MGMT 309 Final (Ch. 15, 16, 17, 19)
Negative Affectivity
A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood
Positive Affectivity
A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time
Fixed Interval Schedule
Reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior
Variable Interval
Reinforcement applied at variable time intervals
Verification
Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see if the insight leads to the expected results
Creativity
The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas
Power
The ability to affect the behavior of others
Organizational Citizenship
The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization
Consequences of Cohesiveness
The interaction between cohesiveness and performance norms -The best situation: high cohesiveness with high performance -The worst situation: high cohesiveness and low performance
Initiating-Structure Behavior
The leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate role expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agenda
Consideration Behavior
The leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate
Leader-Member Relations
The nature of the relationship between the leader and the work group
Norm Generalization
The norms of one group cannot always be generalized to another group (external)
Conscientiousness
The number of goals in which a person focuses on
The Psychological Contract
The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return
Role
The part an individual plays in helping the group reach its goals -Task-specialist role -Socioemotional role
Referent Power
The personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma
Position Power
The power vested in the leaders position.
Negotiation
The process in which two or more parties (people or groups) reach agreement on an issue even though they have different preferences regarding that issue
Personality
The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another
Interrole Conflict
The result of a conflict between roles
Role Structures
The set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group or team members define and accept -Role Ambiguity -Role Conflict Role overload occurs when role expectations exceed an individual's capacities
Perception
The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information
Performance Behaviors
The total set of work-related behaviors an organization expects an individiual to display
Ways in Which Attributions are Formed
-Consensus -Consistency -Distinctiveness
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills
Locus of Control
The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them
Goal Acceptance
The extent to which persons accept a goal as their own
Consistency
The extent to which the same person behaves the same way at different times
Distinctiveness
The extent to which the same person behaves the same way in other situations
Punishment
Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed
Job Sharing
When two part time employees share one full time job
Information Distortion
Withholding or distorting information (which may create an unethical situation) to influence subordinates' behavior
Compressed Work Schedule
Working a full forty-hour week in less than five days
Using Power
-Legitimate Request -Instrumental Compliance -Coercion -Rational Persuasion -Personal Identification -Inspirational Appeal -Information Distortion
Leadership as a Process
*What Leaders actually do* -Using noncoercive influence to shape the group's or organization's goals. -Motivating others' behaviors toward goals -Helping to define organizational culture -Leaders are people who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force
Leadership as a Property
*Who leaders are* -Characteristics attributed to individual's perceived as leaders -Leaders are people who are accepted as leaders by others
Attitudinal Components
- Affective Component - Cognitive Component - Intentional Component
Commitment and Work Behaviors
- Employee commitment strengthens with an individual's age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making - Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance
MBTI - Personality Types
- Extroversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) - Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N) - Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) - Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)
Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors
- Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and organizational factors - Satisfied employees are absent less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organization - Dissatisfied employees are absent more often, may experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and may be continually looking for another job
Other Personality Traits at Work
- Locus of Control - Self-Efficacy - Authoritarianism - Machiavellianism - Self-Esteem - Risk Propensity
Cognitive Dissonance
- The conflict individuals experience among their own attitudes - The affective and cognitive components of the individual's attitude are in conflict with intended behavior
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
-*People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:* 1. Physiological 2. Security 3. Belongingness 4. Esteem 5. Self-actualization
Substitutes for Leadership
-A concept that identifies situations in which leader behavior is neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization
Insight
-A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation -Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding
*Subordinate* Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership
-Ability -Experience -Need for independence -Professional orientation -Indifference towards organizaitonal goals
Withdrawal Behaviors
-Absenteeism occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons -Absenteeism may be a symptom of other work-related problems
Individual response to norm conformity
-Adopt the norms of the group -Try to obey the "spirit" of the norms while retaining individuality
Situational Models of Leader Behavior Assumptions
-Appropriate leader behavior depends on the situation -Situational factors that determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified
Interpersonal Demands
-Associated with relationships that confront people in organizations -May result from group pressure, leadership styles or conflicting personalities
Physical Demands
-Associated with the job setting -May have extreme temperatures, poorly designed office space of threats to ones health
Task Demands
-Associated with the task itself -Have to make quick decisions, critical decisions, or decisions based on inappropriate information
Leadership Traits Approach
-Assumed that a basic set of personal traits that differentiated leaders from nonleaders could be used to identify leaders and as a tool for predicting who would become leaders -The trait approach did not establish empirical relationships between the traits and persons regarded as leaders -The "Great Man" Approach
Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
-Assumed that leadership style is fixed and situation must be changed to favor leader. Situational favorableness is determined by: 1.Leader-member relations 2. Task structure 3. Position power
Vroom's Decision Tree Approach
-Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation
Standard Forms of Executive Compensation
-Base Salary -Incentive pay (bonus)
Merit Reward Systems
-Base a meaningful portion of individual compensation on merit-the relative value of an individual's contributions to the organizations -Employees who make greater contributions are given higher pay than those who make lesser contributions
Managing Political Behavior
-Be aware that even if actions are not politically motivated, others may assume they are -Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging in political behavior by providing them with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback -Avoid using power to avoid charges of political motivation -Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open so that subordinates have less opportunity to engage in political behavior -Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression of political intent even if none exists
Goal-Setting Theory Assumptions
-Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions -Setting goals influences behavior in organizations
Negative Personal Consequences
-Behavioral -Psychological -Medical
What is required for motivated behavior to occur
-Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero -The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.
Goal Specificity
-Clarity and precision of the goal -Goals can vary in their ability to be stated specifically
Variable Work Schedules
-Compressed work schedule -Flexible Work Schedules (flextime) -Job Sharing -Telecommuting
Sources of Conflict between an Organization and its Environment
-Conflict with competition -Conflict with consumer groups -Conflict with employees
Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt)
-Continuum Identifies a range of levels of leadership from boss-centered to subordinate-centered leadership -Variables Influencing the decision-making continuum 1. Leader's characteristics 2. Subordinates' characteristics 3. Situational characteristics
Vroom's Decision Tree Approach: Decision-Making Styles
-Decide -Consult (Individually) -Consult (Group) -Facilitate -Delegate
Ohio State Studies
-Did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional as did the Michigan studies -Initial research assumption: leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders -Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited simultaneously: 1. Initiating-Structure behavior. 2. Consideration behavior
Path-Goal Theory Leader Behaviors
-Directive leader behavior -Supportive leader behavior -Participative leader behavior -Achievement-oriented leader behavior
Elements of Expectancy Theory
-Effort-to-Performance Expectancy -Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy -Valence
Human Resource Approach: Assump.
-Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization -Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions -Management's job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that motivates employees
Incentive Reward Systems
-Employee pay is based on employee output Assume that: -Performance is under control of individual worker -Employee works at a single task continuously -Pay is tightly tied to performance (pay varies with output)
Subsequent Research of Ohio State Studies
-Employees of supervisors ranked high on initiating structure were high performers, but had low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism -Employees of supervisors ranked high on consideration had low performance ratings, but had levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism
Criticism of Executive Compensation
-Excessively large compensation amounts -Compensation not tied to overall and long-term performance of the organization -Earnings gap between executive pay and typical employee pay
Motivation Process Perspectives
-Expectancy Theory -Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory -Equity Theory -Goal-Setting Theory
Type A Personality
