Modules 2-16

Axodendritic synapses

Between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another;

Epiphyseal line:

Between the diaphysis and each epiphysis of an adult long bone; It's a remnant of the epiphyseal plate (a disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen the bone); Marks the junction between the metaphysics and epiphysis and can usually only be seen in x-rays or in a bone that has been cut;

Functions of connective tissue:

Binding tissues and organs together; Support; Protection; Insulation; Transportation of substances in the body; The combination of these features makes connective tissue different from other tissues;

Areolar connective tissue

Binds body parts together while allowing them to move slightly over one another, and it holds body fluids

Enzymes

Biological catalysts

The body's main solvent

Water

Female Reproductive System

Function is to produce offspring | Consists of mammary glands (in breasts), ovary, uterus, uterine tube, vulva, and vagina |

Male Reproductive System

Function is to produce offspring | Consists of prostate, penis, testis, scrotum, and ductus deferens |

Physiology

Function of the body. How the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities

Homeostatic regulatory mechanisms

Function to return conditions in your body to normal equilibrium levels (homeostatic levels); Shown by a board resting on a point )as the board tips it represents a change in the variable away from the normal equilibrium level

Principle of complementarity of structure and function

What a structure (anatomy) can do depends on its specific function (physiology). Function always reflects structure. Example: bones can support and protect body organs because they contain hard mineral deposits. Blood flows in one direction through the heart because the heart has valves that prevent back flow.

Cones

Photoreceptors that are specialized for bright light conditions and color vision

Rods

Photoreceptors that are specialized for dim light conditions

Cell division (M phase)

Takes about 1-3 hours; Includes mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm and the cell itself); M-phase is not just mitosis, mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which each of the two resulting daughter cells have identical copies of all the nuclear DNA that was in the original (parent) cell; Mitosis is what takes us from a single-celled zygote to adults with trillions of cells and is the process by which cells are regenerated; It occurs in all tissues of the body;

Superior (Cranial)

Toward the head end or upper part of a structure of the body; above | Example: The head is _________ to the abdomen

Myelin Sheath

A whitish, fatty, segmented covering found on many nerve fibers (long axons); Dendrites do not have this; Not all axons have this; This protects, electrically insulates, and increases the conduction velocity (how fast an action potential spreads along an axon) of axons;

Flocculonodular Lobes

Adjust posture to maintain balance; Receives inputs from the equilibrium apparatus of the inner ears, and adjust posture to maintain balance;

Function of Muscle: *Maintain posture and body position*

Adjusts the position of the body (almost continuously) with respect to gravity;

Vibrations of the eardrum are transmitted by what?

*Auditory ossicles* to the *oval window*, which causes movement of fluids in internal ear that excites hearing receptors

Cytoplasm

"Cell forming material"; The cellular material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; It's the site of most cellular activity;

Disaccharide

"Double sugar" | Formed when two monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis (a water molecule is lost as the bond is made) | Example: Synthesis of sucrose 2C6H12O6→C12H22O11 + H2O (Where 2C6H12O6 is glucose + fructose and C12H22O11 is sucrose)

Cerebral cortex

"Executive suite" of the nervous system where the conscious mind is found; It's the outer layer of gray matter that surrounds the cerebrum; Enables us to be aware of ourselves and our sensations, communicate, remember, understand, and initiate voluntary movements; Composed of *gray matter* (neuron cells bodies, dendrites, glia, and blood vessels); All neurons in this are *interneurons* (chpt 11: also called association neurons, are the neurons that relay messages between other neurons); Accounts for 40% of brain mass; Contains three types of functional areas: motor areas, sensory areas, association areas; The two hemispheres, although symmetrical, aren't entirely equal in function (there's a specialization of cortical functions);

Monosaccharide

"One sugar" | Simple sugars | Single-chain or single-ring structures containing from three to seven carbon atoms | Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms occur in the ratio 1:2:1 so the general formula for monosaccharides is [(CH2O)n] where the n is the number of carbons in the sugar | Example: glucose has six carbon atoms so it's C6H12O6

Gap 1 phase

(G1) lasts 8+ hours; The cell is synthesizing proteins and actively growing

Bicarbonate ion

(HCO3-) An important base in the body that's abundant in blood

Melanin

(Only pigment made my skin itself); Polymer produced by melanocytes and then passed on to keratinocytes; There are two forms: one is darker (produces brown-black color) and the other is lighter (produces yellow-tan color); When skin is exposed to sunlight, keratinocytes secrete chemicals that stimulate melanocytes, the longer the sun exposure, the more melanin buildup which helps protect the DNA of viable skin cells from UV radiation;

Stages of endochondral ossification

1) Bone collar forms around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model. 2) Cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities 3) The periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone forms 4) The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms. Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses. 5) The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.

4 concepts of cell theory:

1) Cells are the basic unit of living organisms (smallest living unit) 2) Activity of an organism depends on both individual and combined activities of its cells 3) According to the principle of complementarity of structure and function, activities of cells are dictated by their shapes/forms and by the relative number of the sub cellular structures they contain 4) Cells can only come from other cells

Smooth muscle contractions: Sequence of events

1) During excitation-contraction coupling, calcium ions enter cell form the extracellular space (where theres a high concentration just outside the cell in the caveloae) Ca is also released form the SR; 2)Ca binds to *Calmodulin*, activating it; 3)Which in turn interacts with *myosin kinase* (myosin light chain kinase) and activates it; 4) Myosin kinase then phosphorylates myosin, activating it so that it can form cross bridges with the actin thin filaments. 5) Then the thin filaments are shifted across the thick filaments, causing contraction.

The self-orienting property of phospholipids encourages biological membranes to do what two things?

1) Self-assemble into generally spherical structures 2) Reseal themselves when they're torn

Nervous System's three overlapping functions:

1) Sensory Input; 2) Integration; 3) Motor output;

Three steps involved in enzyme action:

1) Substrates bind to the enzyme's active site, temporarily forming an enzyme-substrate complex 2) The enzyme-substrate complex undergoes internal rearrangements that form the products 3) The enzyme releases the products of reaction

*Choroid*

A blood vessel rich membrane that makes up the posterior 5/6ths of the vascular layer; This helps to absorb light and prevent it from scattering and reflecting in eye, which would reduce visual clarity;

Hemoglobin

A crimson colored oxygenated pigment in the red blood cells circulating through other dermal capillaries; Plays a role in oxygen transport; Gives fair skin the pinkish hue;

Aqueous humor

A filtrate from capillaries in the cilliary body; It supplies nutrients and oxygen to lens and cornea, and removes waste from these structures;

Synapse

A junction that mediates information transfer from one neuron to the next or from a neuron to an effector cell; It's where the action is;

Dipole

A polar molecule with two poles of charge | Example: water

Cellulose

A polysaccharide found in all plant products | Humans are unable to digest this | It provides bulk (form of fiber) that helps move feces through the colon |

Reproduction

A process that occurs at both the cellular (the original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that then may be used for growth and repair) and organismal (making a whole new organism) level.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (also called the involuntary nervous system or the general visceral motor system)

A system of motor neurons that innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands; It has primary responsibility for maintaining the stability of our internal environments; Example: It moves blood where its needed, adjusts heart rate, and adjusts body temperature. Most of those things happen without our awareness;

Serosa/Serous Membrane

A thin, moist, double-layered membrane (connective tissue) that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains (aka covers both the internal walls of the cavity and the surface of the organs inside the body cavity)

Mammary glands

A type of specialized apocrine sweat gland in the breasts that secrete milk

All-or-none

Action potentials are an all or nothing phenomena; They either happen completely (with a threshold stimulus) or not at all; Once generated, all action potentials are alike;

Somatic reflexes

Activate skeletal muscle

Autonomic (visceral) reflexes

Activate visceral effector organs (smooth or cardiac muscle or glands)

Two major means of active membrane transport:

Active transport & Vesicular transport

Posterior view: Muscles associated with the *Thigh*

Adductor magnus; Gracilis; Hamstrings: Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus;

Purines

Adenine and Guanine Large, two-ring bases

5 varieties of nitrogen-containing bases:

Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil

AMP

Adenosine monophosphate | Happens when ADP accumulates and the cleavage of the terminal phosphate bond of ADP liberates a small amount of energy and turns into this |

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate | Primary energy-transferring molecule in cells | Provides a form of energy that is immediately usable by all body cells | It has 3 phosphate groups |

Cellular level

All cells have some common functions but individual cells vary widely in size and shape, reflecting their unique functions in the body

Nucleus Pulposis

An inner gelatinous core; Acts as a rubber ball, giving the disc its elasticity and compressibility;

Multimodal association areas can be broadly divided known three parts:

Anterior association area, posterior association area, and limbic association areas

Matter

Anything that occupies space and has mass | It can be seen, smelled, and felt (with some exceptions)

Two parts of the functional enzyme (Holoenzyme)

Apoenzyme (the protein portion) and the Cofactor | Depending on the enzyme the cofactor might be an ion of a metal element like copper or iron, or an organic molecule needed to assist the reaction in some way |

Two ways that cartilage grows:

Appositional growth & interstitial growth

Malleus

Attached to the eardrum

Incus

Between the malleus and stapes

Molecules unique to living systems:

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids | All contain carbon | Are organic compounds |

Plant-derived foods are rich in what?

Carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals

Plasma Membrane:

Cell membrane is a synonym for this | Its unique structure allows t to play a dynamic role in cellular activities |

Umbilical Region

Centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel) | Contains the small intestine and the transverse colon of large intestine |

Two main divisions of the nervous system:

Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system

Polymers

Chainlike molecules made of many smaller, identical units

Nerve

Cordlike organ that includes bundles of peripheral axons (myelinated and unmyelinated) enclosed by connective tissue wrappings; Within *this*, each axon is surrounded by an *endoneurium/ endonuerium* (which encloses the myelin sheath if an axon is myelinated); Groups of fibers are bound together into fascicles, which are covered by a *perineurium*; The nerve itself (fascicles and blood vessels) is enclosed by the *epineurium*; (Classified as either cranial or spinal);

Short definition of transcription:

DNA's information is encoded in mRNA; Occurs in nucleus

Flexion

Decreases the angle of the joint, and brings articulating bones or body parts closer together; Occurs along the sagittal plane, such as bending the knee from a straight to a bent position; Example: when the head is lowered towards the chest;

What does muscle contraction depend on?

Depends on the interaction of myosin and actin containing myofilaments;

Map of dermatomes

Dermatomes = regions of skin innervated by cutaneous branches of spinal nerves

Two broad ways of classifying neurotransmitters according to function:

Effects (Excitatory versus inhibitory) and Actions (direct versus indirect)

Gyri

Elevated ridges of tissue found in the cerebrum;

Oxidases

Enzymes that oxidize reactants by adding oxygen or removing hydrogen

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Face/facial*

Epicranius, frontal belly; Orbicularis oculi; Zygomaticus; Orbicularis Oris;

Mole

Equal to an element's molecular weight (sum of the atomic weights)

Mass

Equal to the actual amount of matter in the object | Remains constant wherever the object is

Proteins

Essential for building cell structures

Muscle tissue

Features: all muscle tissue consists of lots of tightly packed cells (it is highly cellular); Muscle has a rich blood supply (it is highly vascularized); Muscle cells contract (shorten) and are thus responsible for movement of parts of the body and the entire body;

Bone lining cells

Flat cells found on bone surfaces where bone remodeling isn't going on; Help to maintain matrix; On external bone surface called periosteal cells; On internal surfaces called endosteal cells;

Steroids

Flat molecules made of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings | Fat soluble | Contain little oxygen | Example: cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone, etc.

