MGMT 309 Final (Ch. 15, 16, 17, 19)

Negative Affectivity

A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood

Positive Affectivity

A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior

Variable Interval

Reinforcement applied at variable time intervals

Verification

Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see if the insight leads to the expected results

Creativity

The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas

Power

The ability to affect the behavior of others

Organizational Citizenship

The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization

Consequences of Cohesiveness

The interaction between cohesiveness and performance norms -The best situation: high cohesiveness with high performance -The worst situation: high cohesiveness and low performance

Initiating-Structure Behavior

The leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate role expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agenda

Consideration Behavior

The leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate

Leader-Member Relations

The nature of the relationship between the leader and the work group

Norm Generalization

The norms of one group cannot always be generalized to another group (external)

Conscientiousness

The number of goals in which a person focuses on

The Psychological Contract

The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return

Role

The part an individual plays in helping the group reach its goals -Task-specialist role -Socioemotional role

Referent Power

The personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma

Position Power

The power vested in the leaders position.

Negotiation

The process in which two or more parties (people or groups) reach agreement on an issue even though they have different preferences regarding that issue

Personality

The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another

Interrole Conflict

The result of a conflict between roles

Role Structures

The set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group or team members define and accept -Role Ambiguity -Role Conflict Role overload occurs when role expectations exceed an individual's capacities

Perception

The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information

Performance Behaviors

The total set of work-related behaviors an organization expects an individiual to display

Ways in Which Attributions are Formed

-Consensus -Consistency -Distinctiveness

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills

Locus of Control

The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them

Goal Acceptance

The extent to which persons accept a goal as their own

Consistency

The extent to which the same person behaves the same way at different times

Distinctiveness

The extent to which the same person behaves the same way in other situations

Punishment

Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed

Job Sharing

When two part time employees share one full time job

Information Distortion

Withholding or distorting information (which may create an unethical situation) to influence subordinates' behavior

Compressed Work Schedule

Working a full forty-hour week in less than five days

Using Power

-Legitimate Request -Instrumental Compliance -Coercion -Rational Persuasion -Personal Identification -Inspirational Appeal -Information Distortion

Leadership as a Process

*What Leaders actually do* -Using noncoercive influence to shape the group's or organization's goals. -Motivating others' behaviors toward goals -Helping to define organizational culture -Leaders are people who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force

Leadership as a Property

*Who leaders are* -Characteristics attributed to individual's perceived as leaders -Leaders are people who are accepted as leaders by others

Attitudinal Components

- Affective Component - Cognitive Component - Intentional Component

Commitment and Work Behaviors

- Employee commitment strengthens with an individual's age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making - Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance

MBTI - Personality Types

- Extroversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) - Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N) - Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) - Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)

Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors

- Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and organizational factors - Satisfied employees are absent less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organization - Dissatisfied employees are absent more often, may experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and may be continually looking for another job

Other Personality Traits at Work

- Locus of Control - Self-Efficacy - Authoritarianism - Machiavellianism - Self-Esteem - Risk Propensity

Cognitive Dissonance

- The conflict individuals experience among their own attitudes - The affective and cognitive components of the individual's attitude are in conflict with intended behavior

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

-*People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:* 1. Physiological 2. Security 3. Belongingness 4. Esteem 5. Self-actualization

Substitutes for Leadership

-A concept that identifies situations in which leader behavior is neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization

Insight

-A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation -Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding

*Subordinate* Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership

-Ability -Experience -Need for independence -Professional orientation -Indifference towards organizaitonal goals

Withdrawal Behaviors

-Absenteeism occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons -Absenteeism may be a symptom of other work-related problems

Individual response to norm conformity

-Adopt the norms of the group -Try to obey the "spirit" of the norms while retaining individuality

Situational Models of Leader Behavior Assumptions

-Appropriate leader behavior depends on the situation -Situational factors that determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified

