midterm 2

Super Class Tetrapoda

*Colonization of land by animals

Class mammalia modifications

- Homeothermic - • Change in sensory focus - • Modified feeding apparatus - others

Unlikely hypothesis for bipedalism

- threat display - swimming -better vision -carrying food - hunting

interesting

-Birds are reptiles -Birds are dinosaurs -We are not reptiles

Paleocene Primates

-Plesiadapiforms- "primate-like mammals" -Not considered true primates -Lack essential primate traits multituberculate (rodent like... huge tail) plesiadapiform rodent

Morphology of paranthropus

-huge molars -big, molariform premolars -tiny incisors and canines -thick enamel -fortified mandible Very wide and dish shaped face Orthognathic Very pushed up face Strong sagittal crest Postorbital constriction Huge molars big , molariform premolars Tiny incisors and canines Thick enamel Fortified mandible (heavily built with lots of bone)

what are the cenozoic epoch? from youngest to oldest

1. Holocene (1.0 - today) 2. Pleistocene (2.6 - 1.0) 3. Pliocene (5.3 - 2.6) 4. Miocene (23.0 - 5.3) 5. Oligocene (33.9 - 23.0) 6. Eocene (55.8- 33.9) 7. Paleocene (65 M.a - 55.8 M.a)

theories of why bipedalism evolved

1.Bipedalism first evolved among arboreal miocene apes as a feeding mechanism and was retained in hominins 2. Bipedal posture allows for efficient harvesting of fruit from small trees 3. Erect posture allowed hominids to keep cool 4. Bipedal locomotion leaves the hands open to carry things

Paranthropus Aethiopicus

2.5 mya hominin with teeth and skull structures specialized for heavy chewing

Australopithecus gahri

2.5 mya Bouri, ethiopia 2.5 Ma Morphology Small canines and premolars Huge molars Sagittal crest

Australopithecus Africanus

3 Ma to 2.2 Ma Taung Child Bipedal bc foramen magnum Found in south africa

Australopithecus deyiremeda

3.5 m.a Robust jaw and thick enameled teeth Smaller teeth that differ from Au. afarensis

Kenyanthropus

3.5 mya K. platyops Means kenyan man Has a flattened face and small teeth Lived in east africa 3.5 ma to 3.2 ma Very small molars Lived in woodland and savanna environments

A. ramidus

4.4 mya Cranial capacity 300-350 cc Midfacial projection but reduced subnasal prognathism Foramen magnum placed beneath the cranium No canine honing facet Reduced canine Reduced sexual dimorphism

When did hominids first appear?

6 ma but there was a wider range of hominids during 2 and 4 ma

Australopiths

A colloquial name referring to a diverse group of Plio-Pleistocene African hominins. Australopiths are the most abundant and widely distributed of all early hominins and are also the most completely studied.

illium

A flaring blade of bone on the upper end of the pelvis

Angiosperms

A flowering plant which forms seeds inside a protective chamber called an ovary. ---> After the breakup of pangea --- flowering plants called angiosperms appeared and spread Angiosperms depend on animals to pollinate them They produce fruit Primates filled these niches!

Proconsul

A genus of early Miocene proconsulids from Africa, ancestral to catarrhines. 10 genera and 15 species The smallest proconsulids were about the size of a capuchin monkey The largest proconsulids were about the size of a female gorilla Earliest was found in kenya around 27 MA Most recent founf in africa dated 17 ma Proconsul share several derived features with living apes and humans that we dont see in haplorhinne primates No fleshy pad or tail Big brains Substantial sexual dimorphism Frugivorous thin tooth enamel walked quadrepedally

argon-argon dating

A high-precision method for estimating the relative quantities of argon-39 and argon-40 gas; used to date volcanic ashes that are between 500,000 and several million years old.... more accurate than potassium argon dating like a sophisticated version

fungi

A kingdom made up of nongreen, eukaryotic organisms that have no means of movement, reproduce by using spores, and get food by breaking down substances in their surroundings and absorbing the nutrients Fungi Like animals, storage of glycogen, same mitochondrial codon for tryptophan, hydrolytic enzymes, similar mitochondria Clade diverges 1.5 ba with physical evidence appearing ca. 600 Ma and land fungi at 400 Ma.

uranium-lead dating

A method of dating zirconium crystals in igneous rocks that is based on the ratio of uranium to lead........ USED IN CAVES IN SOUTH AFRICA WITH FLOWSTONE PRECIPITATION ..... used a lot with south african hominoid fossil remains

faunal dating

A method of relative dating based on observing the evolutionary changes in particular species of mammals, so as to form a rough chronological sequence

Gymnosperms

A plant that reproduces without flowering----> During the first 2/3rds of the mesozoic, the forests were dominated by gymosperms (trees like contemporary redwood, pine, and fir)

Orrorin tugenensis

A pre-australopithecine species found in East Africa that displayed some of the earliest evidence of bipedalism. 5.8 -- 6.1 MA Tugen hills, kenya Bipedal More similar to modern humans than lucy Was more similar to australopithecus Evidence of bipedality: shape of femur neck and cross section of bone

kenyanthropus platyops

A proposed genus and species of biped contemporary with early australopithecines; may not be a separate genus. West turkana, kenya 3.5- 3.2 MA LIKE LUCY Morphology Flat face Small molars Small brain Probs just a very damaged skull of A. afarensis

thermoluminescence dating

A relative dating method in which the energy trapped in a material is measured when the object is heated. ---> heated tools

thermoluminescence dating

A relative dating method in which the energy trapped in a material is measured when the object is heated. ---> heated tools.... measuring the density of trapped electrons in the crystal lattice ..... HEATED TOOLS THAT CAN BE DATED FROM 100 YEARS AGO TO 1,000,000

Pangea

A supercontinent containing all of Earth's land that existed about 225 million years ago.