-Extremely competitive (aggressive), devoted to work, have a strong sense of time urgency (impatient) -Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible
Equity Comparisons of Individuals
-Feeling equitably rewarded -Feeling under-rewarded -Feeling over-rewarded
Weakness of Maslow's Theory
-Five levels of need are not always present -Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same -Cultural differences can impact the ordering and salience of needs
Reinforcement Schedules
-Fixed interval schedule -Variable interval -Fixed ratio -Variable ratio
Preparation
-Formal education and training is used to "get up to speed" -Experiences on the job provide additional knowledge and ideas
*Organization* Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership
-Formalization -Group cohesion -Inflexibility -A rigid reward structure
Stages of Group and Team Development
-Forming -Storming -Norming -Performing
Types of Groups and Teams
-Functional Group -Informal or Interest Group -Task Group
Team and Group Incentive Reward Systems
-Gain Sharing -Profit Sharing -Employee Stock Ownership Programs (ESOPs)
General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)
-General cycle of the stress process -Stage 1: Alarm -Stage 2: Resistance -Stage 3: Exhaustion
Benefits of Teams
-Give more responsibility for task performance to workers who do the tasks -Empower workers by giving them greater authority and decision-making freedom -Allow organizations to capitalize on the knowledge and motivation of their workers -Enable the organization to shed its bureaucracy and to promote flexibility and responsiveness
Norm conformity occurs when individuals conform to:
-Group or team pressure -An initial (ambiguous) stimulus prompting group behavior -Individual traits that reflect their propensity to conform -The influence of situational factors related to the group
Contributions of Maslow's Theory
-Identified and categorized individual needs -Emphasized importance of needs to motivation
Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)
-Identified two forms of leader behavior 1. Job-centered behavior 2. Employee-centered behavior -The two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum
Reasons for poor person-job fit
-Imperfect organizational selection procedures -Change in both people and organizations over time -New technologies require new employee skills -Unique individuals and unique jobs
Incentive Reward Systems cont'd
-Incentive Pay Plans 1. Piece-rate systems 2. Sales Commissions -Non-monetary incentives
Feeling over-rewarded
-Increase or decrease inputs -Distort ratios by rationalizing -Help the object person gain more outcomes
Common Political Behaviors
-Inducement -Persuasion -Creation of an obligation -Coercion -Impression management
Sources of Intergroup Conflict
-Interdependence -Different goals -Competition for scarce resources
Situational Approaches to Leadership
-Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt) -Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) -Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House) -Vroom's Decision Tree Approach -The Leader-member Exchange (LMX) Approach
Type B Personality
-Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency -Less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other people -More likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life.
Enhancing Creativity in Organizations
-Make creativity part of the organization's culture (incentives) -Reward creativity; refrain from punishing creative failures
The Creative Individual
-Many creative individuals were reared in creative environments -Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity
Content Perspectives on Motivation
-Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs -The ERG Theory (Aldefer) -The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) -Individual Human Needs (McClelland)
Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance
-Merit Reward Systems -Incentive Reward Systems -Team and Group Incentive Reward Systems
Determinants of Individual Performance
-Motivation -Ability -Work environment
ERG Theory Assumptions
-Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute hierarchy of needs) -If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (frustration-regression)
Consequences of Stress
-Negative Personal Consequences -Negative Work-Related Consequences -Burnout
Stress Management Strategies in Organizations
-Organizations are partly responsible for stress -Organizations also must bear the costs of stress-related claims -Organizational wellness/stress mgmt programs can be used to promote healthful employee activities and derive the benefits of increased organizational productivity
Equity Theory Assumptions
-People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance -Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people
Expectancy Theory Assumptions
-Personal and environmental forces determine behavior -People make decisions about their behavior in organizations -People have different types of needs, desires, and goals. -People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that leads to a desired outcome -Motivation leads to effort that, when combined with ability and environmental factors, results in performance which leads to outcomes having value (valence) to employees
Sources of Interpersonal Conflict
-Personality clash -Differing beliefs or perceptions -Competitiveness
Negative Work-related Consequences
-Poor quality work output and lower productivity -Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment -Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism
Kind of Reinforcement in Organizations
-Positive reinforcement -Avoidance -Punishment -Extinction