Dural Septa

Flat partitions that subdivide the cranial cavity; They limit excessive movement of the brain within the cranium; There are three types: falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, and tentorium cerebelli;

Hairs (or pili)

Flexible strands produced by hair follicles; Consist of dead, keratinized cells; The keratin is hard keratin (rather than the soft keratin found in most epidermal cells);

Synaptic Cleft

Fluid-filled space that separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes;

Function of Muscle: *Generate heat*

Generate heat as it contracts (as a function of cellular metabolic precesses) which plays a role in maintaining normal body temperature;

What's contained within the nuclear DNA?

Genes

Osteoclasts

Giant, multinucleate cells at the site of bone resorption (breaking down); They remove bone by resorption; Release lysozymes which break down bone to release calcium; Multinucleated (so they have multiple nuclei) (like white blood cells) and originate from hematopoietic stem cells (just like white blood cells);

Two functions of bones:

Give skeleton mobility; Hold skeleton together;

Glandular epithelia make

Glands; Glands consist of one or more cells that make and secrete a product, which called a secretion;

Diencephalon

Gray matter forming the core of the forebrain; It's surrounded by cerebral hemispheres and encloses the third ventricle; Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus; Purple in the picture;

Canaliculi

Hairlike canals that run in all directions and connect the lacunae to each other and to the central canal

Fats

Help building cell structures | Provide a reserve of energy-rich fuel |

Resistance

Hindrance to current flow

Orbital Cavity

House the eyes and present them in an anterior position

Oxygen

Human cells can only survive for a few minutes without this | The respiratory and cardiovascular systems work together to make this available to the blood and body cells | Without this, all the nutrients in the world would be useless |

Premotor cortex

In the frontal lobe; Helps plan movements; Controls learned motor skills of a repetitious or patterned nature (like playing a musical instrument or typing); Area for skilled motor activities;

Light is bent three times when?

In the process of focusing light on the retina

Movement

Includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, like propelling ourselves from one place to another by running (for example). Another example is when substances like blood and urine are propelled through internal organs

Static equilibrium

Linear movement of the head

Primary structure

Linear sequence of amino acids composing a polypeptide chain | Resembles a strand of amino acid "beads" | Backbone of the protein molecule | Proteins do not usually exist just in this form |

Skeletal cartilage

Made of some variety of cartilage tissue molded to fit its body location and function

Axial Part

Makes up the main axis of our body | Includes the head, neck, trunk

3 types of rods in cytoskeleton:

Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments;

Common measurement of blood concentration

Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)

Photoreceptors

Modified neurons and there are two types: (rods and cones);

Photoreceptors

Modified neurons that are specialized to detect light energy (rods and cones)

Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

Most neurons function as both;

Adipose (fat) tissue

Mostly adipocytes (fat cells); It is highly vascularized and functions in nutrient storage and provides padding to protect organs and insulate the body;

Yellow marrow

Mostly fat tissue

What are muscle contractions like under normal circumstances?

Muscle contractions are relatively smooth and vary in strength according to the different demands that are placed on them.

Reactants

Number and kinds of the interacting substances in a chemical equation

Survival needs

Nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure

Plantar flexion

Occurs when you point your toes and this decreases the angle between sole of the foot and posterior tibia;

Voltage gated ion channels

Open in response to changes in the plasma membrane potential

Stratum Corneum (Horny layer)

Outermost protective epidermal layer (most superficial layer); 20-30 cells thick & 3/4ths of the epidermal thickness; Composed of dead keratinocytes that protect the skin against abrasion and penetration; Glycolipids waterproof this layer; Part of dandruff and dander which is why it's called horny;

White matter of the spinal cord

Outside

Where is RNA located?

Outside of the nucleus

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Part A

Lever systems are partnerships between what?

Partnerships between the skeletal and muscular systems

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Thorax*

Pectoralis minor; Pectoralis major; Serratus anterior; Intercostals;

List the types of synovial joints:

Plane joints, Hinge joints, Pivot joints, Condyloid joints, Saddle joints, Ball and Socket joints

Three main parts of a human cell:

Plasma Membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus

Mitochondria

Power house of the cell; Produce most of the ATP in a cell; There are hundreds to thousands in each cell; Cluster where the action is; Contain their own DNA (called mtDNA mitochondrial DNA); Inherit their DNA only from the mother; Enclosed by 2 membranes that have the general structure of the plasma membrane; The outer membrane is smooth; The inner membrane folds inward, forming shelflike *cristae* that protrude into the matrix (the gel-like substance within the mitochondria);

Sour

Produced by acids (specifically their hydrogen ions)

Sensory receptor classified by Stimulus Type: *Mechanoreceptors*

Respond to mechanical force, such as touch or pressure; *Baroreceptors* are a type of mechanoreceptor that responds to changes in barometric pressure (i.e. changes in blood pressure);

Sensory receptor classified by Stimulus Type: *Thermoreceptors*

Respond to temperature changes

Sebaceous (oil) glands

Simple branched alveolar

What tissues are in skeletal muscle:

Skeletal muscle fibers are the majority; Also there's blood vessels, nerve fibers, and substantial amounts of connective tissue

Three types of muscle tissue:

Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

Smooth vs skeletal with tropomyosin and troponin

Smooth muscles do have tropomyosin, but they do not have troponin; *Calmodulin* is what smooth muscle uses as the calcium-binding molecule;

3 basic types of mixtures:

Solutions, Colloids, Suspensions

Anatomy

Structure of body parts and their relationship with each other

Endomysium

Surrounds each individual muscle fiber; It's made of fine areolar connective tissue

Anabolism

Synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances

What produces the lighter appearance of the I band compared to the A band?

The I band is lighter because it is a region where there are only thin filaments and no thick filaments

During muscle contraction, why do the I bands get narrower while the A bands stay the same length?

The I bands get narrower while the A bands stay the same width because the I bands are the areas where there is no overlap between thick and thin filaments, so as the thin filaments get dragged across the thick filaments, there is greater overlap between them and thus a narrower region where they do not overlap;

*Peripheral motor endings*

The PNS elements that activate effector organs by releasing neurotransmitters

Short definition of translation

The information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides; Occurs in cytoplasm

Sensory Input:

The information gathered by the nervous system; The nervous system uses its millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes occurring both inside and outside the body (the gathered info is called this);

General structure of a synovial joint: Synovial membrane

The inner layer and is made of loose connective tissue; Produces synovial fluid; Covers all internal joint surfaces that are not hyaline cartilage;

Neural layer

The inner layer of the retina that plays a direct role in vision (It's where photoreceptors are located)

Retina

The innermost layer of the eye

Hypothalamus

The main visceral control center for the body; *Very important for homeostasis*; It regulates the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and thus regulates heartbeat, blood pressure, sleep-wake cycles, endocrine function, regulate food and water intake, and other vital functions; It's the center for emotional response, such as perception of pleasure, fear, rage, and other emotions; The pituitary gland is suspended below this (a very important endocrine gland);

Organelles

The metabolic machinery of the cell; Each type of these carries out a specific function for the cell (some synthesize proteins, others generate ATP, etc.)

Arachnoid mater

The middle meninx; Forms a loose brain covering and it doesn't dip into sulci (grooves); Separated from the dura mater by a fluid filled *subdural space*; *Arachnoid villi* (or arachnoid villus) are projections of the arachnoid mater through the dura mater into the *superior saggital sinus* (where cerebrospinal fluid is absorbed into venous blood);

Sensory receptor classified by complexity: *Simple*

The modified dendritic endings of sensory neurons; Most sensory receptors are this type;

*Iris*

The most anterior portion of the vascular layer; It's the visible, colored part of the eye and it has a round central opening called the *pupil*; Made up of two smooth muscle layers that dilate (increase the diameter) and constrict (decrease the diameter) the pupil

Single-unit smooth muscle (visceral muscle)

The most common type of smooth muscle; It is found in the walls of all hollow organs except the heart; It contracts rhythmically as a single unit because all its cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions

Substrate

The substance on which an enzyme acts

Developmental anatomy

Traces structural changes that occur throughout the life span

Two main steps of protein synthesis:

Transcription and Translation

What comes after transcription?

Translation

Eversion

Turns the sole of the foot so it faces laterally

The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, the more _____ it is

acidic

Three forms of RNA

mRNA (messenger RNA); tRNA (transfer RNA); rRNA (ribosomal RNA); All three forms are synthesized based on DNA in the nucleus and then they migrate out into cytoplasm where protein synthesis takes place;

3 major varieties of RNA

mRNA (messenger) rRNA (ribosomal) tRNA (transfer)

Blood pH varies between this range:

pH of 7.35 to 7.45 | If it varies from these limits by more than a few tenths it can be fatal

Proximal

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk | Example: The elbow is ______________ to the wrist

Chromatin

Coiled fibers in the nucleus and is shown in the bottom figure; Made up of DNA (~30%), histone proteins (~60%), and RNA that is being transcribed (~10%); Chromatin looks like beads on a string because the DNA is wrapped around the proteins; Before a cell divides, the chromatin condenses into dense, rod-like chromosomes, which are the x-shaped structures most of us envision when we think of nuclear DNA

Clavicle

Collarbone; Articulates medially with the sternum (specifically, the manubrium of the sternum) and laterally with the scapula; Slender, S-shaped bones; Act as braces, hold the scapulae and arms out laterally;

Sensory receptor classified by complexity: *Complex*

Collections of cells associated with special senses;

Skeleton or skeletal system

Composed of bones, cartilages, joints, and ligaments; Accounts for 20% of body mass

Somatic nervous system

Composed of somatic motor nerve fibers that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles; Also called the voluntary nervous system because it allows us to consciously control our skeletal muscles;

Mammary glands

Compound alveolar

Sarcoplasm

Cytoplasm of a muscle cell; Contains large amounts of *glycosomes* (granules of stored glycogen that provide glucose during cell activity); Also contains lots of *myoglobin* (a red pigment that stores oxygen);

Pyrimidines

Cytosine, thymine, and uracil Smaller, single-ring bases

3 Major elements of cytoplasm:

Cytosol, cytoplasmic organelles, and cytoplasmic inclusions

Fontanelles

Dark spaces between the bones of the skull in infants; Fibrous membranes that connect the skull bones together before they are ossified together;

Pinocytosis

"Cell drinking" (also called fluid-phase endocytosis) | A bit of infolding plasma membrane (which begins as a protein-coated pit) surrounds a very small volume of extracellular fluid contains dissolved molecules. This droplet enters the cell and fuses with an endosome | Unlike phagocytosis, this is a routine activity of most cells, it's a nonselective way of sampling the extracellular fluid | **It's important in cells that absorb nutrients, like cells that line the intestines**

4 Elements that make up the majority of our body weight

(Make up 96% of body weight) Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen

Cerebral white matter

Deep to the cortical gray matter (cerebral cortex); Second of the three basic regions of each cerebral hemisphere; Responsible for communication between cerebral areas and the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers (so like the diencephalon); Consists mostly of myelinated nerve fibers bundled into large tracts (refers to large collections of myelinated axons);

Nervous tissue is made up of these two types of cells:

*Neuroglia* and *neurons*

Two divisions of the *Motor division* of the PNS

*Somatic nervous system* and the *Autonomic nervous system*

The events involved with action potentials:

*Step 1: The Resting State*. All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed; *Step 2: Depolarization*. The voltage-gated Na+ channels open. When the voltage-gated Na+ channels open, Na+ rushes into the cell. This depolarizes a local patch of the plasma membrane (the section of plasma membrane near those voltage-gated Na+ channels), which in turn causes other voltage-gated Na+ channels to open. This is a *positive feedback mechanism*. The membrane potential *depolarizes* to +30mV; *Step 3: Repolarization*. The Na+ channels are inactivating and the K+ channels open. The inactivation gates of the Na+ channels begin to close, which lowers the cell's permeability to Na+. The voltage-gated K+ channels open and K+ rushes out of the cell (following its electrochemical gradient). This restores the negative charge to the inside the plasma membrane; *Step 4: Hyperpolarization*. Some K+ channels remain open, and the Na+ channels are reset. There is excessive K+ efflux (exiting) out of the cell (By excess it means more potassium exists than is necessary to return the membrane potential to the resting membrane potential). The activation gates of Na+ channels close. Sodium-potassium pumps (powered by ATP) help to maintain resting ion gradients following repolarization;

Fissures

Deeper grooves found in the cerebrum; Separate large regions of the brain;

Stratum Basale (Basal layer)

Deepest epidermal layer; Attached to the underlying dermis; One layer of cells thick; Site of mitosis where stem cells are actively dividing to produce new keratinocytes; Consists of a single layer of stem cells (a cell population that is continuously renewing); Contains the youngest keratinocytes; Each time one of the cells on this layer divides, one daughter cell is pushed into the cell layer above; The other daughter cell stays in this layer and continues to produce new keratinocytes; 10-15% of the cells on this layer are melanocytes;

Catabolic process

Degradative process in body cells | Example: when the bonds of glycogen molecules are broken to release simpler molecules of glucose

Descending pathways

Deliver efferent (motor) impulses from the brain to the spinal cord, and they involve 2 neurons: an upper neuron (cell body in brain) and a lower neuron (cell body in ventral horns of gray matter in spinal cord);

Posterior view: Muscles associated with the *Shoulder*

Deltoid; Infraspinatus; Teres major; Rhomboid major; Latissimus dorsi;

Elastic connective tissue

Dense regular connective tissue that is very elastic; It's found in some ligaments

2 major classes of nucleic acids

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

In order for an action potential to be generated, what must happen?

Depolarization must reach a certain *threshold* level; Not all local depolarization events are sufficient to produce an action potential;

Action potential Graph Showing depolarization of the sarcolemma and why it occurs:

Depolarization of the sarcolemma occurs because of the influx of sodium into the cell; Repolarization occurs because of the effluent of potassium out of the cell

What are skin appendages? List them

Derivatives of the epidermis; Nails, sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, hair follicles, and hair;

The terms *Depolarization* and *Hyperpolarization* describe what?

Describe changes in membrane potential *relative* to resting membrane potential

Sensory receptor classified by Stimulus Type: *Osmoreceptors*

Detect osmotic pressures of body fluids; Example: they detect changes in solute concentration in blood

Basic steps of Endocytosis:

1) A coated pit (part of the plasma membrane that's infolding) progressively encloses the substance that's going to be taken into the cell. The coating on the pit is the bristle-like protein Clathrin. The protein coating both helps select the cargo and deforms the membrane so the vesicle can be produced 2) The vesicle detaches 3) The coat proteins (clathrin) are recycled back to the plasma membrane 4) The uncoated vesicle fuses with an endosome (a sorting vesicle) 5) Some membrane components and receptors of the fused vesicle are recycled back to the plasma membrane in a transport vesicle 6) The remaining contents of the vesicle may do two things: a) combine with a lysosome (specialized cell structure containing digestive enzymes) where the ingested substance is degraded or released {if the substance is iron or cholesterol}) b) be transported completely across the cell and released by exocytosis on the opposite side (transcytosis)

Gross anatomy of a long bone

Diaphysis, medullary cavity, metaphysics, epiphyseal line, epiphysis, periosteum (osteogenic), endosteum (osteogenic), nutrient foramen

Resting membrane potential

Difference in electrical charge across the membrane when the cell is at rest (i.e. not working); The inside of the cell membrane is negatively charged compared to the outside;

Proteins are constructed from:

Different combinations of the 20 common amino acids | Changes in the kinds or positions of amino acids can yield proteins with different functions or proteins that are nonfunctional

Two fundamental roles of DNA:

1) It replicates (reproduces) itself before a cell divides, ensuring the genetic information in the descendant cells is identical 2) It provides the basic instructions for building every protein in the body

Steps of Intramembranous Ossification

1) Migration of osteoblasts into a connective tissue membrane. Ossification centers appear. Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an ossification center that produces the first trabeculae of spongy bone. 2) Osteblasts secrete osteoid, and the hydroxyapatite crystals settle on the osteoid, forming hard bone matrix. Eventually the osteoblasts get walled into the bone matrix and become osteocytes. 3) The bone is infiltrated by blood vessels (remember that bone is living and needs oxygen and nutrients and other substances) 4) More bone is added and osteoclasts remove bone as necessary to keep bone the correct density. Eventually the bone consists of a layer of spongy bone surrounded by compact bone. Red marrow appears.

Falx cerebri

Dips into the longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres; Attaches to the ethmoid bone so if you turn your head quickly or you're hit in the head, it keeps your brain in place inside your skull;

3 major pathways that ATP can be replenished:

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP); Glycolysis and Lactic acid formation; Aerobic respiration;

Strong base

Dissociate easily in water and quickly tie up H+

Classification by structural complexity:

Distinguishes between *simple and complex receptors*;

Eicosanoids

Diverse lipids derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid (arachidonic acid) found in all cell membranes | Most important of these are prostaglandins (and their relatives)

Phalanges (Toes)

14 Phalanges of the toes are smaller and less nimble than the ones of the fingers; Three phalanges in each digit except for the big toe (hallux); Hallux only has the proximal and distal phalanges;

Nuclear Envelope

Double membrane surrounding the nucleus; Has two phospholipid bilayers; Outer membrane is continuous with Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum; The two membranes are fused in certain areas called *nuclear pores*; Nuclear pore complex is a group of proteins that line the nuclear pores and regulate the movement of things into and out of nucleus; Nuclear envelope encloses the nucleoplasm, which is the fluid and solutes in the nucleus;

Endocrine glands:

Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into blood or lymph; Most are multicellular (they have more than one cell), but some are unicellular (just a single cell);

Carpals/ Carpus

8 of these in the wrist; Arranged in two roughly parallel rows within the wrist; 8 marble-size short bones closely united by ligaments; Flexible because gliding movements occur between these bones

Figure of a cell in telophase and cytokinesis:

During telophase, the nuclear membranes form around chromatin at either end of the cell, and the mitotic spindle breaks down; Cytokinesis is division of the cytoplasm and it occurs during telophase;

Pleural Cavities

Each envelop a lung | Subdivision of the thoracic cavity |

Describe the way active transport systems provide a way for the cell to be very selective:

Each membrane pump or cotransporter transports only specific substances, so if the substances cannot pass by diffusion the active transport systems are super selective because if there isn't a pump for that substance there isn't transport

How many motor nerves does each muscle have?

Each muscle is served by AT LEAST one motor nerve, and each motor nerve contains axons (fibrous extensions) of up to hundreds of motor neurons

Skeletal Muscle

Each one is a discrete organ (made up of several different kinds of tissues)

Intramembranous Ossification

A *direct mineralization* of a connective tissue membrane; A bone develops from a fibrous membrane and the bone is called a *membrane bone*; It's responsible for the *formation of the flat skull bones and the clavicles*; Occurs in every bone in the body throughout life to remodel bones and to aid in fracture healing;

A lever system includes what?

A *lever* (a rigid bar that moves on a fixed point (called the fulcrum)); A *fulcrum* (the fixed point that the lever moves on); *Effort* (the force applied to the lever used to move a resistance); And a *load* (a resistance);

Metabolism

A broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells. (The definition is "a state of change")

Arrector pili muscle

A bundle of smooth muscle associated with each hair follicle; Goosebumps come when arrector pili muscles contract to raise body hairs;

Basic organizational pattern of the CNS (central nervous system)

A central cavity (filled with fluid) surrounded by a *gray matter* core, which is surrounded by *white matter* externally;

Ionic bond

A chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another (One atom takes an electron, and the other gives it up); Weaker than covalent bonds;

Membranous labyrinth

A continous series of membranous sacs and ducts within the bony labyrinth; The parts of the membranous labyrinth are called the *saccule and utricle*, the *semicircular ducts*, and the *spiral organ of corti* ; It's suspended in *perilymph* and it is filled with another kind of fluid called *endolymph*

Fascicle (a portion of the muscle)

A discrete bundle of muscle cells, segregated from the rest of the muscle by a connective tissue sheath; Surrounded by perimysium;

Organ

A discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types (even though 4 is more common). Each of these is a specialized functional center responsible for a necessary activity that no other thing can perform

Example of a Nonbiological Negative Feedback Mechanism

A home heating system that's connected to a temperature-sensing thermostat | The thermostat houses both the receptor (thermometer) and the control center. If the thermostat is set at 20 degrees, the heating system (effector) is triggered ON when the house temperature drops below 20 degrees (the setting). As it get hotter and warms the air, the temperature rises and when it reaches 20 degrees or slightly higher, the thermostat triggers the furnace OFF. It results in a cycling of the furnace between on and off so that the house stays at the desirable temperature |

Symphyses

A joint where fibrocartilage unites the bones; Articular surfaces of bones are covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage, which is in turn fused to a pad of fibrocartilage; It's like a sandwich of cartilage (the hyaline cartilage is the bread and the fibrocartilage is the filling in between); Examples: Pubic symphysis and intervertebral joints;

The operation of most skeletal muscle involves what kind of system?

A leverage/lever system; Using a lever to move some object;

Nerve fiber

A long axon

Shell 2 can hold how many electrons?

A maximum of 8, but Shell 1 has to be filled up with electrons before Shell 2 can have any electrons

Voltage

A measure of the difference in electrical charge between two points; Also called a *potential difference* or just a *potential* between two points;

Anion

A net negative charge (Electron acceptor) (Gains an electron so it becomes negatively charged)

Cation

A net positive charge | (The t = +) (Electron donor) (Loses an electron so it becomes positively charged)

How many nerve endings does each skeletal muscle fiber/cell have?