Torque

A twisting force on the pelvis when walking

abductors

Abductors Muscles that cause your torso to not tip while walking... they are muscles that run from the outer side of the pelvis to the femur

diff between adapids and omomyids

Adapids were larger than omomyids, and they had longer snouts and smaller orbits than the omomyids had. The shape of their teeth suggests that they fed on fruit or leaves. Adapids likely looked similar to lemurs of today. Omomyids were small primates that fed mainly on insects, fruit, or gum. They likely looked similar to modern galagos or tarsiers.

Class Amphibia

Amphibians Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. Modern amphibians are all Lissamphibia. - Scientific name: Amphibia - Phylum: Chordata - Higher classification: Batrachomorpha - Rank: Class Class Amphibia • Spend at least part of their lives in the water • *Can also live on land • Most skin, no claws • Frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, etc.

electron spin resonance dating

An absolute dating method that uses microwave spectroscopy to measure electrons' spins in various materials. TEETH

australopithecus deyiremeda

An australopithecine, overlapping in time with Au. afarensis in East Africa Woranso- mille, ethiopia 3.5 Ma Morphology Similar to A. Afarensis Smaller teeth and distinct facial anatomy

what was the ancestral mammal like?

Ancestral mammal Small Active- high metabolism Well insulated Nocturnal Poor vision Good olfaction Insectivorous

paranthropus engaged in heavy grinding and chewing not ripping and tearing

Anteriorly placed sagittal crest Orthognathic Wide face Really moving its mouth side to side in a GRINDING FASHION

Canines in early primates

Anthropoid monkeys have canines (men larger than female) Mainly used for fighting NOT meat eating Some primates also use canines for feeding (opening fruits, killing prey) Controlling for body size, some primates have canines that are longer and stronger than those of any living carnivore, exceeded only by sabertooth

Propliopithecids

Ape-like anthropoids dating from the early Oligocene, found in the Fayum area of Egypt ---> 2.1.2.3 Arboreal quadrapeds Zeuxis Prob not pair bonded

When did apes first appear?

Apes first appeared during the miocene epoch--- 23 ma to 5 ma

Ar. ramidus

Ar. Ramidus Appears a million years after Ar. Kadabba Dated 4.4 M.a There was a huge amount found Has a distinctive suite of dental traits Thicker molar enamel Reduced sexual dimorphism in the canines And no honing on pre-molars The smaller canines suggest that Ar. Ramidus was less frugivorous than modern primates Was a generalized omnivore and frugivore Characteristics of the feet and pelvis indicate that Ar. Ramidus walked upright Retained the opposable toe but the other 4 toes were evolved for bipedal locomotion Has a shorter and broader ilium (pelvis bone) Hands and forearms suggest they didn't knucklewalk Palms and fingers are more short

Bipedalism removed selection against brain size increase

Arboreal life (need to hang on immediately after birth) requires babies to be precocial Increased encephalization produces altricial babies Arboreality constraints brain size by selecting against altricial babies Could it be a consequence and not a cause

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.... used in radiometric dating

Australopithecus

Au. Amenensis, Au. Aferensis, Au, deyiremeda, Au. Africanus, Au. gahri, Au. sediba Found in south africa Had a small skull and teeth Reached sexual maturity early

Australopithecus Gahri

Australopithecus Gahri lived about 2.5 Ma in east Africa Gahri means suprise Large molars

development of australopithecines to paranthropus

Australopithecus afarensis → p. Boisei Australopithecus africanus → p. Robustus '

Australopithecus aferensis

Australopithecus aferensis Found in east Africa from 3.6 - 3.0 M.a LUCYYYY Many people believe Au. aferensis evolved from Au. anemensis

Taung Child

Australopithecus africanus First specimen of australopithecus Raymond dart: Taung Child Australopithecus africanus Southern ape of africa Then comes australopithecus Africanus and Paranthropus Robustus Gracile: africanus Built finer Robust: robustus Built bigger

The oldest Australopithecus

Australopithecus anamensis comes from sites in kenya and ethiopia Dated between 4.2 M.a and 3.9 M.a

ecological preferences

Australopithecus likely inhabited a variety of woodland and grassland habitats ---- never too far from trees They also exploited lots of dietary niches Adaptations suggest strong chewing apparatus Nuts tubers seeds Large anterior teeth Ripping tearing puncture (fruits Evidence from dental isotopes show a shift to more grassland foods around 3.6 MA

What species did they diversify into during 4 and 2 Ma

Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Kenyanthropus, Homo

australopithecus bahreghazali

Bahrelghazali Bahr el Ghazal, Chad 3.4-3 Ma Morphology Similar to A. Afarensis Biggest diff but thin enamel

benefits and costs of high rank

Benefits of high rank -Access to resources -Less harassment/stress Costs of seeking high rank -Time lost -Wounds

biology of human pair mating

Biology of the human mating pair-bond Extreme need for parental investment Babies can't do anything (altricial) We have very little sexual dimorphism (15%) relative to apes (50%) Testis size and sperm count suggests moderate sperm comp Penis size and shape unique among the apes, possible for sperm competition An argument used to justify philandery (cheating) No baculum (penis bone) Ovulation hidden (we have no estrous swellings Females have permanent breasts, likely because of their fat storage for mobile hunter- gatherers Exaptation = current function is not evolutionary or developmental functions As with bonobos, sex has a broader function in humans than in chimps... it binds partners together chemically, psychologically, keeping them together in order to invest in the bable Evidence that female orgasm <1 min or before or <45 min after male ejaculation increases the chances of sperm reaching the uterus .... Increases the emotional/behavioral connection While the pair bond is ubiquitous in humans, the variation in the strength of the pair bond and the existence of intra= species mating systems diversity are the products of FICTIVE KINSHIP-- such alliance formation requires symbolic cognition

Australopithecus cranial volume

Brain cavity capacity 466 cc 30% bigger than apes but much smaller than modern humans

Class Reptilia

Class Reptilia *Lay eggs on land • Dry skin with scales and claws • Homodonty (all have the same teeth) • One group led to birds (theropods)

How did climate change effect hominoid diversity?

Climate changes in the late middle miocene reduced hominoid diversity in asia and europe As it became cooler, many ape fauna became extinct During the early and middle miocene, ape species were plentiful and monkey species were not, in the late miocene and early pliocene, many ape species became extinct and were replaced by monkeys

what is the best prediction of mate preferences?