The Creative Process
-Preparation -Incubation -Insight -Verification
Four Approaches to Negotiation
-Psychological (Individual differences) -Contextual (Situational characteristics) -Mathematical (Game theory) -Behavioral (cognitive approaches)
Stress Management Strategies for Individuals
-Regular Exercise -Relaxation -Time Management -Support groups
*Task* Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership
-Routineness -The availability of feedback -Intrinsic satisfaction
The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
-Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent sets of factors -Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums: 1. Motivational factors 2. Hygiene factors -Posits that motivation is a 2-step process
Special Forms of Executive Compensation
-Stock option plans -Executive perks
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach
-Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates -Vertical dyads: - - Leaders form unique independent relationships with each subordinate (dyads) in which the subordinate becomes a member of the leader's out-group or in-group
Vroom's Decision Tree Approach: Basic Premises
-Subordinate participation in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation -No one decision-making process is best for all situations -After evaluating problem attributes, a leader chooses a path on the decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation 1. Decision significance 2. Decision timelines
Causes of Stress
-Task Demands -Physical Demands -Role Demands -Interpersonal Demands
Understanding Individuals in Organizations
-The Psychological Contract -The Person-Job Fit -Individual Differences
Historical Perspectives on Motivation
-The Traditional Approach -The Human Relations Approach -The Human Resource Approach
Performing
-The ability of the group/team to prevent or work through problems -Members developing a close attachment to the team
Political Behavior
-The activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcomes
Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)
-The primary functions of a leader are: 1. To make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace 2. To clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards
Stereotyping
-The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute (gender, race, etc) - May cost the organization valuable talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is likely unethical
Selective Perception
-The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs -Can be very detrimental if causes important information to be ignored
Reinforcement Theory
-The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or remain the same over time -Assumes that behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.
Motivation
-The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways. -The goal of managers is to maximized desired behaviors and minimize undesirable behaviors.
Optimal level of conflict in an organization
-Too little conflict and the organization becomes complacent and apathetic, and lacking in innovation and underperforms -Too much conflict creates a dysfunctional organization where hostility and non-cooperation predominate, and suffers from low performance -A moderate level of conflict in an organization fosters motivation, creativity, innovation, and initiative and can raise performance
Feeling under-rewarded
-Try to reduce inequity -Change inputs by trying harder or slacking off -Change outcomes by demanding a raise -Distort the ratios by altering perceptions of self or others -Leave situation by quitting job -Change comparisons by choosing another object person
Personality Types
-Type A -Type B
The Traditional Approach
-Workers are interchangeable tools of production
Type of Workplace Behavior
-Workplace Behavior -Performance Behaviors -Withdrawal Behaviors -Organizational Citizenship
The "Big Five" Personality Traits
1. Agreeableness 2. Conscientiousness 3. Negative emotionality 4. Extraversion 5. Openness
Individual Human Needs (McClelland)
1. Need for achievement 2. Need for affiliation 3. Need for power
Conflict
A disagreement between two or more individuals, groups, or organizations
Burnout
A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time
Informal or Interest Group
A group created by its own members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to the organization's goals
Task Groups
A group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated time horizon
Attribution
A mechanism through which we observe behavior and attribute a cause to it
Workplace Behavior
A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness
Incubation
A period of less intense conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas are acquired, during repatriation, mature and develop
Functional Group
A permanent group created to accomplish a number of organizational purpose with an indefinite time horizon
Empathy
A person's ability to be able to understand how others are feeling
Agreeableness
A person's ability to get along with others
Social Skill
A person's ability to get along with others
Motivating Oneself
A person's ability to remain optimistic in the face of failure
Self-Efficacy
A person's belief about his or her capabilities to perform a task.
Self-Awareness
A person's capacity for being aware of how they are feeling
Managing Emotions
A person's capacity to ensure that feelings do not interfere with getting things accomplished
Extraversion
A person's comfort level with relationships
Stress
A person's response to a strong stimulus (a stressor)
Openness
A person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.