Each skeletal muscle has one nerve, one artery, and at least one vein serving it; Every skeletal muscle is supplied with a nerve ending that controls its activity (which is unlike smooth and cardiac);

Median Plane/ Midsagittal Plane

A sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline

Sagittal plane

A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts; (There's a sagittal plane at any position from the farthest right part of the body to the farthest left part of the body)

Cytosol

A viscous fluid with a variety of solutes (like salts and proteins); It's a semitransparent fluid that all the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended in;

Hydrolysis reactions:

A water molecule breaks the bond between other molecules

Control of autonomic functioning

ANS is regulated by the CNS (spinal cord, brain stem, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex); The hypothalamus is the integrative center at top of ANS control hierarchy and orders the flow of impulses to lower CNS centers; The cerebral cortex modifies workings of ANS, but at a subconscious level by acting on the hypothalamus through the limbic system; The brain stem exerts the most direct influence over autonomic function, but the brain stem is ultimately under the control of the hypothalamus;

Characteristic of muscle tissue: *Excitability*

Ability of a cell to receive and respond to a stimulus (by changing its membrane potential); A stimulus is any change in the environment inside or outside the body;

Characteristic of muscle tissue: *Extensibility*

Ability to be stretched (extended); Muscle cells shorten when contracting, but they can stretch beyond their resting length when they're relaxed;

Indirect neurotransmitters

Act through intracellular second messengers (similar to the way many hormones work) (promote broader, longer lasting effects)

Hair matrix

Actively dividing area of the hair bulb that produces hair

Figure showing gustatory pathway

Afferent fibers carrying taste sensory impulses from the tongue and throat are located primarily in the facial nerve (VII), the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), and the vagus nerve (X); These afferent fibers from the tongue and throat synapse in the medulla (brain stem), and impulses travel from there to the thalamus and then to the gustatory cortex in the insula lobe;

Pupil

Allows light to enter the eye

Fibrous proteins

Also known as structural proteins | Extended and strandlike | Form the basic building materials within the body | Insoluble in water | Very stable | Ideal for providing mechanical support and tensile strength to the body's tissues | Some exhibit only secondary structure (nothing beyond secondary structure) | Example: keratin

Backbones of DNA

Alternating sugar and phosphate components

Figure highlighting the accessory structures of the eye: (*eyebrows*)

An arrangement of short, coarse hairs above the eyes; Shade the eyes and keep perspiration out of the eye itself

Atomic Weight

An average of the relative weights (mass numbers) of all the isotopes of an element

Muscle fiber (cell)

An elongated multinucleate cell that has a banded (striated) appearance; Surrounded by endomysium

Mesenchyme

An embryonic tissue that all connective tissues arise from

Sensory areas in the cortex

Areas concerned with conscious awareness of sensation; Occur in the parietal, insular, temporal, and occipital lobes; (Blue);

Thick skin

Areas subject to abrasion; Palms, fingertips, soles of feet; Has 5 layers (also called strata): (from deep to superficial) stratum basal, stratum spinous, stratum granulosum, stratum lucid, stratum corneum;

Optic nerves (II)

Arise from the retina of the eye, and send afferent impulses regarding vision to the occipital (visual) cortex;

Parietal Peritoneum

Associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity

Renal physiology

Concerns kidney function and urine production

Motor (efferent) neurons:

Conduct impulses *away* from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands); These are multipolar neurons, and most have their cell bodies in the CNS (except for some that are part of the autonomic nervous system);

Sensory (afferent) neurons:

Conduct impulses *toward* or *into* the CNS from sensory receptors in the skin or internal organs; Most all of these are unipolar, and their cell bodies are located in sensory ganglia (in the PNS) outside the CNS;

Interneurons (association neurons):

Conduct impulses between sensory and motor neurons or in CNS integration pathways; Most neurons are this type (over 99% of the neurons of the body); Most of these are multipolar;

Nonmyelinated Fibers or Unmyelinated Fibers

Conduct impulses slowly; Dendrites are always this;

Figure of the cross section through a choroid plexus;

Consists of clusters of capillaries, covered by pia mater (innermost layer of meninges) and ependymal cells lining the ventricles; So, formed by choroid plexuses, released in ventricles, then ependymal cells with their cilia help to circulate the CSF through the ventricles and into the central canal of the spinal cord

Epidermis

Consists of four cell types and 4/5 distinct layers; Superficial layer of the skin; It is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium;

A muscle *insertion*

Attachment on the movable bone

Deep (Internal)

Away from the body surface; more internal | Example: The lungs are _________ to the skin

Inferior (Caudal)

Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below | Example: The navel is _______ to the chin

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of | Example: The arms are ___________ to the chest

Two fundamental divisions of the human body

Axial and Appendicular parts

Two factors that affect the rate of impulse propagation of action potentials:

Axon diameter and Degree of myelination

Myelinated fibers

Axons bearing myelin sheath; Conduct nerve impulses fast;

Muscle (organ)

Consists of hundreds to thousands of muscle cells, plus connective tissue wrappings, blood vessels, and nerve fibers; Covered externally by the epimysium;

Relative proportions

Balanced equations indicate this of each reactant and product

Functional Classification of Joints

Based on the amount of movement allowed in the joint; Synarthroses (immovable joints), amphiarthroses (slightly movable joints), and diarthroses (freely movable joints);

pH Scale

Based on the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, expressed in terms of moles per liter (molarity) | Runs from 0-14 and each successive change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration

Functional classification of neurons:

Based on the direction that nerve impulses travel along the neuron with respect to the CNS

Structural classification of neurons:

Based on the number of processes (axons and dendrites) a neuron has;

3 ways sensory receptors are classified:

Based on the stimulus type (the stimulus that activates them); Where they're located in the body; Their structural complexity;

Organelles

Basic components of the microscopic cells

Elements

Basic composition of matter; Unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods;

Two functional groups of amino acids:

Basic group called an amine group: (-NH2) Organic group called the acid group (-COOH)

The greater the concentration of hydroxyl ions, the more ______ the solution becomes

Basic or alkaline

Why do oil and water not mix?

Because polar (water) and non polar (triglycerides) molecules do not interact

Why is an acetic acid solution dissolved in water much less acidic than an HCl solution?

Because undissociated acids do not affect pH

Polar solvent properties of water:

Because water molecules are polar, they orient themselves with their negative ends toward the positive ends on the solutes, attracting the solute molecules and surround them | explains why ionic compounds dissociate in water

Where does endochondral ossification begin?

Begins before birth in *primary centers of ossification* (i.e. long bone shafts); epiphyses grow after birth and so they're secondary centers of ossification

Angular movements of the vertebral column

Bends at the waist, she's flexing at the hip joint; Stands straight, she's extending at the hip joint; When she leans her trunk backwards she's hyperextending;

Intermediate

Between a more medial and a more lateral structure | Example: The collarbone is _____________ between the breastbone and shoulder

Axosomatic synapses

Between the axon endings of one neuron and the cell body (soma) of another;

Lens

Biconvex (convex on both sides), avascular, transparent, flexible structure; Changes shape (by the action of muscles in the ciliary body) to focus light on the retina where light is detected by photoreceptors

Direct neurotransmitters

Bind to and open ion channels; Acetylcholine is an example (when ACl binds to receptors on the skeletal muscle fiber sarcolemma that immediately causes the opening of ion channels)

Monomers

Building blocks of polymers

The sensory (afferent) division of the PNS

Consists of nerve fibers (axons) that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors throughout the body; Two types: *somatic afferent fibers* (convey impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints) and *visceral sensory fibers* (transmit impulses from the visceral organs which are organs within the ventral body cavity);

The parts of the peripheral nervous system (PNS):

Consists of nerves (bundles of axons) that extend from the brain (cranial nerves--carry impulses to and from the brain) and spinal cord (spinal nerves--carry nerve impulses/action potentials to and from the spine), and ganglia (collections of neuron cell bodies); The part of the nervous system outside the CNS;

Gray matter

Consists of short, non-myelinated neurons and neuron cell bodies; Mostly neuron cell bodies;

The parts of the central nervous system (CNS):

Consists of the *brain* and *spinal cord*; Occupies the dorsal body cavity;

Appendicular Part

Consists of the appendages (limbs), which are attached to the body's axis

Appendicular skeleton

Consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs, and the shoulder and pelvic girdles, which attach limbs to the axial skeleton; Main functions are locomotion and manipulation of things in the environment;

Ventral roots

Contain *motor* (efferent) fibers from the ventral horns of gray matter; These innervate skeletal muscles;

Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system

Carbonic acid (H2CO3) dissociates reversibly, releasing bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and protons (H+)

Gated channels

Controlled (opened or closed) by chemical or electrical signals

Two major types of epithelia:

Covering and lining epithelia and glandular epithelium

Visceral Peritoneum

Covers most of the organs within the abdominopelvic cavity

Visceral Pericardium

Covers the heart

Thin skin

Covers the parts of the body not covered by thick skin; Stratum lucid appears to be absent; Other strata are thinner;

Cavities in the skull:

Cranial cavity (contains the brain); Ear cavities; Nasal cavity; Orbital cavities (eye sockets);

Epithelial tissue

Creates boundaries between different environments, protects organs, and secretes substances; It's found on the skin surface and forms the lining of the digestive tract and other hollow organs

General structure of a synovial joint: Reinforcing ligaments

Cross joints to add strength;

Ohms Law:

Current (I) = voltage (V)/resistance (R); Current (I) is directly proportional to voltage (the greater the voltage is, the greater the current will be); There's no net current flow between points that have the same potential; Current is inversely related to resistance (the higher resistance, the lower the current);

*Sensation* function of integumentary system

Cutaneous sensation is made possible because of cutaneous sensory receptors which are part of the nervous system; They respond to stimuli arising outside the body;

Oblique Sections

Cuts made diagonally between the horizontally and vertical planes | They're seldom used

Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion:

Channels (transmembrane proteins) transport substances (usually ions or water) through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other | Selective due to pore size and the charges of the amino acids lining the channel | Can be inhibited by certain molecules, show saturation, and are specific |

Leakage channels

Channels that are always open and allow ions or water to move according to concentration gradients

Ions

Charged particles

How concentration influences the rate of chemical reactions:

Chemical reactions progress the fastest when the reacting particles are present in high numbers because the chance of successful collisions is greater

Inclusions

Chemical substances that vary by cell type; Examples: Lipid droplets in fat cells, glycogen granules in liver and muscle cells;

Two ways neurotransmitters are classified:

Chemically and functionally

Two types of sweat glands & their similarities:

Eccrine and apocrine; In both, the products are released from the cells of the gland's secretary unit through exocytosis to the gland's duct system and then to skin's surface (this is merocrine secretion); In both, the secretory cells are associated with myoepithelial cells (specialized cells that contract when stimulated by nervous system), the contraction forces the sweat into and through the gland's duct system to the skin surface;

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

Elaborate smooth endoplasmic reticulum; Its tubules surround each myofibril (like the way a sweater sleeve fits your arm); Stores and releases Ca as needed for muscle contraction (when the muscle fiber is stimulated to contract);

Nerve impulses =

Electrical impulses; Action potentials; All three are interchangeable

Two general types of synapses:

Electrical synapses and Chemical synapses

Kinetic Energy

Energy in action | Evidence of this is seen in the constant movement of the tiniest particles of matter (atoms) as well as in larger objects (a bouncing ball) | Does work by moving objects, which in turn can do work by moving or pushing on other objects |

Radiant Energy or Electromagnetic Radiation

Energy that travels in waves. The waves are called the electromagnetic spectrum. They include visible light, infrared waves, radio waves, ultraviolet waves, and X-rays | Light energy, which stimulates the retinas of our eyes, is important in vision | Ultraviolet rays cause sunburn but they also stimulate your body to make vitamin D

Endergonic Reactions

Energy-absorbing reactions | Contain more potential energy in there chemical bonds than did the reactants | Anabolic reactions are typically this type of reaction |

Melanocytes

Epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment melanin; 8% of epidermal cells are these; Give skin its color; Found in the deepest layer of the epidermis; Melanin accumulates in melanosomes as melanin is made; Motor proteins move the melanosomes and they accumulate on the superficial side of the keratinocyte nucleus; Form a pigment shield that protects the nucleus from UV damage;

Four basic tissue types

Epithelium, muscle, connective, nervous

Function of Muscle: *Stabilize joints*

Even as muscles pull on bones to cause movement, they strengthen and stabilize the joints of the skeleton;

Selectively permeable barrier of diffusion:

Even though diffusion is continuous across the plasma membrane, it is selective. It allows some substances to pass but it excludes others (allows nutrients to enter the cell, but keeps undesirable substances out) (also keeps proteins and other necessary substances in the cell but allows wastes to exit)

Maintain its boundaries

Every living organism must do this. It's when the internal environment (the organisms inside) remains distance from the external environment (its outside).