Culture predicts people mate preferences better than their sex does Knowing where a person lives tells you more about what they value in a person than what their sex is Cultural explanations and evolutionary psychology are not mutually exclusive

difference in mating tactics cause misunderstandings

Differences in mating tactics may contribute to misunderstanding between men and women Women do more false negatives as they underestimate men's commitment They also overanalyze men's intentions Men do more false positives and over estimate women's sexual interest womens fear of getting pregnant and mens fear of missing out on a reproductive experience

Louis and Mary Leakey

Discovered a 1.8 million year old hominid in Africa Mary took a drive and discovered in Laetoli Tanzania (lots of footprints)

Imperfect correspondence between primate and human social systems

Dissociation of proximate and ultimate behavioral mechanisms Fictive kinship (non-biological) expands human social flexibility cultural things hoarding foods Articulation and reification of abstract ideas Integrity, freedom We put energy around these things WE ARE CULTURAL ANIMALS

When did the first haplorhhines come about?

During the oligocene epoch many parts of the world became colder and drier The continents looked like they look today 43 ma to 23 ma Tropical evergreen forests became tropical deciduous

Sahelanthropus Tchadensis

Earliest known primate Has a mix of derived and shared characteristics Found in Chad Foramen magnum found under the skull Flat face Massive brow ridge small brain

weather in the Paleocene

Early Eocene Temperature spike 5-8 degrees carbon due to massive injections of carbon into the atmosphere Warmest period in cenozoic Causes unknown

problems with the savannah hypothesis

Early hominins often associated with forest dwelling animals Significant grasslands began well before hominin lineage Severe aridity and associated grassland expansion began AFTER earliest bipeds

earth history

Earth history -4 ½ billion years ago -Earliest evidence for life on earth is 3-4 billion years ago - 3.5 billion years ago signs of photosynthesis

Where did the Australopithecus live and what did they eat?

East Africa Australopiths lived in a wide variety of woodland and grassland habitats Australopithecus ate a wide variety of foods Adapted to the cooler environment by eating tough foods like nuts, seeds, roots, and tubers (potatoes) We can figure out what they ate by looking at the carbon isotope of their teeth enamel

P. Boisei

East turkana, olduvai, tanzania, Konso, Ethiopia 2.2 - 1.0 MA Habitat Riverine system and gallery forest 500-550 c.c.

third party opinion towards incest

Edward Westenmark speculated that childhood propinquity stiffles desire Tawainese minor marriage In minor marriages - the bride is adopted into the family of her future husband during infancy The kids who grew up together had absolutely no interest in consummating the marriage so their husband's fathers would beat the newlyweds Kibbutz age mates Jews organized into utopian groups of children that were raised in communal nurseries There was no sexual experimentation or marriage between kids In a study of kibbutznik only 14 married from their same group Third party attitudes towards incest Our aversions to inbreeding extend beyond our attitudes towards our own mating behavior We are disgusted at thought of having sex with our children and other people having sex with their children Women are more averse to a situation than men People who had opposite sex brothers and sisters were disgusted more

EEA

Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness\ Environment of evolutionary adaptedness- the social, technological, and ecological conditions under which human mental abilities have evolved Have discovered how adapt humans are at detecting imbalances in social exchange and violations of social contracts.... In regards to reciprocal altruism

who is more powerful? metharia or eutheria?

Eutheria

why is the nature/nurture debate is a false dichotomy

Even highly canalized traits can be effected by the environment

Features of A. sediba

Features of australopith Long upper limbs Primitive ankle bones 420 cc (juvenile) Molar cusps positioned like australopithecus Modern features Geometry of humerus and femur suggest habitual bipedality Pelvis Small premolars and molars Gracile facial features Modern precision grip

female counter strategies to infanticide/ aggression

Female counter-strategies: sexual swellings Large brightly colored swellings advertise fertility Swellings usually last longer than the window of highest fertility, so this is not an honest review Swellings attract many males who attempt to mate with females By mating with many males, females spread paternity uncertainty

female friends as a strategy

Female friends Females most often prefer kin but can form friendships among unrelated females Strong alliances among females can protect females from male aggression Bonobos vs chimps

Distribution of females

Females mainly compete over access to food Defend solitary range Perhaps sharing range with 1-2 males Group living Larger groups win gegen small groups Females often live in groups with female kin Dominance hierarchies Higher ranking females get more food More food → more babies

use of male friends as a reproductive strategy

Females may affiliate and mate mainly with preferred males 1-2 male friends in savanna Leader male in baboons Dominant silverback in gorillas Females may concentrate paternity rather than diluting Male who is confident of paternity protects infants Risky if takeover

Ar. kadabba

From 5.8 to 5.2 M.a Like Sahelanthropus.. Contains a mix of new and old dental traits Thick enamel but canine sharpens itself on the first premolar Toe bone indicates bipedal locomotion

Orrorin tugenensis

Genus name means original man 6 ma A bunch of bones Thick teeth enamel Found in kenya They assessed the femur and saw it was more human like than apelike

Paranthropus

Genus of vegetarian hominins includes P. aethiopicus, robustus and boisei.

Paranthropus

Genus of vegetarian hominins includes P. aethiopicus, robustus and boisei. P. aethiopicus, P. Robustus, and P. boisei Means parallel to man Similar to Australopithecus from the head down but had a huge skull and teeth modified for chewing power

which other apes showed canine reduction?