Interpersonal Demands

-Associated with relationships that confront people in organizations -May result from group pressure, leadership styles or conflicting personalities

Physical Demands

-Associated with the job setting -May have extreme temperatures, poorly designed office space of threats to ones health

Task Demands

-Associated with the task itself -Have to make quick decisions, critical decisions, or decisions based on inappropriate information

Leadership Traits Approach

-Assumed that a basic set of personal traits that differentiated leaders from nonleaders could be used to identify leaders and as a tool for predicting who would become leaders -The trait approach did not establish empirical relationships between the traits and persons regarded as leaders -The "Great Man" Approach

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)

-Assumed that leadership style is fixed and situation must be changed to favor leader. Situational favorableness is determined by: 1.Leader-member relations 2. Task structure 3. Position power

Vroom's Decision Tree Approach

-Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation

Standard Forms of Executive Compensation

-Base Salary -Incentive pay (bonus)

Merit Reward Systems

-Base a meaningful portion of individual compensation on merit-the relative value of an individual's contributions to the organizations -Employees who make greater contributions are given higher pay than those who make lesser contributions

Managing Political Behavior

-Be aware that even if actions are not politically motivated, others may assume they are -Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging in political behavior by providing them with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback -Avoid using power to avoid charges of political motivation -Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open so that subordinates have less opportunity to engage in political behavior -Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression of political intent even if none exists

Goal-Setting Theory Assumptions

-Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions -Setting goals influences behavior in organizations

Negative Personal Consequences

-Behavioral -Psychological -Medical

What is required for motivated behavior to occur

-Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero -The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.

Goal Specificity

-Clarity and precision of the goal -Goals can vary in their ability to be stated specifically

Variable Work Schedules

-Compressed work schedule -Flexible Work Schedules (flextime) -Job Sharing -Telecommuting

Sources of Conflict between an Organization and its Environment

-Conflict with competition -Conflict with consumer groups -Conflict with employees

Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt)

-Continuum Identifies a range of levels of leadership from boss-centered to subordinate-centered leadership -Variables Influencing the decision-making continuum 1. Leader's characteristics 2. Subordinates' characteristics 3. Situational characteristics

Vroom's Decision Tree Approach: Decision-Making Styles

-Decide -Consult (Individually) -Consult (Group) -Facilitate -Delegate

Ohio State Studies

-Did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional as did the Michigan studies -Initial research assumption: leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders -Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited simultaneously: 1. Initiating-Structure behavior. 2. Consideration behavior

Path-Goal Theory Leader Behaviors

-Directive leader behavior -Supportive leader behavior -Participative leader behavior -Achievement-oriented leader behavior

Elements of Expectancy Theory

-Effort-to-Performance Expectancy -Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy -Valence

Human Resource Approach: Assump.

-Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization -Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions -Management's job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that motivates employees

Incentive Reward Systems

-Employee pay is based on employee output Assume that: -Performance is under control of individual worker -Employee works at a single task continuously -Pay is tightly tied to performance (pay varies with output)

Subsequent Research of Ohio State Studies

-Employees of supervisors ranked high on initiating structure were high performers, but had low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism -Employees of supervisors ranked high on consideration had low performance ratings, but had levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism

Criticism of Executive Compensation

-Excessively large compensation amounts -Compensation not tied to overall and long-term performance of the organization -Earnings gap between executive pay and typical employee pay

Motivation Process Perspectives

-Expectancy Theory -Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory -Equity Theory -Goal-Setting Theory

Type A Personality

-Extremely competitive (aggressive), devoted to work, have a strong sense of time urgency (impatient) -Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible

Equity Comparisons of Individuals

-Feeling equitably rewarded -Feeling under-rewarded -Feeling over-rewarded

Weakness of Maslow's Theory

-Five levels of need are not always present -Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same -Cultural differences can impact the ordering and salience of needs

Reinforcement Schedules

-Fixed interval schedule -Variable interval -Fixed ratio -Variable ratio

Preparation

-Formal education and training is used to "get up to speed" -Experiences on the job provide additional knowledge and ideas