Cardiovascular physiology

Examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels

Ventral Rami

Except for spinal nerves T2-T12, all ventral rami branch and join one another to form interlacing nerve networks called *nerve plexuses*

Hyperextension

Excessive extension beyond straightening a body part; Example: when you lean your head back

List the characteristics of muscle tissue that differentiate it from other types of tissues:

Excitability (also called irritability and responsiveness); Contractility; Extensibility; Elasticity;

Metaphysis/Metaphyses:

Expanded, flared ends of the shaft (but not the end of the bone itself)

Neurophysiology

Explains how the nervous system works

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Exquisitely selective mechanism that allows cells to concentrate material that is present only in small amounts in the extracellular fluid | The receptors are proteins that bind only certain substances | Both the receptors and the attached molecules are coated in a clathrin pit | Examples of substances taken up by this: enzymes, insulin, other hormones, lipoproteins, iron, flu, diphtheria, cholera

Vestibulocochlear nerves (VIII)

Extend from the brain stem to the inner ear; These nerves transmit afferent impulses for the senses of hearing and equilibrium;

Vagus Nerves (X)

Extend from the brain stem to the thorax and abdomen where they innervate several organs;

Cochlea

Extends from the vestibule; It's divided into three chambers (scalae): *scala vestibule, scala media (i.e. cochlear duct) and scala tympani*; The *cochlear duct* houses the *spiral organ (of Corti)*, which contains the receptors for hearing and is supported by a *basilar membrane*

Reticular formation

Extends through brain stem and includes loosely clustered neurons in what is otherwise white matter; Keeps the cerebral cortex alert via the *reticular activating system (RAS)*; The RAS dampens familiar, weak, or repetitive sensory inputs; Example: RAS allows you to sleep through the noise of a fan, but not irregular snoring;

Indirect attachments

Extensions of a muscle's connective tissue wrappings beyond the muscle tissue itself either as a tendon (rope-like) or a aponeurosis (aponeuroses) (sheet-like) and these attach to the periosteum or perichondrium or to fascia of other muscles; More common than direct attachments;

Axoaxonal (axoaxonic), dendodendritic, and somatodendritic (dendrosomatic) synapses

Far less common; Axoaxonal synapses are synapses between axons; Dendodendritic are between dendrites; And somatodendritic are between dendrites and cell bodies;

Bone function--Triglyceride (fat) storage:

Fat, a source of energy, is stored in bone cavities

Saturated fats

Fatty acid chains with only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms | Their fatty acid chains are straight | At room temperature they're packed closely together, forming a solid | Common in animal fats |

Two building blocks that make up triglycerides:

Fatty acids and glycerol (it's a carbohydrate) | 3:1 ratio of fatty acids to glycerol |

Medial meniscus/menisci and lateral meniscus/menisci

Fibrocartilages that raise the borders of the tibia to increase joint stability and provide cushioning in the joints;

Sutures

Fibrous joints between bones of the skull; Very short connective tissue fibers between the bones, so they are synarthroses (means no movement possible); Connective tissue ossifies in adulthood closing suture and fusing bones together; *Synostoses* are closed sutures;

Figure showing the arrangement of the three layers of the wall of the eyeball and some major components to those layers:

Fibrous layer: note the sclera and cornea; Middle layer: choroid, ciliary body, iris, pupil; Retina: macula lutea, fovea centralis, optic disc (blind spot);

Tropomyosin

Fibrous protein that stiffens the thin filament and covers the myosin binding sites on actin so that the myosin heads on the thick filaments cannot bind to the thin filaments when the muscle fiber is relaxed (not contracting);

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *leg*

Fibularis longus; Extensor digitorum longus; Tibialis anterior; Gastrocnemius; Soleus;

Sympathetic division of the ANS

Fight or Flight

Innervation of joints:

Follows *Hilton's law*: any nerve serving a muscle that produces movement at a joint also innervates the joint and skin over that joint;

Apical surface

Free surface of an epithelial cell; It's exposed either to the exterior of the body or to the opening of the cavity of an organ;

Clusters of neuron cells bodies in the PNS are called....

Ganglia

Posterior view: Muscles associated with the *Leg*

Gastrocnemius; Soleus; Fibularis longus; Calcaneal (Achilles tendon);

Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells | Consists of pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, and testis |

Enzymes

Globular proteins that act as biological catalysts | Chemical traffic cops that keep our metabolic pathways flowing | Cannot force chemical reactions to occur between molecules that would not otherwise react | Only increase the speed of reaction | Without these biochemical reactions would occur so slowly that it would basically be like they didn't occur at all | Names end with the suffix -ase |

Stapes

Has a base that fits into the *oval window* on the wall of the middle ear;

Microtubules

Have the largest diameter (25 nm); Made of protein tubulin

Isotonic solution

Have the same concentrations of non penetrating solutes as those found in cells | Cells exposed to these solutions retain their normal shape, and exhibit no net loss or gain of water | Example: the body's extracellular fluids and most intravenous solutions are this |

Satellite cells

Have the same function as astrocytes; They surround neuron cells bodies within structures called ganglia (collections of neuron cells bodies in the PNS); They're helping to mediate exchanges between neurons and the surrounding environment;

Isomers

Have the same molecular formula, but the atoms are arranged differently so they have different chemical properties | Examples: Galactose, Fructose are _________ of glucose

Multipolar neurons:

Have three or more processes (One process is an axon and the rest are dendrites); Most common type of neuron (over 99% of neurons are this); Major neuron type in the CNS;

Synergists & example

Help prime movers; They add a little extra force to the same movement controlled by the prime mover; Or they reduce undesirable or unnecessary movements; Example: these muscles stabilize the wrist joint, so finger flexor muscles (which cross the wrist joint) can flex the fingers without flexing the wrist;

Suspensions

Heterogenous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out | Example: sand and water and blood

How does water pass through the lipid bilayer?

Highly polar water passes through the lipid bilayer because random movements of the lipids in the bilayer create small gaps that allows water to slip through the membrane by moving from gap to gap

Solutions

Homogenous (means that the mixture has exactly the same composition throughout) mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids, or solids |

Other factors that influence contraction of smooth muscle:

Hormones and local factors such as lack of oxygen, histamine, excess carbon dioxide, and low pH

Excitation-contraction coupling

How the spread of the action potential leads to the rise of Ca within the sarcoplasm of the muscle fiber; 1) The action potential spreads (propagates) across the sarcolemma and down into the T tubules 2) Calcium ions are released because depolarization changes the shape of voltage-sensitive proteins that are resting against mechanically gated Ca channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. When the voltage-sensitive proteins in the T tubules change shape, this leads to the opening of the mechanically gated Ca channels resulting in the release of calcium 3) Calcium binds to troponin in thin filaments. This changes the shape of troponin. Troponin is bound to tropomyosin, so when troponin changes shape it shifts tropomyosin over and exposes the myosin binding sites (to actin) for the globular heads of the myosin molecules in the thick filaments 4) Once the myosin binding sites are exposed, myosin binds to actin. This forms a cross bridge and contraction begins.

Three of the bones of the upper limb:

Humerus, ulna, radius

General structure of a synovial joint: Articular cartilages

Hyaline cartilage covers the ends of the articulating bones; Thin but spongy cushions absorb compression placed on the joint to keep the bone ends from being crushed

Three types of cartilage & their basic components

Hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage; All have *chondrocytes* encased in spaces called *lacunae* within the extracellular matrix that has a jellylike ground substance and fibers;

Primary active transport

Hydrolysis of ATP results in phosphorylation of the transport protein. This causes the protein to change its shape in a way that it "pumps" the bound solute across the membrane

Unfused or incomplete tetanus

If another stimulus is applied before the muscle relaxes completely, then more tension results; Degree of wave summation becomes greater and greater, progressing to a sustained but quivering contraction; Has brief periods of reduced tension between stimuli; (Type of temporal summation)

3 reasons why a molecule or ion will diffuse through the plasma membrane:

If the molecule or ion is 1) Lipid soluble 2) Small enough to pass through membrane channels 3) Assisted by a carrier molecule

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Pelvis/thigh*

Iliopsoas; Pectineus;

Tight junctions (short definition)

Impermeable junctions that form continuous seals around the cells prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space

Why is Calcium (Ca) important in the blood?

Important for nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and other processes

Figure showing the auditory pathway to the brain

Impulses generated in the cochlea travel along afferent fibers of the cochlear nerve to the medulla; Then impulses travel the the thalamus and finally to the primary auditory cortex

Figure of a cell in anaphase:

In anaphase, the centromeres split and the sister chromatids separate; At this point, each sister chromatid is now considered a chromosome; The sister chromatids (chromosomes) move toward opposite poles of the cell; This process involves the mitotic spindle, which includes kinetochore microtubules and non-kinetochore microtubules. The kinetochore microtubules pull the chromosomes apart, and the non-kinetochore microtubules elongate the cell, prevent overlap of chromosomes as they move to either end of the cell, and maintain the cell shape

Electron acceptor

In ionic bonds, it's the atom that gains one or more electrons

Focusing of light on the retina

In order for us to see objects, the light bouncing off those objects must be focused on the retina; Focusing this light is accomplished by bending (refracting) the light that enters the eye; As light passes into the eye it moves through the cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, and then entire thickness of neural layer of retina where it excites photoreceptors; In this process, light is bent 3 times-as it enters the cornea, and as it enters and exits the lens; The shape of the lens can be changed to adjust the focus of image; If the lens is relatively flat, it bends the light less; If the lens is more rounded (bulges), it bends the light more;

Filaments in smooth muscle cells:

In smooth muscle cells, the thick and thin filaments are arranged diagonally across cell. Smooth muscle cells contain longitudinal bundles of non-contractile intermediate filaments anchored to the sarcolemma and surrounding tissues via *dense bodies*; Dense bodies anchor thin filaments and are functionally similar to z discs; Dense bodies transmit the pulling force of the muscle to surrounding tissues

Cross sectional view of the myofibril at various regions of the myofibril

In the I band there are only thin filaments; In the H zone (in the center of the A band), there's only thick filaments; At the M line we see thick filaments connected to each other by the proteins located in the M line; If we look at the A band at the outer edge close to the I band, we see both thin and thick filaments;

*Ciliary body*

In the anterior portion of the vascular layer of the eye; It's a ring of tissue around the *lens* (it's mostly smooth muscle that controls shape of lens);

General senses

Include things like touch, temperature, and pain

Body fluids/Extracellular fluids

Include: Interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid | Important because it aids in transport and dissolving things

Connective tissues that are not included in the connective tissue proper gorup

Include: cartilage, bone, and blood;

Connective tissue proper:

Includes *loose connective tissue* and *dense connective tissue*; All types of connective tissue proper contain fibroblasts, fibrocytes, defense cells, and fat cells;

Peritonitis

Inflammation of the Peritoneums | Happens when the serous membranes are inflamed and their normally smooth surfaces becomes roughened. The rough surface causes the membranes to stick together and drag across one another |