Gigantopithecus Ouranopithecus Ramapithecus Smaller just female apes of some species not diff species

reasons for dominance hierarchies

Group selectionist view -Good for species Gene-selectionist view -Individuals should assess likelihood of winning or -losing -Selfish strategy to avoid costly fights -Dominance hierarchies emerge as individuals learn about competitive ability of other group members -Higher ranking females produce more babies than lower ranking females -Higher ranked mothers produce daughters who mature faster -Survivorship of daughters is higher if mothers rank is high

Class agnatha (jaw-less fish)

Hagfish living today No true paired fins Filter feeders Armored covered with enamel like substance

homo

Homo H. Habilis, H. rudolfensis, H. erectus Had larger brains and smaller teeth..... They developed more slowly than contemporary hominin species

inbreeding avoidance

Inbreeding avoidance: the offspring of genetically related parents have lower fitness than do the offspring of related parents Inbred matings (relative matings) and outbred matings Inbred matings are more likely to be homozygous for deleterious recessive traits Inbred offspring are less robust and have higher mortality geneticists believe that each person carries the equivalent of 2-5 recessive alleles that are lethal

Eutheria: true placental mammals LIKE MOST MAMMALS

Includes most of common mammals Longer gestation so young are more developed when born Chorioallantoic placenta functions much longer, facilitating fetal maternal exchange and blocking mother's immune response Eutherians are more powerful than Metatheria

Why is it difficult to distinguish relationships between pilo-pleistocene hominins?

Inferring the phylogenetic relationships among the pilo-pleistocene hominins is difficult As the fossil record becomes richer, it is harder to figure out Hard to know what is homologous or convergent BUT the absence of a secure phylogeny does not not allow us to understand human evolution

states of theory of mind

Intentional States or Advanced Theory of Mind Level 1- "I believe this" the max for monkeys Level 2 - " I believe that you suppose that something is the case." Identifies two distinct belief or intentional states Chimps by 4 and 5 Level 3- "I believe that you think that I think this" HUMANS CAN DO 4 AND 5

effects of climate change in 10 Miocene, Pliocene

Isolates warmer pacific ocean from colder atlantic ocean Influx of cold water from the arctic ocean into the atlantic ocean Isolates most of africa from warmer and humid indian ocean air More dramatic temperatures clines lead to more polar ice and lower ocean levels → earth becomes cooler and drier

australopithecus anemensis

Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya, Asa Issie, Ethiopia 4.2- 3.9 MA Habitat: woodland biome Morphology Reduced, pointed canines Thick enamel Strongly built tibia Human like humerus Long, curved fingers Phyletic evolution

ARA-VP-6/500

Known as Ardi Represents most of the skeleton of an individual Weighed 112 lbs Stood 3 ft 9 in tall Lived in a woodland habitat dotted with patches of dense forests Had a brain the size of a chimp Had a flat face but the middle protruded... much like a chimp Had the foramen magnum on the bottom of the skull = bipedal locomotion

Insectivore teeth

Long crests on molars, good for shearing chitin huge canines and incisors ... smallest

Mating between close relatives is very rare among nonhuman primates

Lots of mechanisms that help the chance of parental mating not happen Like fathers leave when the daughter hits puberty And daughters dont mate until the fathers leave

Australopithecus aferensis

Lucy Hadar, Ethiopia.... Laetoli, Tanzania

australopithecus sediba

Malapa S. Africa 1.95-1.78 Ma Tentative evidence that this species may have inhabited or accessed a forested environment Thought it was closely related to the genus homo THIS SPECIES MIGHT BE THE TRANSITION FROM AUSTRALOPITHECUS TO HOMO

male aggression while mating

Male aggression -keep other males away -And to induce females to mate more exclusively with them -Gombe chimpanzees: sexually coercive males sire more offspring --- Infanticide- Males sometimes kill infants they are unlikely to have fathered

Types of male competition in different breeding systems

Males overlap several solitary females or single male groups -Males invest heavily in fighting ability -Strive to keep other males out, fighting, calling, etc Pair living -Males invest in mate guarding rather than fighting -No sexual dimorphism Multimale groups -Within group comp for access to females -Males invest in both fighting ability and fertilization ability (larger testes) Male male comp in one male groups -Male takeovers -Prize is great -Vicious fights

Males vs Females reproduction

Males vs Females Distribution of females limit male reproductive opportunities Males attempt to manipulate female behavior to their advantages

Metatherian: marsupials POUCHES KANGAROOS

Marsupials used to be all over the world Young are birthed early because of mother's immune system: primitive choriovitelline placenta breaks down and endangers fetus No placenta Mixing of blood from mother and offspring At birth infant isn't more than two forelimbs and a sucking mechanism Infants crawl up to the marsupium (pouch) and attaches to nipple Continues the development in marsupium Internal gestation

timeline of primate evolution

Massive climate disruption; extinction of dinosaurs; primitive primate radiation Placental mammals become common after dinosaur extinction PETM; origin of crown primates Circumpolar currents established; origin of crown anthropoids Africa docks with Eurasia; climate and biogeographic effects; crown hominoid origin E. African uplift; Messinian Salinity crisis; hominin origins Onset of modern glaciation: origin of genus Homo

Australopithecus sediba

Means well-spring Dated to 1.98

how men and women differ on preferred spouse age

Men and women differ about the preferred ages of their partners Women want older and men want younger this is not always based on fertility for men Sometimes they just want a girl with good music taste

how does evolutionary theory explains marriage patterns among the kipsigis? a group of East African pastoralists

Men usually have many wives and the women are in their late teens and the man is in his early 20's The dad pays a dowry (bride-wealth) and it is a very high sum The couple has very little say The groom's father prefers a woman who will be very fertile and lives far far away from her family so she is not called to help The bride's father must weigh the pros and cons and may not always accept the highest dowry

traits of ape evolution?

Mobile joints Long life history Intelligent Suspensory locomotion Generalized diet

How do contemporary apes differ from monkeys?

Monkeys feed and live on the tops of trees Apes live and feed on the bottom They have no fleshy pads on their bottoms They use their long arms to bridge gaps in the trees instead of leaping like monkeys Do not need a tail for balance

Early primate fossils found?

Morotopithecus (21 MA) Early miocene ape First evidence of climbing adaptations Seemed to live in dry semi-open to open environment E Kembo (20-17 MA) Early miocene ape The textbook will refer to these apes as pre-consul Not as ape like in locomotion Many other features are more ape-like Encephalized Slow life history Increased forearm motion and strength Lack of tail Dryopithecines (12-9.5 MA) Best known of the eurasian miocene hominoids Suspensory adaptations similar to modern apes Probably ancestral to living great apes Ouranopithecus 9.6- 8.7 MA Potential ancestral african ape Known from greece Similar cranium to african apes No known fossil gorillas and only a few chimpanzee teeth

What is our evidence that australopithecus was bipedal?