Instrumental Compliance
A subordinate complies with a manager's request to get the rewards that the manager controls
Legitimate Request
A subordinate's compliance with a manager's request because the organization has given the manager the right to make the request
Stage 3: Exhaustion
All resources for fighting the threat have been depleted and illness is more likely
Flexible Work Schedules (flextime)
Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work
Telecommuting
Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usually at home, by using email, the Internet, and other forms of information technology.
Organizational Commitment
An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to an organization
Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work
Equity
An individual's belief that the treatment the individual receives is fair relative to the treatment received by others
Team
An interdependent group of workers who function as a unit, often with little or no supervision, to carry out work-related tasks, functions, and activities
Process Perspectives
Approaches to motivation that focus on: -Search for behavioral options and alternatives -Choice of behavioral options to satisfy needs -Rewards and evaluation of satisfaction after goals are attained
Motivational factors (work content)
Are on a continuum that ranges from satisfaction to no satisfaction
Hygiene factors (work environment)
Are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction
Intrasender Conflict
Arises when a single source sends contradictory messages
Role Demands
Associated with the role; may experience role ambiguity or role conflict
The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory
Assumptions -If performance results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied -High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction
Forming
Attempting to define the task and how it will be accomplished through discussions of task-related concepts/issues
Chapter 15
Basic Elements of Individual Behavior in Organizations
Machiavellianism
Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others
Supportive Leader Behavior
Being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.
Socialization
Norm conformity that occurs when a person makes the transition from being an outsider to being and insider in the organization
Intrarole Conflict
Caused by conflicting demands from different sources
Goal-Setting Theory
Characteristics of Goals -Goal Difficulty -Goal specificity -Goal acceptance -Goal commitment
Norm Variation
Norms and their application vary within a group or team (internal)
Attitudes
Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people
Participative Leader Behavior
Consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making
Rational Persuasion
Convincing subordinates compliance is in their best interest
Storming
Defensiveness, intragroup competition, and the formation of factions; arguing among members, even when they agree
Expert Power
Derived from the possession of information or expertise
The Human Relations Approach
Emphasized role of social processes in workplace
The Human Resource Approach
Emphasized value of employees to organization
Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
Employee's perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance
Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
Employee's perception of the probability that performance will lead to a specific outcome - the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational setting
Human Relations Approach: Assump.
Employees want to feel useful and important, employees have strong social needs, more important than money, maintaining the appearance of employee participation is important
Norming
Establishing and maintaining team ground rules. More friendliness and confiding in one another.
Intentional Component
Expected behavior in a given situation
Goal Difficulty
Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort -People work harder to achieve more difficult goals -Goals should be difficult but attainable
The Person-Job Fit
Extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization
Affective Component
Feelings and emotions toward a situation
Great Man Approach
Five common traits of leaders: 1. Intelligence 2. Self-confidence 3. Determination 4. Integrity 5. Sociability.
Reward Power
Given or withheld rewards, such as salary increases, promotions, praise
Legitimate Power
Granted through the organizational hierarchy
Gain Sharing
Group based, and all members get bonus when predetermined levels are exceeded. Aligns employee and corporate interests
Subordinates' Characteristics
Independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations
Stage 2: Resistance
Individual is actively resisting the effects of the stressor
External Locus of Control
Individuals who believe that *external forces* dictate what could happen to them
Internal Locus of Control
Individuals who believe that *they* are in control of their own life, and what happens to them
Inspirational Appeal
Influencing a subordinate's behavior through an appeal to a set of higher ideals or values (loyalty)
Valence
Is an index of how much an individual values a particular outcome (reward)
Directive Leader Behavior
Letting subordinates know what is expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work
Feeling equitably rewarded
Maintain performance and accept comparison as fair estimate
Impression Management
Making a direct and intentional effort to enhance one's image in the eyes of others
Delegate
Manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution
Decide
Manager makes decision alone and then announces or sells it to the group.