Pleurisy

Inflammation of the pleurae | Happens when the serous membranes are inflamed and their normally smooth surfaces becomes roughened. The rough surface causes the membranes to stick together and drag across one another |

Threshold

Influx of Na+ is at least equal to the efflux of K+; The membrane is depolarized by 15-20 mV from the resting value; So for the usual example of -70mV, the membrane would need to be -55 or -50 mV in order for the threshold to be reached (if the membrane depolarizes to that amount, then an action potential will occur);

T tubules

Infolding of the sarcolemma (that increase the muscle fiber's surface area); Conduct electrical impulses from the surface of the cell to the myofibrils; Rapid communication system that ensures that every myofibril contracts at virtually the same time;

Hydroxyapatite

Inorganic; Crystal containing calcium; Makes up 65% of bone mass; Makes bone hard and allows it to resist compression; Bone is half as strong as steel in resisting compression and fully as strong as steel in resisting tension; Because of the mineral salts, bones last long after death ;

Afferent Pathway

Input flows from the receptor to the control center along this

Two mechanisms of bone formation (ossification):

Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification

Two major types of reflexes:

Intrinsic (inborn) or acquired (learned)

Vestibular cortex

Involved in conscious awareness of balance; Located in the posterior part of the insula and adjacent parts of the parietal cortex;

Primary motor cortex

Involved in conscious control of skilled or precise voluntary movement of skeletal muscles; The entire body is represented spatially in *this* of each hemisphere; In the frontal lobe

Visceral sensory area

Involved in conscious perception of visceral sensations; Sensations include: upset stomach, full bladder, etc. Cortex of the insula just posterior to the gustatory cortex;

Prefrontal cortex (anterior association area)

Involved in intellect, cognition, recall, personality, working memory, and is closely linked to the limbic system; Most complicated cortical region; Matures slowly and depends heavily on feedback from social environment;

Gustatory cortex

Involved in the perception of taste stimuli; Located in the insula (deep to the temporal lobe);

Primary visual (striate) cortex

Involved in the reception and interpretation of visual stimuli; Largest cortical sensory area; Receives visual information that originates on the retina; There's a contralateral map of visual space on this, analogous to the body map on the somatosensory cortex;

Olfactory cortex

Involved in the sense of smell; In the temporal lobe;

What happens when ion channels are open?

Ions diffuse across the membrane following their *electrochemical gradients* and this creates electrical currents (so the current is the flow of those ions across the membrane); When ions diffuse following their *electrochemical gradients* they move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration and toward an area of opposite electrical charge (anions move toward positive charge and cations move toward negative charge);

Dissociate

Ions separating from each other and becoming evenly scattered

Radioisotopes

Isotopes that are the heaviest of most elements | They're unstable and their atoms decompose spontaneously into more stable forms |

Vascularity in connective tissue

It varies among different types; Some connective tissues (cartilage) are avascular (they have no blood supply); Others (bone) are vascularized;

How can fats be absorbed?

It's complicated; ingested fats and oils must be broken down into their building blocks

How many electrons can Shell 1 hold?

It's the shell immediately surrounding the nucleus, it can only hold 2 electrons

The 4 cells populating the epidermis

Keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile cells

Two states energy exists in

Kinetic and Potential

Left Hypochondriac Region

Lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs | Contains the diaphragm, spleen, and parts of the stomach

Right Hypochondriac Region

Lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs | Contains the liver and gallbladder

Right Iliac (Inguinal) Region

Lateral to the hypogastric region | Contains the Cecum and Appendix

Left Iliac (Inguinal) Region

Lateral to the hypogastric region | Contains the initial part of sigmoid colon

Right Lumbar Region

Lateral to the umbilical region | Contains the ascending colon of large intestine

Left Lumbar Region

Lateral to the umbilical region | Contains the descending colon of large intestine

Mechanical advantage:

Lever systems operate at this when the *load* is close to the *fulcrum* and *effort* is applied far from the *fulcrum*; When the elements are arranged this way, a relatively *small effort* is exerted over a large distance to move a *large load* over a small distance; These levers are called *power levers*;

Mechanical disadvantage:

Levers operate at this when the *load* is far from the *fulcrum* and the *effort* is applied near the *fulcrum*; The force exerted by the muscle must be greater than the load in order to be moved or supported; These levers are called speed levers;

Middle Ear Cavities

Lie medial to the eardrums | Contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears |

Pelvic cavity

Lies in the bony pelvis | Contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum | Inferior part of the abdominopelvic cavity |

Ependymal cells

Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord (form a fairly permeable barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and the tissue fluid bathing the cells of the CNS); Help circulate cerebrospinal fluid (which cushions the brain and spinal cord); Many are ciliated; Range in shape (from squamous to columnar); The cilia move and creates waves that circulate the fluid in the cavity;

Fatty acids:

Linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group (-COOH) at one end | Have a hydrocarbon tail, and these can differ in the number of carbons and the presence of absence of double covalent bonds between the carbons in the tail |

Transitional epithelium:

Lines hollow urinary organs (the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra), which stretch as they fill; The cells of the basal layer are cuboidal or columnar, but the apical layers very in appearance depending on how distended organ is; When the organ is full, transitional epithelium thins from 6 layers to 3 and the apical cells flatten and look squamous;

Parietal Pericardium

Lines the pericardial cavity

Glycolipids

Lipids with attached sugar groups | Found only on the outer plasma membrane surface | Account for 5% of membrane lipids | Their sugar groups make that end of this molecule polar, whereas the fatty acid tails are non polar |

Auscultation

Listening to organ sounds with a stethoscope

Lacuna/ Lacunae

Little chambers that each contain one osteocyte; They're interspersed throughout the osteon, within the lamellar bone;

Flagella

Longer extensions than cilia; They move a cell through the environment (they're motile like cilia); I.E.: the tails of sperm are this (this is the only example of a human body cell with one of these); Microtubules are at the core of these;

Ulna

Longer than radius; Main responsibility for forming the elbow joint with the humerus; Plays little to no role in hand movements;

Long bones

Longer than they are wide (length is greater than width); Has a tubular shaft plus two ends, which are also expanded and flared; Include the limb bones and many bones of the hands and feet; They're named for their elongated shape not their overall size (the bones in the fingers are long bones even though they're small);

Tarsus

Made up of 7 bones called tarsals; Body weight is carried by the two largest, most posterior tarsals (the talus and calcaneus);

Smooth muscle contractions info

Many smooth muscle fibers exhibit slow, scnchronized contractions due to electrical coupling by *gap junctions*; Different from skeletal muscle fibers, which are all electrically isolated from one another so each one must be excited by a somatic motor neuron; Smooth muscle, actin and myosin interact and produce the sliding filament mechanism of contraction; The final trigger for contraction is a rise in intracellular calcium live, and the process is energized by ATP;

Postsynaptic potentials

May be inhibitory or excitatory; Potentials that occur on post synaptic cells; In chemical synapses, neurotransmitters lead to graded potentials on the postsynaptic cell;

Hydrolysis

Means "water splitting" | A water molecule is added to each bond to be broken down, which releases its building blocks | Opposite of dehydration synthesis |

pH scale is a negative log scale

Means that 1 unit increase in pH represents a ten-fold decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions, and conversely a 1 unit decrease in pH represents a ten-fold increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions ; Example: pH of 4 has ten times the concentration of hydrogen ions than a pH of 5, and a pH of 5 has a tenth the concentration of hydrogen ions as a pH of 4;

Amitotic

Means that as neurons develop into mature neurons they lose the ability to divide; Means that neurons cannot be replaced if they're destroyed; Exceptions: stem cells in the olfactory epithelium and parts of the hippocampus, which can produce new neurons;

Electrochemical equilibrium

Means that the charge and ion concentrations were identical on either side of the membrane;

Polarized

Means that the inner surface is negative relative to the outer surface; The resting sarcolemma is this;

Polarized

Means that there's a difference in electrical charge on either side of the membrane; The membrane is said to be this because it is more negatively charged on the inside than on the outside;

Polarized

Means the inside of the cell is negative compared to its outside

Depolarized

Means the inside of the cell is now positively charged and the outside is negatively charged;

Post-synaptic potentials are graded:

Means they vary in strength according to the amount of neurotransmitter that's released; The amount of time it remains in the synaptic cleft and binding to receptors on the post synaptic cell;

pH Units

Measure the relative concentration of hydrogen ions in various body fluids

Three concentric layers of keratinized cells in the hair:

Medulla, cortex, and cuticle

Melanosomes

Membrane-bound granules that have melanin; Motor proteins move these along actin filaments;

Vesicles

Membraneous sacs that can transport fluids that have large particles and macromolecules through the cell

Peroxisomes

Membranous sacs containing powerful enzymes; Their job is to detoxify harmful substances like alcohol, formaldehyde, and free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble biological molecules like DNA);

Figure of a cell in metaphase:

Metaphase is the second phase of mitosis; In this phase, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

What happens without ATP?

Molecules cannot be made or degraded | Cells cannot transport substances across their membranes | Muscles cannot shorten to tug on other structures | Life processes cease |

Non polar molecules

Molecules formed when the covalent bonds have electrons shared equally between the atoms of the molecule | The molecules are electrically balanced because they do not have separate + and - poles of charge | (Carbon dioxide)

Molarity

Moles per liter | Indicated by M

Ventral Body Cavity

More anterior and larger of the closed body cavities | Has two major subdivisions: thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity | Houses internal organs collectively (called viscera)

Secondary structure

More complex than primary structure | Two types: alpha helix and beta pleated

Astrocytes

Most abundant and versatile neuroglia in the CNS; They're shaped like sea anemones or stars; Regulate chemical environment around neurons; Control exchanges between neurons and capillaries; Support and brace neurons and anchor them to their nutrient supply lines; Participate in information processing in the brain;

Hyaline cartilage

Most abundant type of cartilage; It provides firm support with some pliability; Its predominant fibers are collagen fibers; It makes up the articular cartilages found at joint surfaces and is found in many other locations;

Alpha Helix

Most common type of secondary structure | Resembles a slinky | Formed by coiling of the primary chain | Stabilized by hydrogen bonds formed between the NH and CO groups in amino acids in the primary chain (which are about 4 amino acids apart) | Hydrogen bonds in these link different parts of the same chain together |

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

Most homeostatic control mechanisms are this | They prevent sudden, severe changes in the body | In these systems the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity | These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change to return it to its "ideal" value | These turn off once the body variable returns to normal | The goal of this is to prevent sever changes within the body |

Where are triglycerides found? What's their function?

Mostly beneath the skin | Insulate deeper body tissues from heat loss and protect them from mechanical trauma |

Solute pumps

Move solutes (ions) uphill against a concentration gradient but to do this the cells must expend energy |

Adduction

Movement of a limb (or fingers/toes) toward the midline of the body (or hand/foot); Example: when the woman moves her upper limb toward the body in the frontal plane;

Abduction

Movement of a limb away from the midline of the body; Or movement of the fingers or toes away from the midline of the hand or foot; These movements occur in the frontal plane when you're in standard anatomical position; Example: When the upper limb is moved away from the body in the frontal plane;

Sodium-potassium pump

Moves Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell | Simultaneously drives Na+ out of the cell against a steep concentration gradient and pumps K+ back in| As a result, the concentration of K+ inside the cell is 10 times higher than it is in the outside, and the concentration of Na+ outside of the cell is 10 times higher than it is in the inside | The concentration difference is essential for body cells to maintain their normal fluid volume | Operates almost continuously because Na+ and K+ leak slowly but continuously through leakage channels |

Which pathways predominate during exercise?