Morphology:arboreal Cranially-oriented scapular glenoid Curved phalanges Long toes High intermembral index Morphology:terrestrial Anteriorly placed, downward directed foramen magnum Distinct foot arch Distinct valgus knee Short, broad pelvis A. africanus 3.5-2 MA Little foot discovered Demonstrated that the toes are in line with the rest of the foot.... Only a little abducted = bipedal hominin Discovered then the rest of the hominin

what are the effects of rifting?

Much of africa gets cooler and drier Widespread tropical forest and rainforest begins to give way to more open deciduous forest, gallery forest (next to a lake or river), and savanna Some Fauna retreat to refugia

stem cattahrines

NW monkeys

crown cattarhines

OW monkeys and apes

What are the two types of eocone primates?

Omomyidae (like tarsiers and galagos) and adapidae (like lemurs)

dominance hierarchies

One primate beats out the other primate Very obvious in some species Less obvious or undetectable in others

What other animals showed bipedalism?

Oreopithecus Ape Non-primates Adapted by chimps

P. boisei and P. robustus

P. Boisei and P. Robustus had diff diets Teeth are similar but carbon dating suggests differences

WHAT IS THE ONLY SHARED, DERIVED CHARACTER IN THE SKELETON OF ALL LIVING AND FOSSIL PRIMATES?

PETROSAL AUDITORY BULLA

Plesiadapiforms

Paleocene organisms that may have been the first primates, originating from an adaptive radiation of mammals. More than 135 species in 11 families First evidence from 65 MA and persisting well into the Eocene until 37 MA Long grasping fingers and other primates like arboreal traits (Carpolestes divergent big toe with nail) Dentition is primate like

Plesiadapiforms

Paleocene organisms that may have been the first primates, originating from an adaptive radiation of mammals. ----> Plesiadapiforms - a group of fossil animals found in what is now montana, colorado, new mexico, montana Show us what old primates were like From 65 ma to 55 ma A time very wet and hot

Plesiadapiforms

Paleocene organisms that may have been the first primates, originating from an adaptive radiation of mammals. ----> Plesiadapiforms - a group of fossil animals found in what is now montana, colorado, new mexico, montana Show us what old primates were like From 65 ma to 55 ma A time very wet and hot lived during the Paleocene

Paranthropus boisei

Paranthropus boisei was a robust P. robustus Tanzania Larger bodies and molars Skull specialized for heavy chewing Thick molar enamel 2.2 ma to 1.3 ma

Paranthropus robustus

Paranthropus robustus is a more recent species found in southern africa Massive skulls and teeth Came about 1.8 ma and disappeared around 1 Bigger brains Bipedal Sexual dimorphism 4.5 and 80 lbs Males grew longer

plants

Photosynthetic, non-mobile, lacking obvious nervous or sensory organs, cellulose cell walls First photosynthesis

prothera --- egg lasying mammals PLATYPYUS

Platypus and echidna are living today Young born from a tough leathery eggs Mammalian characteristics but also "reptilian" in some aspects Have mammary glands but lack nipples

climate change effects in 30 Ma Oligocene

Polar water no longer mixes with equatorial water Build up of ice caps at the poles Water levels go down; more land is exposed Temperatures drop throughout much of the world

when did primates appear in south america?

Primates appear in south america for the first time during the oligocene but we aint sure how they got there and when

When did primates with modern features first appear?

Primates w/ modern features appeared in the eocene epoch 54-34 ma America and europe still connected Was even wetter and warmer than the paleocene In the eocene primates we see the beginnings of modern primates Grasping hands and feet w/ nails no claws Hind limb - dominated posture Large brains Full orbital convergence

Australopiths in the trees

Probably didn't sleep in trees during the night Were better adapted to climbing than humans but worse than chimpanzees

terminal adaption and feedback loops

Probs not one cause it' s hard to go back to quadrupedalism after becoming bipedal

Carbon-14 dating

Process of estimating age of once living material by measuring the amount of radioactive isotope of carbon present in material...... used for measuring dead organisms (like animals) must be younger than 40,000 years. after an organism dies it goes from carbon 14 to nitrogen 14. You measure carbon 14 to carbon 12.

Trail of fossil footprints

Proves that they had a striding gate The tallest was 4'8'' Could be Au. afarensis, Au. deyiremeda, Kenyanthropus platyops

Dissociation of proximate and ultimate behavioral mechanisms

Proximate (hunger for eatings) → ultimate (nutrition leads to reproductive success) .. chips Pleasure sought in sex → reproductive sucess .. condoms

effects of climate change in 22 ma Miocene

Reduced and then eliminated contribution of warmer indian ocean water to N. Atlantic Dramatic climate shifts in circum- mediterranean regions Faunal interchange between africa and Eurasia

Fayum, Egypt

Richest Oligocene fossil beds in the world. Lots of early Anthropoids Rich fossil locality spanning 3 million years on the Eocene/Oligocene boundary First undisputed ancestors to platyrrhines / catarrhines More than 20 primate genera preserved here

australopithicus origin and development (ontogeny)

Section through teeth and you can see little tree ring-like enamels that help you assess the age of death All taxonomy of hominids is based on the Taung Child M1 eruption show that dental development is close to a chimp

south african cave deposits

Sediment dissolves as ground water goes up → dolomite Was a death trap for hominins falling in Really hard to figure out geologically

When did the hominin community diversify?

