is irrational. Behavior is the outcome of conflict between the Id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires), the Ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and Superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

Mary Whiton Calkins

1863-1930 American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality and dreams. First woman president of the American Psychological Association. Developed theory of self-psychology and a technique for studying verbal learning.

E.B. Titchener

1867-1927 Student of Wundt. Introduced experimental psychology to the United States.

Alfred Adler

1870-1937 Inferiority Complex: fixation on feelings of personal inferiority that can lead to emotional and social paralysis. Compensation: our efforts to overcome real or perceived weaknesses. Birth order.

Margaret Floyd Washburn

1871-1939 First woman in America to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. 1894. Head of Psychology at Vassar College.

Carl Jung

1875-1961 Shared Freud's emphasis on unconscious processes. Personal Unconscious: part of unconscious mind containing an individual's thoughts and feelings. Collective Unconscious: part of the unconscious inherited and common to all members of a species. Five main Archetypes.

John B. Watson

1878-1958 Behaviorist. Emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation. Famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat.

Karen Horney

1885-1952 Prominent psychoanalyst. Known for important contributions: i.e.Neurosis, Feminine Psychology, Self Psychology.

Leta Stetter Hollingworth

1886-1939 Research on exceptional children. Psychology of Women. Clinical and Educational Psychology.

Inez Beverly Prosser

1895-1934 First African American woman to achieve a Ph.D. in Psychology: University of Cincinnati, 1933. Research on: Race, Child Development, Segregation. Died early in a tragic accident in Shreveport, L.A.

Anna Freud

1895-1982 Developed field of child psychoanalysis. Influenced other thinkers, including Erik Erikson. Introduction of Defense Mechanisms. Expanded interest in field of Child Psychology.

Jean Piaget

1896-1980 Four stage theory of cognitive development: (1) sensorimotor, (2) preoperational, (3) concrete operational, (4) formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth assimilation and accomodation.

Rosalie Rayner

1899-1935 Graduate student of Watson and co-researcher for the famous Little Albert demonstration of classically conditioned emotion.

Carl Rogers

1902-1987 Humanist. Founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans, especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person.

B.F. Skinner

1904-1990 Behaviorist. Pioneer in Operant Conditioning. Behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history. 'Skinner Box'. Also, worked with pigeons.

Abraham Maslow

1908-1970 Humanistic psychology. Hierarchy of needs: needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied. Self-actualization. Transcendence.

Mary Ainsworth

1913-1999 Developmental psychologist. Best-known for her early childhood attachment: Attachment theory. Played important role in our understanding of child development.

Mamie Phipps Clark

1917-1983 First African American woman to earn a degree at Columbia University. Research on race, self-concept, self esteem, child development. Her work with her husband, Kenneth Clark, played important role in 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education. Clark Doll Test.

Martha E. Bernal

1931-2001 First Latina to achieve Ph.D. in psychology: Indiana University Bloomington, 1962. Research on childhood developmental disorders e.g. Autism, Conduct Disorder, etc. Helped recruit more Hispanics in field. Pioneer encouraging more minority content in Clinical and Counseling Psychology programs across the nation.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. Including, but not limited to: selecting and training personnel, productivity improvement, working conditions, impact of automation on workers, etc.

Psychiatry

Branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Counseling Psychology

Branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

Community Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments, and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

Psychodynamic Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. Behavior results from forces within the individual, often at unconscious level. Important in the history of psychotherapy. Childhood experiences play a large role.

Biological Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes.

Clinical Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

Case Study

Detailed description and analysis of one or a few people. Prominent in psychology. Observer bias is a problem. Unable to make generalizations past person being studied.

Level of Analysis

Differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Structuralism

Early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Alice F. Chang

First ethnic minority female member of the APA Board of Directors. Recently, a nominee for APA President-elect. Author of "A Survivor's Guide to Breast Cancer". Ph.D. 1973 University of Southern California. Founder of the 'Academy for Cancer Wellness'. Established Marana Community Mental Health Clinic. Serves Yaqui Indians, Migrant Workers, Indigent people in the rural communities around Tucson, Arizona.

Humanistic Psychology

Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of health people and the individual's potential for personal growth. Recognizes importance of love, self esteem, belonging, and self-actualization.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Nature-Nurture

Longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Introspection

Method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings.

Natural Selection

Principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Gestalt Psychology

Psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts. Emphasized total experience of the individual and not just parts of the mind or behavior. Lacked scientific rigor and was displaced. Major influence in sensation and perception.

Basic Research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Correlational Research

Research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables. Often used to make predictions, such as the relationship between SAT scores and school success. Cannot be used to determine cause and effect.

Functionalism

School of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function; how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish. A protest to Structuralist private mental events. Focus on the process of conscious activity. Roots with evolution. Not what the mind does, but why it does it.

Psychology

Science of behavior and mental processes.

Cognitive Psychology

Scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating. Study of mental Processes. Computer largely influenced theories. Some areas of study: thinking, learning, feeling, memory, decision-making, etc.

Positive Psychology

Scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.

Behavioral Psychology

Scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

Developmental Psychology

Scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. Subfields may include: child psychology, adolescent psychology, life-span psychology, aging, end-of-life, etc.

Psychometrics

Scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes and traits.

Applied Research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

SQ3R

Study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review.

Personality Psychology

Study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Including but not limited to: anxiety, sociability, self esteem, need for achievement, aggressiveness, etc.

Experimental Psychology

Study of behavior and thinking using the scientific method.

Human Factors Psychology

Study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments.

Educational Psychology

Study of how psychological processes affect, and can enhance, teaching and learning.

Social-Cultural Psychology

Study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Social Psychology

Study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Including, but not limited to: first impressions, prejudice, behavior in a group, attitude formation, interpersonal attraction, etc.

Feminist Psychology

Study of the psychology of women. Term originally coined by Karen Horney. Her book, 'Feminine Psychology', a collection of articles Horney wrote on the subject from 1922-37 argued that much research is based on all-male samples, reports of sex/gender differences focus too much on extremes and ignore similarities, and psychologists only study what they consider important.

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.

Naturalistic Observation

Systematic observation in natural setting. Main drawback is observer bias.

Empiricism

View that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.

Behaviorism

View that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). Rejected mental events. Should only study observable, verifiable events. Dominated psychology for 50+ years.

Aristotle

c. 384-322 B.C.E. Greek philosopher. Pupil of Plato. Tutor of Alexander the Great. Author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics. Profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system, which lead him to criticize what he saw as Plato's metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry.

Plato

c. 428-348 B.C.E. Greek philosopher. Knowledge based on consideration of ideal forms outside the material world. Proposed ideal form of government based on abstract principles in which philosophers ruled.

Socrates

c. 470-399 B.C.E. Greek philosopher. 'Socratic Method': questioning at an increasingly deeper level to allow students to develop their ideas and knowledge. Sentenced to death for corrupting Athens youth.