Consult (Group)
Manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision
Consult (Individually)
Manager presents program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision
Facilitate
Manager presents the problem to the group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision
Traditional Approach: Assumptions
Managers know more than workers, economic gain (money) is the primary motivation for performance, work is inherently unpleasant
Employee-Centered Behavior
Managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction.
Job-Centered Behavior
Managers who pay close attention to subordinates' work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance
Chapter 16
Managing Employee Motivation and Performance
Chapter 17
Managing Leadership and Influence Processes
Chapter 19
Managing Work Groups and Teams
Expectancy Theory
Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it.
The ERG Theory (Aldefer)
Needs are grouped into overlapping categories: -Existence needs (physiological and security needs) -Relatedness needs -Growth needs (self-esteem and self-actualization)
Role Conflict
Occurs when messages and cues of the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive -Interrole conflict -Intrarole conflict -Intrasender conflict -Person-role conflict
Role Ambiguity
Occurs when the sent role is unclear
Inducement
Offering to give something to someone else in return for that person's support
Stage 1: Alarm
Panic, wondering how to cope, and a feeling of helplessness
Cognitive Component
Perceived knowledge
Individual Differences
Personal attributes that vary from one person to another -Physical, psychological, or emotional.
Persuasion
Persuading others to support a goal on grounds that are objective and logical as well as subjective and personal
Profit Sharing
Provides a varying annual bonus to employees based on corporate profits.
Variable Ratio
Provides reinforcement after varying numbers of behaviors are performed, such as the use of complements by a supervisor on an irregular basis
Creation of an obligation
Providing support for another person's position that obliges that person to return the favor at a future date
Achievement-Oriented Leader Behavior
Setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates
Situations that Enhance Creativity
Specific and difficult goals; Time pressure; Small budget; Adversity; Supportive culture; Heterogeneity
Norms
Standards of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors that a group sets for its members -Norm generalization -Norm Variation
Avoidance
Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior is not performed
Positive Reinforcement
Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed
Coercive Power
The capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or phsyical threat
Decision Timeliness
The degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates
Risk Propensity
The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.
Decision Significance
The degree to which the decision will have an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high
Task Structure
The degree to which the group's task is defined
Need for Affiliation
The desire for human companionship and acceptance
Need for Achievement
The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past
Need for Power
The desire to be influential in a group and to be in control of one's environment.
Person-Role Conflict
The discrepancy between role requirements and an individual's values, attitudes, and needs
Self-Esteem
The extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual
Negative emotionality
The extent to which a person is calm, resilient, and secure
Authoritarianism
The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social organizations
Goal Commitment
The extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal
Cohesiveness
The extent to which members are loyal and committed to the group; the degree of mutual attractiveness within the group
Consensus
The extent to which other people in the same situation behave the same way
Use of Power: Coercion
Threatening to fire, punish, or reprimand subordinates if they do not do something
Characteristics of Creative People
Tolerance for ambiguity; Independent thinker; Not inhibited by conformity pressure; Good verbal communicator; Imaginative; Reasonably intelligent; Intrinsically motivated; Hard worker; Asks lots of questions; Willing to take risks and fail
Group
Two or more people who interact regularly to accomplish a common purpose or goal
Situational Characteristics
Type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures.
Porter-Lawler cont'd
Types of Rewards: -Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties -Intrinsic rewards are outcomes internal to the individual
Extinction
Used to weaken undesired behaviors by simply ignoring or not reinforcing them
Coercion (Political)
Using force to get one's way
Personal Identification
Using the superior's referent power to shape a subordinate's behavior
Leader's Characteristics
Value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
a popular questionnaire that some organizations use to assess personality types -is a useful method for determining communication styles and interaction preferences
LPC cont'd
appropriate leadership style varies with situational favorableness (from leader's viewpoint): -LPC scale asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work well with -High scale scores indicate a relationship orientation; low scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leader
Employee Stock Ownership Programs
established to give senior managers the option to buy company stock in the future at a predetermined fixed price
Equity Theory
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