Several hominin species lived in africa between 4 Ma and 2 Ma

A. ramidus postcraniel capacity

Short broad pelvis Abductable big toe that was used to stabilize in bipedal locomotion Primitive foot with some bipedal features Length of arm to leg (intermembral index) close to 1 ............ No suspensory or knuckle walking adaptations Wrist suggests arboreal palmigrady Walking not on knuckles but palms

The australopithecus skull is apelike bc

Skull is apelike Flared out at the bottom Has Subnasal Prognathism The nose is pushed out Jaw joint is shallow Dentition is apelike Large and procumbent molars There is a space between the upper canine and incisor This is referred to as Diasteme

Parapithecids

Small monkey-like Oligocene primates found in the Fayum area of Egypt ---> a very diverse group that is now divided into 4 genera and 8 species 2.1.3.3 formula

Australopithecus is human in these ways

Smaller front teeth Large premolars and molars that are heavily enameled Has an intermediate jaw not quite parabolic (humans) and not quite u- shaped (apes)

hypotheses of the increase of primate intelligence

Social intelligence hypothesis: predicts species living in larger groups are more intelligent Have higher neocortex based on how big the group is This is not the same for solitary apes Behavioral flexibility hypothesis: predicts that frugivores are more intelligent than folivores and that extractive foragers are more intelligent than others (great apes more intelligent than monkeys) May be multiple and complementary explanations for increased intelligence Evolution is historically contingent (subject to change)

sperm competition theory

Sperm competition More common in multimale communities

Laurasia and Gondwana

Split again (180 million years ago) laurasia north and gondwana south

P. Robustus

Swartkrans, kromdraii, s. Africa 2.0 -1.5 Ma Habitat Dry grasslands riverine system 530 cc

the ratchet effect

The concept that humans continually improve on improvements, that they do not go backward or revert to a previous state. Progress occurs because improvements move themselves upward, much like a ratchet. Emulation learning produces a slow ratchet effect Imitation learning produces a fast ratchet effect, due to greater fidelity of transmission between generations. No Need to reinvent the wheel of each generation em·u·la·tion effort to match or surpass a person or achievement, typically by imitation. im·i·ta·tion the action of using someone or something as a model.

parentel investment theory predicts mate preferences

The differences in mate preferences are also predicted by parental investment theory Women value good finances more than men Men value good looks more than women Men value chastity more than women No society in which women value chastity more than men do

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

The earliest pre-australopithecine species found in central Africa with possible evidence of bipedalism. Oldest hominin 6-7 MA, Chad Dating? Hard to tell Cause of dunes Discovered in 2001 by Ahounta Dkimdoumalbaye Habitat: lake, forest, riverine, wooded savanna

Weather in the miocene?

The early miocene was warm and moist, but by the end of the epoch, the world had become much cooler and arid

continental drift

The hypothesis that states that the continents once formed a single landmass, broke up, and drifted to their present locations

When did hominoids expand?

The middle miocene epoch saw a new radiation of hominoids and the expansion of hominoids throughout much of eurasia They had harder teeth and skulls than preconsulids

Taphonomy

The study of how bones and other materials come to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils.

Paleomagnetism

The study of the alignment of magnetic minerals in rock,specifically as it relates to the reversal of Earth's magnetic poles; also the magnetic properties that rock requires during formation

evolution of mammals

The transition from therapsids to crown mammals is one of the best documented cases transitions in the fossil record • Occurred gradually • Many transition fossils

oligopithecids

These primates share many primitive features with the Eocene strepsirrhines. However, they also share some derived features with contemporary haplorrhines. Only some members of this group have a 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 dental formula. Members of this group may have ranged beyond the Fayum into North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.

parapithecids

This is a relatively diverse group of fossil primates, the largest of which were the size of a guenon, the smallest were the size of a marmoset. They had a 2.1.3.3/2.1.3.3 dental formula and unspecialized, primitive teeth.

Propliopithecids

This is a somewhat diverse group of fossil primates. Although they were larger in body size, they still showed signs of arboreal quadrupedalism. They had a 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 dental formula and ate mainly fruit.

unlikely hypothesis on the origin of bipedalism

Threat display Wading and swimming in water Better vision Stood up to carry Hunting We were deff more prey than hunters

what are the three domains of life?

Three domains of life -Bacteria Has no nucleus Single cells -Archaea Split from nucleus 3.8 billion years ago single cell without nucleus loves extreme temperatures -Eukaryotes Has a cell 2.7 billion

Why do primates have large brains?

Tool use Language Cooperative hunting Social behavior Primates have complex stratified social relationships Vervet screams by Seyfarth and Cheney Infant scream All females look at mother Chacma baboons Food source that juveniles couldn't acess Juvenile saw unrelated female with food and screamed as if threatened Mother came and chased female Juvenile then got food Primate societies Individuals know how to whom they are related and can use info for concealment deception

the principle of superposition

When artifacts are found in rock or earth that is layered, the deeper layers hold the older artifacts old layers are covered by newer layers

The climate has changed substantially during the last 65 million years, first becoming warmer and less variable, then cooling, and finally fluctuating widely in temp

When continents restrict circulation of water from the tropics to the poles, world climates seem to become cooler Larger bodies of land are colder During the period of peak warmth known as Miocene, there were palm trees as far north as oslo and alaska

M1 eruption

When the first molar (M1) emerges is usually a good predictor of when species will reach sexual maturity ranged from the ages of 2.9-3.9 in australopiths

why do we not group bacteria and archaea together?

Why not group bacteria and archaea? -Archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes and prokaryotes -We don't form groups with primitive characteristics like a lack of nucleus

diffs in dental morphology?