*Organization* Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership

-Formalization -Group cohesion -Inflexibility -A rigid reward structure

Stages of Group and Team Development

-Forming -Storming -Norming -Performing

Types of Groups and Teams

-Functional Group -Informal or Interest Group -Task Group

Team and Group Incentive Reward Systems

-Gain Sharing -Profit Sharing -Employee Stock Ownership Programs (ESOPs)

General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)

-General cycle of the stress process -Stage 1: Alarm -Stage 2: Resistance -Stage 3: Exhaustion

Benefits of Teams

-Give more responsibility for task performance to workers who do the tasks -Empower workers by giving them greater authority and decision-making freedom -Allow organizations to capitalize on the knowledge and motivation of their workers -Enable the organization to shed its bureaucracy and to promote flexibility and responsiveness

Norm conformity occurs when individuals conform to:

-Group or team pressure -An initial (ambiguous) stimulus prompting group behavior -Individual traits that reflect their propensity to conform -The influence of situational factors related to the group

Contributions of Maslow's Theory

-Identified and categorized individual needs -Emphasized importance of needs to motivation

Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)

-Identified two forms of leader behavior 1. Job-centered behavior 2. Employee-centered behavior -The two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum

Reasons for poor person-job fit

-Imperfect organizational selection procedures -Change in both people and organizations over time -New technologies require new employee skills -Unique individuals and unique jobs

Incentive Reward Systems cont'd

-Incentive Pay Plans 1. Piece-rate systems 2. Sales Commissions -Non-monetary incentives

Feeling over-rewarded

-Increase or decrease inputs -Distort ratios by rationalizing -Help the object person gain more outcomes

Common Political Behaviors

-Inducement -Persuasion -Creation of an obligation -Coercion -Impression management

Sources of Intergroup Conflict

-Interdependence -Different goals -Competition for scarce resources

Situational Approaches to Leadership

-Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt) -Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) -Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House) -Vroom's Decision Tree Approach -The Leader-member Exchange (LMX) Approach

Type B Personality

-Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency -Less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other people -More likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life.

Enhancing Creativity in Organizations

-Make creativity part of the organization's culture (incentives) -Reward creativity; refrain from punishing creative failures

The Creative Individual

-Many creative individuals were reared in creative environments -Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity

Content Perspectives on Motivation

-Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs -The ERG Theory (Aldefer) -The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) -Individual Human Needs (McClelland)

Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance

-Merit Reward Systems -Incentive Reward Systems -Team and Group Incentive Reward Systems

Determinants of Individual Performance

-Motivation -Ability -Work environment

ERG Theory Assumptions

-Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute hierarchy of needs) -If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (frustration-regression)

Consequences of Stress

-Negative Personal Consequences -Negative Work-Related Consequences -Burnout

Stress Management Strategies in Organizations

-Organizations are partly responsible for stress -Organizations also must bear the costs of stress-related claims -Organizational wellness/stress mgmt programs can be used to promote healthful employee activities and derive the benefits of increased organizational productivity

Equity Theory Assumptions

-People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance -Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people

Expectancy Theory Assumptions

-Personal and environmental forces determine behavior -People make decisions about their behavior in organizations -People have different types of needs, desires, and goals. -People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that leads to a desired outcome -Motivation leads to effort that, when combined with ability and environmental factors, results in performance which leads to outcomes having value (valence) to employees

Sources of Interpersonal Conflict

-Personality clash -Differing beliefs or perceptions -Competitiveness

Negative Work-related Consequences

-Poor quality work output and lower productivity -Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment -Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism

Kind of Reinforcement in Organizations

-Positive reinforcement -Avoidance -Punishment -Extinction

The Creative Process

-Preparation -Incubation -Insight -Verification

Four Approaches to Negotiation

-Psychological (Individual differences) -Contextual (Situational characteristics) -Mathematical (Game theory) -Behavioral (cognitive approaches)

