MODULE 1

argument

A statement put forth and supported by evidence

Rebuttal Premise

an objection to an objection which provides evidence that one of the stated premises of that objection is false.

In reviewing the list of indicators, note that "for this reason" is a conclusion indicator, whereas "for the reason that" is a premise indicator. "For this reason" (except when followed by a colon) means for the reason (premise) that was just given, so what follows is the conclusion. On the other hand, "for the reason that" announces that a premise is about to be stated.

.

truth values

The attribute by which a statement is either true or false

Some arguments contain no indicators. With these, the reader/listener must ask such questions as: What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others? What is the arguer trying to prove? What is the main point in the passage? The answers to these questions should point to the conclusion. Example: The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead. Not only does the national defense depend on it, but the program will more than pay for itself in terms of technological spin-offs. Furthermore, at current funding levels the program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential.

The conclusion of this argument is the first statement, and all of the other statements are premises. The argument illustrates the pattern found in most arguments that lack indicator words: The intended conclusion is stated first, and the remaining statements are then offered in support of this first statement. When the argument is restructured according to logical principles, however, the conclusion is always listed after the premises: P1 : The national defense is dependent on the space program. P2 : The space program will more than pay for itself in terms of technological spinoffs. P3 : At current funding levels the space program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential. C: The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead.

Sometimes a single indicator can be used to identify more than one premise. Consider the following argument: It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved, for wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species, and it is a natural retreat from the stress of daily life.

The premise indicator "for" goes with both "Wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species," and "It is a natural retreat from the stress of daily life." These are the premises. By method of elimination, "It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved" is the conclusion.

syllogistic logic

a kind of logic in which the fundamental elements are terms, and arguments are evaluated as good or bad depending on how the terms are arranged in the argument

modal logic

a kind of logic that involves such concepts as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt

statement

a sentence that is either true or false

conclusion indicators

therefore, accordingly, entails that, wherefore, we may conclude, hence, thus, it must be that, it follows that, consequently, for this reason, implies that, we may infer, so, as a result; Whenever a statement follows one of these indicators, it can usually be identified as the conclusion

proposition

is the meaning or information content of a statement "proposition" and "statement" are used interchangeably.

Sub-premise

premises that are supporting one of the main premise.

premise indicators

since, in that, seeing that, as indicated by, may be inferred from, for the reason that, because, as, in as much as, for, given that, owing to; Any statement following one of these indicators can usually be identified as a premise.

logic

the process of reasoning

inference

the reasoning process expressed by an argument. "inference" is used interchangeably with "argument."

Conclusion

the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply

premise

the statements that set forth the reasons or evidence