Wide parabolic dental arcade Thick molar enamel Reduced canine teeth Large molars

the principle of faunal succession

Within any layer of rock (stratum), different types of fossils succeed one another in the same relative order

apatite crystals

a crystalline material found in tooth enamel

Omomyidae

a family of early primates that radiated during the Eocene epoch between about 55 to 34 million years ago - Must be nocturnal bc they have HUGGEE orbits -Varying teeth so they could all eat what they wanted fruit, insects, gum They may have been able to leap from branch to branch - like tarsiers and galagos

Adapidae

a family of extinct primates that primarily radiated during the Eocene epoch between about 55 and 34 million years ago. Smaller eye orbits... probs diurnal Look like living lemurs Do not have a tooth comb Were bigger than the omomyids Their postcranial bones indicate they were quadruped aboreals Ida found in frankfurt

what did the discovery of carpolestes Simpsoni tell us?

a fossil that displayed grasping evolved before leaping and orbital convergence

deep time

a framework for considering the span of human history within the much larger age of the universe and planet earth we cannot comprehend

australopithecus tool use

a good indicator of australopithecus behavior Tool use is not well documented but able to be assumed Stone tools!!!!! Lomekwi 3.3 Ma tools Dikika 3.4 Ma Cut marks Kantis 3.4- 3.5 MA NONE IS REALLY COMPELLING

what belongs to euarchonta?

a grand order of primates Primates Tree shrews Flying lemurs THEY ARE ALL FAIRLY CLOSELY RELATED

stratum

a level or layer of the earth

potassium-argon dating

a method of dating rocks from the relative proportions of radioactive potassium-40 and its decay product, argon-40. ----> volcanos we measure the potassium 40 that transfers to argon 40. Volcanic rock that must be 500,000 years old.

Glaciation

a process by which glaciers form and spread Modern systems of glacials and interglacials begins roughly 2.4 Ma Many species go extinct (maybe significant in human evolution) Temperate organisms invade Africa Adaptations towards abrasive, drier climate diets: elephants, antelope, pigs, human

rain shadow

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side

What is the petrosal bulla?

a small bony covering that protects the middle ear in the base of the skull. Other mammals have an auditory bulla, but only primates have one that is fused to the petrosa (a bony plate) before birth.

It is argued that a. Ramidus used bipedal locomotion terestrially as needed and clambered arboreally

a unique combo similar to features of the earliest apes E. Kembo

what are the trait explanations for crown primates? are they false?

a. visual predation----- traits evolved for better insect predation b. grasp leaping hypothesis--- traits evolved for the purpose of grasp leapin both a and b are false

lordosis

abnormal anterior curvature of the lumbar spine (sway-back condition) - proved australopiths were fully bipedal on the ground - but they probs walked slower than us

Therapsids

an extinct group of reptiles from which mammals evolved.... warm blooded and covered in hair

developmental timing

australopithecus probably developed at a similar rate to humans than chimps

Thomas H. Huxley

believed we must combat and not mimic or run away from ancestors (chimps) Think of primates explanatory power

differences between modern humans and other living hominoids

biped, large brain, slow development, teeth arcade, cultural adaptation

what does it take to be a biped

bipedal locomotion distinquishes hominids from hominoids In humans..... They have the thickest cortical bone along the lower edge of the femoral neck Knees that lay close to the midline of the body The human femur slants down and inward to meet with the knee

Class Aves

birds Class Aves • Feathers derived from scales • Homeothermic • Wings • Beak with no teeth in living birds

zygomatic arches

bones that form the structure of the cheeks

hominin evolution?

canine reduction bipedalism

What are Milankovitch cycles?

changes in Earth's orbit and orientation to the Sun Eccentricity in the earth's orbit varies - 100,000 year cycle Axial tilt varies from 22.1 - 24.5 C ---- 41,000 year cycle Precession (wobble) of the axis varies -- 26,000 year cycle

lacustrine sediments

deposited in lakes

mosaic evolution

diff traits evolve at diff rates

Ardipithecus

earliest recognized hominin genus (5.8-4.4 m.y.a), Ethiopia A. KADABBA 5.2 --- 5.8 A. RAMIDUS 3.9 - 4.4 Habitat reconstructed as mostly wooded with a higher water budget than today supporting a rich flora and fauna

Oligopithecids

early catarrhines not specially related to either hominoids or cercopithecoids; very primitive (epitomized by Catopithecus).

Folivore

eats leaves --> not intense canines but large premolars ... bugger than frugivore

the origin of crown primates?

first appeared in the eocene epoch... they displayed Grasping hands and feet Nails Hind limbs dominate locomotion Shorter snouts Eyes frontated and enclosed in bony ring Large brains

australopith sites

follow the rifts (cradle of mankind)

Sivapethicus ?????

fossil looks like an orangutang.......

Morotopithecus bishopi

found in Uganda appears to look like an ape and not a monkey Other early miocene apes were similar to morotopithecus in their dentition but more like monkeys in their postcranial anatomy more derived than preconsulidae

Frugivore

fruit eater Frugivore - large incisors to peel the fruit... very small molars ... in between

What came first... orbital convergence, nails, or grasping hands and feet?

grasping hands and feet

what is the defining trait of hominins?

habitual bipedalism

the black skull

he black skull: P. Aethiopicus Lake turkana, kenya; Laetoli, tanzania 2.6- 2.3 Ma 410 cc Marked prognathism Pneumatized mastoid--- lots of bubbles in the brain Compound temporal nuchal crest Sagittal crest anterior and posterior Large anterior and posterior dentition Molariform premolars Wide, dish shaped faced

changes in the miocene period

it rained less and species left the trees and became terrestrial

fallback foods

items consumed when preferred foods are not available - all primates have these

Parts of the brain that have evolved in primates

larger brain structure - Cerebellum - Brains stem

the principle of original horizontality

layers of sediment are generally deposited in a horizontal position

The australopiths matured rapidly

like chimps not humans

inbreeding avoidance hypothesis

natal dispersal behavior minimizes the likelihood of mating with relatives

likely hypothesis for for bipedalism

orthograde posture for arboreal feeding is a pre-adaptation for bipedalism - good example is an orangutan in trees mcgrew: carrying hypothesis - to carry weapons or tools (knuckle walking constrains chimp tool use) erect posture keeps you cool - quadrapeds take up more social radiation

alluvial

pertaining to soil deposits left by running water--- a river

what does the menarche say about the brides?

plump women whose menarche (first menstruation) occurred at an early age fetched the highest bride wealth payments Among the Kipsigis the age of the menarche is a good indicator of female reproductive success Although already having a baby would show good reproductive success, they don't like that and view success as a weight The wealth of grooms father has nothing to do with how big the bride wealth will be.... Because wealth is very unstable among the kipsigis