Stress Management Strategies for Individuals

-Regular Exercise -Relaxation -Time Management -Support groups

*Task* Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership

-Routineness -The availability of feedback -Intrinsic satisfaction

The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)

-Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent sets of factors -Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums: 1. Motivational factors 2. Hygiene factors -Posits that motivation is a 2-step process

Special Forms of Executive Compensation

-Stock option plans -Executive perks

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach

-Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates -Vertical dyads: - - Leaders form unique independent relationships with each subordinate (dyads) in which the subordinate becomes a member of the leader's out-group or in-group

Vroom's Decision Tree Approach: Basic Premises

-Subordinate participation in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation -No one decision-making process is best for all situations -After evaluating problem attributes, a leader chooses a path on the decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation 1. Decision significance 2. Decision timelines

Causes of Stress

-Task Demands -Physical Demands -Role Demands -Interpersonal Demands

Understanding Individuals in Organizations

-The Psychological Contract -The Person-Job Fit -Individual Differences

Historical Perspectives on Motivation

-The Traditional Approach -The Human Relations Approach -The Human Resource Approach

Performing

-The ability of the group/team to prevent or work through problems -Members developing a close attachment to the team

Political Behavior

-The activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcomes

Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)

-The primary functions of a leader are: 1. To make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace 2. To clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards

Stereotyping

-The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute (gender, race, etc) - May cost the organization valuable talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is likely unethical

Selective Perception

-The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs -Can be very detrimental if causes important information to be ignored

Reinforcement Theory

-The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or remain the same over time -Assumes that behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Motivation

-The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways. -The goal of managers is to maximized desired behaviors and minimize undesirable behaviors.

Optimal level of conflict in an organization

-Too little conflict and the organization becomes complacent and apathetic, and lacking in innovation and underperforms -Too much conflict creates a dysfunctional organization where hostility and non-cooperation predominate, and suffers from low performance -A moderate level of conflict in an organization fosters motivation, creativity, innovation, and initiative and can raise performance

Feeling under-rewarded

-Try to reduce inequity -Change inputs by trying harder or slacking off -Change outcomes by demanding a raise -Distort the ratios by altering perceptions of self or others -Leave situation by quitting job -Change comparisons by choosing another object person

Personality Types

-Type A -Type B

The Traditional Approach

-Workers are interchangeable tools of production

Type of Workplace Behavior

-Workplace Behavior -Performance Behaviors -Withdrawal Behaviors -Organizational Citizenship

The "Big Five" Personality Traits

1. Agreeableness 2. Conscientiousness 3. Negative emotionality 4. Extraversion 5. Openness

Individual Human Needs (McClelland)

1. Need for achievement 2. Need for affiliation 3. Need for power

Conflict

A disagreement between two or more individuals, groups, or organizations

Burnout

A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time

Informal or Interest Group

A group created by its own members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to the organization's goals

Task Groups

A group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated time horizon

Attribution

A mechanism through which we observe behavior and attribute a cause to it

Workplace Behavior

A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness

Incubation

A period of less intense conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas are acquired, during repatriation, mature and develop

Functional Group

A permanent group created to accomplish a number of organizational purpose with an indefinite time horizon

Empathy

A person's ability to be able to understand how others are feeling

Agreeableness

A person's ability to get along with others

Social Skill

A person's ability to get along with others

Motivating Oneself

A person's ability to remain optimistic in the face of failure

Self-Efficacy

A person's belief about his or her capabilities to perform a task.

Self-Awareness

A person's capacity for being aware of how they are feeling

Managing Emotions

A person's capacity to ensure that feelings do not interfere with getting things accomplished

Extraversion

A person's comfort level with relationships

Stress

A person's response to a strong stimulus (a stressor)

Openness

A person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.

Instrumental Compliance

A subordinate complies with a manager's request to get the rewards that the manager controls

Legitimate Request

A subordinate's compliance with a manager's request because the organization has given the manager the right to make the request

Stage 3: Exhaustion

All resources for fighting the threat have been depleted and illness is more likely

Flexible Work Schedules (flextime)

Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work

Telecommuting

Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usually at home, by using email, the Internet, and other forms of information technology.

Organizational Commitment

An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to an organization

Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction

An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work

Equity

An individual's belief that the treatment the individual receives is fair relative to the treatment received by others

Team

An interdependent group of workers who function as a unit, often with little or no supervision, to carry out work-related tasks, functions, and activities

Process Perspectives

Approaches to motivation that focus on: -Search for behavioral options and alternatives -Choice of behavioral options to satisfy needs -Rewards and evaluation of satisfaction after goals are attained

Motivational factors (work content)

Are on a continuum that ranges from satisfaction to no satisfaction

Hygiene factors (work environment)

Are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction

Intrasender Conflict

Arises when a single source sends contradictory messages

Role Demands

Associated with the role; may experience role ambiguity or role conflict

The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory

Assumptions -If performance results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied -High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction

Forming

Attempting to define the task and how it will be accomplished through discussions of task-related concepts/issues

Chapter 15

Basic Elements of Individual Behavior in Organizations

Machiavellianism

Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others

Supportive Leader Behavior

Being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.

Socialization

Norm conformity that occurs when a person makes the transition from being an outsider to being and insider in the organization

Intrarole Conflict

Caused by conflicting demands from different sources

Goal-Setting Theory

Characteristics of Goals -Goal Difficulty -Goal specificity -Goal acceptance -Goal commitment

Norm Variation

Norms and their application vary within a group or team (internal)

Attitudes

Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people

Participative Leader Behavior

Consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making

Rational Persuasion

Convincing subordinates compliance is in their best interest

Storming

Defensiveness, intragroup competition, and the formation of factions; arguing among members, even when they agree

Expert Power

Derived from the possession of information or expertise

The Human Relations Approach

Emphasized role of social processes in workplace

The Human Resource Approach

Emphasized value of employees to organization

Effort-to-Performance Expectancy

Employee's perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance

Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy

Employee's perception of the probability that performance will lead to a specific outcome - the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational setting

Human Relations Approach: Assump.

Employees want to feel useful and important, employees have strong social needs, more important than money, maintaining the appearance of employee participation is important

Norming

Establishing and maintaining team ground rules. More friendliness and confiding in one another.

Intentional Component

Expected behavior in a given situation

Goal Difficulty

Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort -People work harder to achieve more difficult goals -Goals should be difficult but attainable

The Person-Job Fit

Extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization

Affective Component

Feelings and emotions toward a situation

Great Man Approach

Five common traits of leaders: 1. Intelligence 2. Self-confidence 3. Determination 4. Integrity 5. Sociability.

Reward Power

Given or withheld rewards, such as salary increases, promotions, praise

Legitimate Power

Granted through the organizational hierarchy

Gain Sharing

Group based, and all members get bonus when predetermined levels are exceeded. Aligns employee and corporate interests

Subordinates' Characteristics

Independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations

Stage 2: Resistance

Individual is actively resisting the effects of the stressor

External Locus of Control

Individuals who believe that *external forces* dictate what could happen to them

Internal Locus of Control

Individuals who believe that *they* are in control of their own life, and what happens to them

Inspirational Appeal

Influencing a subordinate's behavior through an appeal to a set of higher ideals or values (loyalty)

Valence

Is an index of how much an individual values a particular outcome (reward)

Directive Leader Behavior

Letting subordinates know what is expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work

Feeling equitably rewarded

Maintain performance and accept comparison as fair estimate

Impression Management

Making a direct and intentional effort to enhance one's image in the eyes of others

Delegate

Manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution

Decide

Manager makes decision alone and then announces or sells it to the group.