Sahelanthropus morphology

primitive ---- large thick brow ridge, tiny chimp cranial capacity (320--- 380 cc) derived--- reduced prognathism, smaller canines, foramen magnum is pushed under the skull

traits of bipedalism above the hind limb?

pronograde (4 legged) to orthograde (biped) locomotion with orthograde locomotion.... the verterbreae is shortened and broad, they also increase in size from the neck to the pelvis, there is a lumbar curvature, and the foramen magnum rotates under the head

how did anthropoid primates get to the new world?

rafting potentially Rafting hypothesis Primates rated primates to south america from africa Has happened before: hurricane transferred from Quadalupe to Anguilla (200 miles) and created a new thriving population Weather patterns demonstrate any primates floating off from Africa have the potential to land in South America Land masses can float across water surfaces

magnetic reversals

reversals in magnetic field of earth--> We can date sites by magnetic reversals as they are constant

colluvial sediments

sediments deposited primarily through the action of gravity on geological material lying on hillsides or mountains

Traits of bipedalism below hind limb?

short pedal phelanges long metatarsals hallux (big toe) double arched foot ankle restricted to flexion-extension broad femoro-tibia (the joint knee) valgus knee (knees that cave in)

what relates all of the features of paranthropus?

strong chewing (mastication) -massester muscle (cheek) -temporalis muscle

Endosymbiosis

symbiosis in which one of the symbiotic organisms lives inside the other.

Paranthropus (beside humans)

the clade does not tell us much about our own taxon

why was sahelanthopus a hominin?

the foramen magnum position, the reduced canine implies it is either a hominin or female ape all in all really no good evidence

Rifting

the process by which Earth's crust breaks apart; can occur within continental crust or oceanic crust Mantle plume causes doming of the crust Subsequent erosion reduces weight of the crust above the plume Heat and magma make the crust brittle and volcanism occurs Down faulting of the crust forms rift

endosymbiotic theory

theory that eukaryotic cells formed from a symbiosis among several different prokaryotic organisms Endosymbionts are smaller symbiotic partners living inside a host organism, establishing endosymbiosis. The symbionts may live within the host's cells (intracellular) or outside cells (extracellular) in multicellular hosts.

Origins at evolution of hominoidea

there was a split in the oligocene epoch.......... a single jaw (rukwapitheus fossil) and single tooth (nsungaethpithecus fossil) was discover

sexual dimorphism in australopithecus

there was definite male-male competition

Crowns and stems

they are crown catarhines and stem cattarhines

how were early hominids diff from apes

they walked upright the hominin chewing apparatus changed (bc diff food types)

the australopiths were sexually dimorphic

this suggests intersexual dimorphism -They had body size sexual dimorphism -but no canine size sexual dimorphism

The savanna hypothesis

tried to explain why hominids became bipedal The savanna hypothesis Opening of the forest terrain into grasslands offered apes a new niche, which then produced selection for more bipedalism

Ardipethecus

two types: Ar. Kadabba and Ar. Ramidus

the principle of cross cutting relationships

younger features cut across older features

Class Chondrichthyes (cartilage fish)

• Chondrichthyes. Chondrichthyes (/kɒnˈdrɪkθiiːz/; from Greek χονδρ- chondr- 'cartilage', ἰχθύς ichthys 'fish') is a class that contains the cartilaginous fishes: they are jawed vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. Sharks, rays, etc. • Cartilage doesn't ossify • * three semi-circular canals for balance/motion sensing • * two pairs of fins

superdivision amniote

• *Eggs of amniotes have an amnion: a water-tight membrane near the outer surface Amniotes (from Greek ἀμνίον amnion, "membrane surrounding the fetus", are a clade of tetrapod vertebrates comprising the reptiles, birds, and mammals. Amniotes lay their eggs on land or retain the fertilized egg within the mother, and are distinguished from the anamniotes (fishes and amphibians), which typically lay their eggs in water.

rates of evolution

• 4.55 Ba — 570 Ma • First appearance of life ca. 4.0 Ba • Eukaryotes appear ca. 2.7 Ba • Multicellular animals evolve ca. 600 Ma • 1.3 By: evolution from non-nucleated to nucleated cells • 2.1 By: evolution from primitive eukaryote to multicellular animals • 600 My: evolution of diversity of animals on the planet

gracile australopith species

• A. afarensis • A. "deyiremeda" • A. africanus • A. "bahrelghazali" • A. garhi • A. sediba

Class Placodermi (jawed)

• Archaic *jawed fish • Extinct • Also armored • Predatory fish up to 30ft in length • *first teeth are modified scales

• Change in sensory focus

• Forebrain enlarged for olfaction and tactile senses • Presence of whiskers for tactile sense

Homeothermic

• Hair for insulation • 4 chambered heart (separate oxygenated blood from de-oxygenated blood) • Muscular diaphragm • Secondary palate separates breathing from chewing • Sweat glands

Taxonomy and the major adaptations in human evolutionary history

• Kingdom Animalia: locomote and ingest food • Subkingdom Metazoa: multicellular animals • Phylum Chordata: have (at some point in development) a primitive notochord (flexible, supportive rod), dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a tail; bilaterally symmetric, metameric segmentation, and a circulatory system

others

• Mammary glands/nurse young • More vertical limbs for efficient locomotion • Non-continuous growth • Three middle-ear bones • NOT give live birth

• Modified feeding apparatus

• Only one bone on each side of the jaw • Heterodonty (why is this useful?) • Teeth only replaced once • Increased range of motion in chewing

robust paranthropus species

• P. boisei • P. aethiopicus

Class Osteichthyes (boney fish)

• Salmon, trout, goldfish, etc., etc. • Inherit paired fins and semi-circular canals • * Bony skeleton • Sarcopterygii: lobe-finned fish • *Lungs; large, fleshy fin bases • Pulled itself from pond to pond in swamps

Subphylum Vertebrata: the vertebrates

• Vertebrates posses a vertebral column • May be bony or cartilaginous • 8 classes of vertebrates ???