Consult (Group)

Manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision

Consult (Individually)

Manager presents program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision

Facilitate

Manager presents the problem to the group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision

Traditional Approach: Assumptions

Managers know more than workers, economic gain (money) is the primary motivation for performance, work is inherently unpleasant

Employee-Centered Behavior

Managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction.

Job-Centered Behavior

Managers who pay close attention to subordinates' work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance

Chapter 16

Managing Employee Motivation and Performance

Chapter 17

Managing Leadership and Influence Processes

Chapter 19

Managing Work Groups and Teams

Expectancy Theory

Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it.

The ERG Theory (Aldefer)

Needs are grouped into overlapping categories: -Existence needs (physiological and security needs) -Relatedness needs -Growth needs (self-esteem and self-actualization)

Role Conflict

Occurs when messages and cues of the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive -Interrole conflict -Intrarole conflict -Intrasender conflict -Person-role conflict

Role Ambiguity

Occurs when the sent role is unclear

Inducement

Offering to give something to someone else in return for that person's support

Stage 1: Alarm

Panic, wondering how to cope, and a feeling of helplessness

Cognitive Component

Perceived knowledge

Individual Differences

Personal attributes that vary from one person to another -Physical, psychological, or emotional.

Persuasion

Persuading others to support a goal on grounds that are objective and logical as well as subjective and personal

Profit Sharing

Provides a varying annual bonus to employees based on corporate profits.

Variable Ratio

Provides reinforcement after varying numbers of behaviors are performed, such as the use of complements by a supervisor on an irregular basis

Creation of an obligation

Providing support for another person's position that obliges that person to return the favor at a future date

Achievement-Oriented Leader Behavior

Setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates

Situations that Enhance Creativity

Specific and difficult goals; Time pressure; Small budget; Adversity; Supportive culture; Heterogeneity

Norms

Standards of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors that a group sets for its members -Norm generalization -Norm Variation

Avoidance

Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior is not performed

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed

Coercive Power

The capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or phsyical threat

Decision Timeliness

The degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates

Risk Propensity

The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.

Decision Significance

The degree to which the decision will have an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high

Task Structure

The degree to which the group's task is defined

Need for Affiliation

The desire for human companionship and acceptance

Need for Achievement

The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past

Need for Power

The desire to be influential in a group and to be in control of one's environment.

Person-Role Conflict

The discrepancy between role requirements and an individual's values, attitudes, and needs

Self-Esteem

The extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual

Negative emotionality

The extent to which a person is calm, resilient, and secure

Authoritarianism

The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social organizations

Goal Commitment

The extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal

Cohesiveness

The extent to which members are loyal and committed to the group; the degree of mutual attractiveness within the group

Consensus

The extent to which other people in the same situation behave the same way

Use of Power: Coercion

Threatening to fire, punish, or reprimand subordinates if they do not do something

Characteristics of Creative People

Tolerance for ambiguity; Independent thinker; Not inhibited by conformity pressure; Good verbal communicator; Imaginative; Reasonably intelligent; Intrinsically motivated; Hard worker; Asks lots of questions; Willing to take risks and fail

Group

Two or more people who interact regularly to accomplish a common purpose or goal

Situational Characteristics

Type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures.

Porter-Lawler cont'd

Types of Rewards: -Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties -Intrinsic rewards are outcomes internal to the individual

Extinction

Used to weaken undesired behaviors by simply ignoring or not reinforcing them

Coercion (Political)

Using force to get one's way

Personal Identification

Using the superior's referent power to shape a subordinate's behavior

Leader's Characteristics

Value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

a popular questionnaire that some organizations use to assess personality types -is a useful method for determining communication styles and interaction preferences

LPC cont'd

appropriate leadership style varies with situational favorableness (from leader's viewpoint): -LPC scale asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work well with -High scale scores indicate a relationship orientation; low scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leader

Employee Stock Ownership Programs

established to give senior managers the option to buy company stock in the future at a predetermined fixed price

Equity Theory

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