Muscles function aerobically as long as there is adequate oxygen; When the demands of exercise exceed the ability of muscle metabolism to keep up with ATP demand, it switches to anaerobe glycolysis; Only 40% of energy released during muscle contraction is converted to useful work (the rest is given off as heat);

Prefixes myo, mys, or sarco

Myo and Mys mean muscle; Sarco means flesh; When they're used it means it's associated with muscle

Salts commonly found in the body

NaCl, CaCO3 (calcium carbonate), KCl (potassium chloride) | Most plentiful salts are calcium phosphates (make bones and teeth hard)

Difference between positive and negative feedback mechanisms

Negative feedback opposes, negates, lowers, reduces the original stimulus and turns off the feedback mechanism | Positive feedback enhances, raises, and adds to the original stimulus and keeps the feedback mechanism going | Negative Feedback Controls maintain some physiological function or keep blood chemicals within narrow ranges | Positive Feedback Mechanisms control infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments. They set off a series of events that may be self-perpetuating and that once initiated have an amplifying effect (that's why positive feedback is referred to as cascades)

The inside of the cell is __________ charged compared to the outside;

Negatively; This refers to the areas just inside and outside of the membrane, and not the intracellular and extracellular material in general; Overall the inside of the cell and outside of the cell are electrically neutral;

*Neurons*

Nerve cells that are excitable (responsive to stimuli; Transmit electrical signals;

4 Types of Tissue in the Body

Nervous, muscle, epithelial, and connective

Are compact and spongy bone made of different things?

No, they're made of the exact same material they just differ in density and porosity;

Are simple diffusion and osmosis selective processes?

No, they're not selective. Whether a molecule can pass through the membrane depends solely on its size or its solubility in lipid, not the molecule's structure | (However facilitated diffusion is highly selective)

Can disaccharides be transported through cell membranes?

No, they're too large so they must be digested (by hydrolysis) to their simple sugar units to be absorbed from the digestive tract into the blood | A water molecule is added to each bond, breaking the bonds and releasing the simple sugar units |

Bones are all so different. Is their composition different too?

No. Despite the differences in size and shape, the composition and organization of all bones is the same

Nerve plexuses

Occur in the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral regions, and primarily serve the limbs; The thorax has no plexus; Within each plexus, fibers from various ventral rami criss-cross each other; Each resulting branch from the plexus has fibers from several spinal nerves from different levels of the spinal cord; Advantage of this is that damage to one spinal segment or root won't completely paralyze any limb muscle because it will still receive innervation from other parts/levels of the spinal cord;

Aerobic Respiration

Occurs in Mitochondria; Requires oxygen; Glucose is broken down entirely into water and carbon dioxide; The energy released is used to make ATP; Produces 32 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose (so it's very efficient); IT takes longer than the other pathways and requires constant delivery of oxygen and nutrient fuels to keep it going;

Temporal/Wave summation

Occurs with increasing the frequency of the stimulation of motor units; The key is that stimulation occurs before the muscle has had a chance to relax completely; If nerve impulses are delivered to muscle in rapid succession, the second contraction is stronger than the first; This happens because the muscle is already partially contracted (so the contractions are added together); Muscle tension increases until it reaches maximal tension;

Crossed-extensor reflexes

Often accompany a flexor reflex in weight bearing limbs to help maintain balance; Example: If you step on something sharp with your right foot, a flexor reflex causes you to lift your right foot away and a crossed-extensor reflex shifts your weight to the left leg;

Trans fats

Oils that have been solidified by addition of H atoms at sites of carbon double bonds | Increase risk of heart disease more than even saturated fats | Example: margarines and baked products

Friction ridges

On the hands and feet, the bumps are on top of *dermal ridges* that create *epidermal ridges* in the overlying epidermis (collectively the two types of skin ridges are called this); Peglike projections that indent the overlying epidermis; These are our fingerprints and toe prints; Skin ridges that enhance the gripping ability of fingers and toes;

Example of Positive Feedback Mechanism: Blood Clotting

Once a blood vessel has been damaged blood elements called platelets immediately begin to cling to the injured site and release chemical that attract more platelets. The rapidly growing pileup of platelets temporary plugs the tear and initiates the sequence of events that finally forms a clot.

Gliding movements

One flat (or nearly flat) bone surface glides or slips over another; Happen at the joints between carpals when we move our hands from side to side; Happens when we wave or write;

What do cells have to have in order to generate action potentials?

Only cells with excitable membranes (neurons and muscle cells) can generate action potentials;

Thorax:

Only in the thorax are the ventral rami arranged in a *simple segmented pattern* like that of the dorsal rami, with each ramus innervating muscle in line with its point of emergence from the spinal column;

Mechanically gated channels

Open when the channel is physically deformed (as in sensory receptors for touch and pressure);

Mechanically gated channels

Open when their shape is changed

Organ system

Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose

Difference between osmolarity and tonicity:

Osmolarity is based solely on its total solute concentration | Tonicity is based on how the solution affects cell volume, which depends on solute concentration and solute permeability of the plasma membrane

Sarcolemma

Plasma membrane of a muscle cell; It's deep to the endomysium;

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Neck*

Platysma; Sternohyoid; Sternocleidomastoid;

Thalamus

Plays a key role in mediating sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, memory; Acts as a relay station or gateway for info coming into the cerebral cortex; Makes up 80% of the diencephalon;

Polysaccharides

Polymers of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis | Large, insoluble molecules makes them ideal storage products | Lack sweetness of simple and double sugars

4 structural levels of proteins:

Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

Three functional groups of muscles:

Prime mover/Agonist, Antagonist, or Synergist; A single muscle may act as a prime mover, antagonist, and a synergist for a variety of different movements;

The parasympathetic division:

Promotes maintenance functions and conserves body energy; It's involved in "resting and digesting" functions; It keeps body energy use as low as possible while directing digestion and elimination activities;

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Forearm*

Pronator teres; Brachioradialis; Flexor carpi radialis; Palmaris longus;

Other functions of muscle:

Protection of organs, forms valves to regulate the passage of substances through internal body openings, dilates and constricts pupils, raising body hairs;

Functions of Integumentary System

Protection; Temperature regulation; Sensation; Vitamin D production; Blood reservoir; Excretion;

Skeletal System

Protects and supports body organs | Provide a frame the muscles use to cause movement | Blood cells are formed within bones (red, white, platelets) | Bones store minerals | Consists of bones and joints |

Dorsal Body Cavity

Protects the fragile nervous system organs | Has two subdivisions (Cranial Cavity; Vertebral/Spinal Cavity) |

DNA provides the blueprint for:

Protein synthesis

Troponin

Protein that has peptide that bind to calcium (Ca)

Biological colloids

Protein-water mixtures like blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid

Animal-derived foods are rich in what?

Proteins and fats

Pubis

Pubic bone; Forms the anterior protein of the hip bone; Lies horizontally and urinary bladder rests on it; V shaped

Angular movements at the shoulder and knee

Raises her arm in front of her, she's flexing at shoulder joint; Raises arm behind her, she's extending at shoulder joint; Bends knee in sagittal plane she's flexing; Lowers her leg to straighten it, she's doing extension;

Inborn/intrinsic reflexes

Rapid, predictable motor response to a stimulus; Unlearned and involuntary; Help us to do things like maintain posture and avoid pain without thinking about it; Example: when you withdraw your hand from a hot surface before being conscious of its temperature, this response is triggered by a spinal reflex without any conscious awareness

Neutralization Reaction

Reaction that occurs when acids and bases are mixed | The joining of H+ and OH- to form water neutralizes the solution |

Postsynaptic cell or neuron

Receives the message; Carries impulses away from the synapse;

Contraction

Refers only to the activation of myosin's cross bridges (the force generating sites); Shortening occurs if and when the cross bridges generate enough tension on the thin filaments to exceed the forces that oppose shortening;

General features of epithelial tissue:

Refers to a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a cavity; The plural of epithelium is epithelia

Valence shell

Refers to an atom's outermost energy level or that portion of it containing the electrons that are chemically reactive

Two ways that tissue repair occurs:

Regeneration and fibrosis

Orbitals

Regions around the nucleus in which a given electron or electron pair is likely to be found most of the time

Minerals and Vitamins

Required for the chemical reactions that go on in cells | Required for oxygen transport in the blood

Active transport

Requires carrier proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with the transported substances | Don't have to follow concentration gradients because solute pumps move ions uphill against concentration gradients |

Sensory receptor classified by Stimulus Type: *Chemoreceptors*

Respond to chemicals in solution (e.g. molecules smelled or tasted);

Sensory receptor classified by Location: *Proprioceptors*

Respond to internal stimuli (like interoceptors), but are only found in restricted locations; Found in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, connective tissue covering bones, and muscles; Provide info about body movements and position in space;

Sensory receptor classified by Stimulus Type: *Photoreceptors*

Respond to light energy

Sensory receptor classified by Stimulus Type: *Nociceptors*

Respond to potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain; Example: extreme heat, excessive pressure, and chemicals; These are special subtypes of thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and chemoreceptors;

Supination

Rotation of the forearm laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly; Radius and ulna are parallel;

Pronation

Rotation of the forearm medially so the palm faces posteriorly; Radius rotates over ulna;

Dynamic equilibrium

Rotations, changes in rotation of the head;

Neuroglia/glial cells in the PNS

Satellite cells and Schwann cells

Nails

Scale-like modifications of the epidermis that form clear protective covering over the ends of fingers and toes; tools to pick up small objects or scratch itches; Contain hard keratin

Ganglion cells

Sensory neurons whose axons can propagate action potentials towards the brain

Information flows as follows:

Sensory receptors -> primary sensory cortex-> sensory association cortex -> multimodal association area

Transverse cerebral fissure

Separates the cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum;

Longitudinal fissure

Separates the two cerebral hemispheres along the midline

Cell cycle:

Series of changes the cell goes through from time it is formed until it reproduces to form two new cells;

Scapula

Shoulder blade; Thin, triangular flat bones; Lie on the posterior surface of the thorax, forms the shoulder joint with the humerus; Lie on the dorsal surface of the rib cage between ribs 2 and 7;

Gastric glands

Simple branched tubular

Humerus

Single bone in the arm (arm is referring to the segment of the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow joints); Typical long bone; Articulates with the scapula at the shoulder and with the radius and ulna at the elbow;

Femur

Single bone of the thigh; Largest, longest, strongest bone in the body; Articulates with the hip bone and then courses medially as it descends towards the knee to provide better balance;

Cuticle

Single layer of overlapping cells that forms the outer layer of the hair; Most keratinized part of the hair; Provides strength and helps keep the inner layers tightly compacted; Part A

Cholesterol

Single most important molecule in steroid chemistry | Ingested in cheese, eggs, meat, and some is produced by the liver | It's essential for human life | Found in cell membranes | Raw material for synthesis of vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts |

Two major types of Smooth muscle:

Single-unit smooth muscle (visceral muscle); Multiunit smooth muscle

Muscle fibers

Skeletal and smooth muscles cells (but not cardiac) are elongated and thus, called this; Also called myofibers and myocytes;

*Excretion* function of integumentary system

Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid) are excreted through the skin

Twitch contractions of different muscles vary in length:

Small muscles twitch fast; Larger muscles twitch more slowly;

3 states of matter

Solid (bones and teeth) | Liquid (blood plasma) | Gas (the air we breathe) |

General structure of a synovial joint: Joint (synovial) cavity

Space between bones filled with synovial fluid

Double helix

Spiral staircase like structure of DNA

Fibula

Sticklike bone; Articulates proximally and distally with the lateral aspects of the tibia; Does not bear weight, but several muscles originate from it;

Starch

Storage carbohydrate formed by plants | The number of glucose units that compose this molecule is high and variable | Examples: grains and potatoes | Must be digested for glucose units to be absorbed |

Body fluids

Such as interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid; These are important for transport of substances and cells, and for solute dissolution

Hair bulb

Surrounded by sensory nerve endings (*hair follicle receptor* or *root hair plexus*) that wrap around each hair bulb and bending the hair stimulates these endings;

Fixators

Synergists that immobilize a bone (the muscle's origin) so the prime mover has a stable base;

Thoracic Vertebrae

T1-T12; First looks like C7 and the last four show progression to what the lumbar vertebral structure is; Increase in size from the first to the last; Features: Body is heart shaped. Bears two small facets (called demifacets) on each side. The demifacets (rounded articular surfaces where they touch ribs) receive the heads of the ribs. Vertebral foramen is circular. Spinous process is long and points downward. The transverse processes have facets, the *transverse costal facets* (except for T11 and T12);

Example of an ionic bond:

Table salt, NaCl: Sodium donates an electron to chlorine. Sodium gains stability by losing one electron and coloring becomes stable by gaining one electron

Coccyx

Tailbone; Consists of three-five fused together vertebrae; Articulates superiorly with the sacrum; It's a nearly useless bone other than slightly supporting the pelvic organs;

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *head*

Temporalis; Masseter;

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Thigh*

Tensor fascia lata; Sartorius; Adductor longus; Gracilis; Rectus femoris; Vastus lateralis; Vastus medialis;

How can the CNS determine the strength of the stimulus of an action potential?

The CNS determines the strength of a stimulus based on the rate of nerve impulses; Strong stimuli cause a higher frequency of action potentials in a given time period;

Hierarchical organization of the *Peripheral Nervous System* (PNS) ; Two main divisions of the PNS

The PNS includes all the neural structures outside the brain and spinal cord, such as sensory receptors, peripheral nerves and associated ganglia, and efferent motor endings; Two main division of PNS: *Sensory (afferent) division* & the *motor (efferent) division*; The motor division is further divided into the *somatic* nervous system (*voluntary nervous system*) and the *autonomic* nervous system (ANS) (*involuntary nervous system*); The ANS is divided into the *sympathetic* division and the *parasympathetic* division;

Tonicity

The ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by altering the cells' internal water volume

*Magnitude estimation*

The ability to detect how intense the stimulus is; Example: how bright a light is or how loud a sound is;

Anatomical Position

The anatomical reference point in a standard body position

Optic disk (blind spot)

The area where the optic nerve exits the eye;

Olfactory pathway to the brain

The axons of the olfactory receptor cells synapse in the *olfactory bulb* with *mitral cells* and lead to EPSPs (excitatory postsynaptic potentials) in the mitral cells; If EPSPs summate, action potentials flow from the olfactory bulb via the *olfactory tracts* (which are mostly mitral cell axons) to two main destinations *via the thalamus to the olfactory cortex* and part of frontal lobe for conscious interpretation of scent; OR *Directly to the hypothalamus, amygdala* and other regions of *limbic* system for emotional responses to scent;

Brachial plexus:

The brachial plexus is formed from the ventral rami of spinal nerves C5-C8 and T1; It's situated partly in the neck and partly in the axilla (armpit); It gives rise to almost all the nerves that innervate the upper limb; The ventral rami that give rise to the brachial plexus (called "*roots*" which can be confusing) unite to form *trunks* (upper, middle, and lower) which divide into anterior and posterior *divisions* which unite to form *cords* (lateral, medial, posterior); The major nerve branches of the brachial plexus are the: *musculocutaneous, median, ulnar, radial, axillary, dorsal scapular, long thoracic, subscapular, suprascapular, and pectoral (lateral and medial)*;

Products

The chemical composition of the result of the reaction

Inorganic compounds

The chemicals in the body that do not contain carbon | Include: water, salts, and many acids and bases |

Thorax

The chest

What determines the acidity of a solution?

The concentration of protons

When the two divisions of the ANS have cooperative effects:

The divisions of the autonomic nervous system may work together, rather than antagonistically (as in sexual arousal); Parasympathetic stimulation causes vasodilation of blood vessels in external genitalia, resulting in an erect penis or clitoris; Sympathetic stimulation causes muscle contractions associated with orgasm;

Receptor

The first component of homeostatic control mechanisms | It's some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes (called stimuli) by sending information (input) to the second component |

*Latent period* of a muscle twitch

The first few milliseconds following stimulation; This is when excitation-coupling is occurring; Muscle tension is beginning to increase; Ca is being released into the cells; Action potential is spreading across the muscle fibers;

Current

The flow of electrical charge from one point to another is called this; This depends on voltage and resistance; This can be used to do work;

In the body, electrical currents are the result of what?

The flow of ions across cellular membranes; Resistance to the current is provided by the plasma membrane; There's a slight difference in charge on either side of plasma membrane (i.e. the inside is negative) and thus there's a potential across the membrane;

Interstitial Fluid

The fluid in tissues that bathes all of the cells | It has major and endless roles to play | Contains thousands of ingredients, including amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, regulatory substances, and wastes | For cells to remain healthy they must take from this the exact amount of what they need depending on present conditions |

Chemical Energy

The form of energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances | Example: Food fuels can't be used to energize body activities directly, instead some of the food energy is captured temporarily in the bonds of ATP, later the ATP bonds are broken and the stored energy is released as needed to do cellular work

Five lobes of the cerebral hemisphere (as they're divided up by several sulci)

The frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula lobes; Because you have two cerebral hemispheres, you have 10 of these lobes (two of each);

Bone function--protection:

The fused bones of the skull protect the brain; The vertebrae surround the spinal cord; The rib cage protects the vital organs of the thorax;

Set Point

The level or range at which a variable is to be maintained

Water

The most abundant and important inorganic compound | 60-80% of the volume of most living cells |

Isotopes

The name of the two or more structural variations that most elements have | They have the same number of protons (and electrons) but a different amount of neutrons

Somatic Motor Neurons

The nerve cells that activate skeletal muscle fibers; Their cell bodies reside in the brain or spinal cord, but they have long axons (threadlike extensions) that are bundled in nerves and travel to the muscle;

Which electrons are involved in chemical bonding?

The only electrons that we care about with chemical bonding are the outermost energy levels because the inner ones are held tightly by the nucleus

Plasma membrane

The outer boundary of the cell | Selectively permeable membrane | Fluid mosaic model |

Fibrous Layer

The outermost layer and is made of dense avascular connective tissue;

Cranium

The part of the skull that is not the facial bones; Top of this is called the cranial vault or calvaria and the bottom is called the cranial base;

Figure showing the layers of the retina

The pigmented layer of the retina absorbs excess light in the eye to improve visual clarity; The neural layer of the retina contains the cells directly involved in the sense of vision;

The resting membrane potential

The potential across the plasma membrane of a cell that's at rest (i.e. the cell is not working, which in the case of a neuron means that it's not transmitting a nerve impulse (aka an electrical impulse aka an action potential)); Two factors generate this: differences in the ionic composition of the intracellular and extracellular fluids, and differences in the permeability of the plasma membrane to those ions;

Blood

The predominant cells in blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells), and platelets (thrombocytes); It's an atypical connective tissue because it's so fluid, but it has the same embryonic origin as others and consists mostly of noncellular ground substance (plasma) surrounding the blood cells; The "fibers" of the extracellular matrix are soluble (i.e. dissolved) proteins that form fiber like structures during blood clotting;

Bone (osseous tissue)

The predominant cells in bone are *osteoblasts* and *osteocytes*; Bone is very hard and contains collagen fibers and calcium salts in the extracellular matrix; It provides support (scaffolding), protection, and allows for movement of the body (i.e. skeletal muscles attach to bone);

Cartilage

The predominant cells in this are chondroblasts (the immature form); It's tough but flexible, avascular, and has no nerve fibers; Three types: hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

Parasympathetic (craniosacral) division:

The preganglionic fibers originate from the brain stem and the sacral region of spinal cord; The preganglionic axons extend from the CNS nearly all the way to the structures that are innervated; Preganglionic axons synapse with ganglionic neurons in *terminal ganglia* that are close to or within target organs; Short postganglionic axons emerge from the terminal ganglia and synapse with effector cells in the immediate area;

Beta Pleated

The primary polypeptide chains do not coil, but are linked side by side by hydrogen bonds | Look like an accordion | The hydrogen bonds may link together different polypeptide chains as well as different parts of the same chain that has folded back on itself |

Phototransduction

The process by which light energy is converted to a graded receptor potential in a photoreceptor

Excretion

The process of removing wastes from the body. If the body operates how it's supposed to it must get rid of non useful substances produced during digestion and metabolism

Integration:

The process of the nervous system processing and interpreting sensory input and deciding what should be done at each moment in response to conditions inside the body;

Step 4 of homeostatic regulatory mechanism

The processing of incoming information in the control center; The control center then sends information out to another part of the body (an effector) along the efferent pathway; The effector is the part of the body that will respond to the common from the control center by doing something to return the variable to the equilibrium level (aka restore balance); Effectors include muscles and glands;

What's the purpose of transcription? Why not just synthesize proteins directly from DNA?

The production of many copies of mRNA from a single gene means we can make more many copies of a protein than would be possible if we used just the DNA; Depending on splicing, different products from a single gene can be produced.; This process also keeps the DNA in the nucleus; Protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm where there are lots of chemicals and things whizzing around that could damage DNA;

Fibrosis

The proliferation of a fibrous connective tissue called scar tissue which does not necessarily maintain the function of the original tissue

Figure showing what happens within rods in the dark (when they're unstimulated/ not stimulated by light)

The same general processes occur in cones in the dark and in the light; As seen in the left side of the figure in the dark: photoreceptor cells are depolarized and continuously releasing inhibitory neurotransmitter (glutamate) into their synapses with bipolar cells; Glutamate causes bipolar cells to hyper polarize and so bipolar cells do not release neurotransmitter into their synapses with ganglion cells; Because of this no EPSPs (excitatory post synaptic potentials) occur in ganglion cells and thus no action potentials can result, so no messages (action potentials) (APs) are sent to the brain;

Two subdivisions of the PNS (peripheral nervous system):

The sensory division; The motor division;

Visceral Serosa

The serosa covering the external surface of the organs in the cavity | In the balloon example, it's the inside of the limp balloon that your fist clings to |

*Blood reservoir* function of integumentary system

The skin may hold up to 5% of the body's blood supply, which can be diverted to other areas when needed;

White matter in spinal cord

The spinal cord white matter is organized into several columns; In each half of the spinal cord there's a dorsal white column or a dorsal funiculus; lateral white column/lateral funiculus; ventral white column/ventral funiculus;

*Ventral ramus*

The spinal nerve divides into *this* (also divides into the dorsal ramus and meningeal branch) after emerging from the vertebral column; It's long

*Meningneal branch*

The spinal nerve divides into *this* (also divides into the dorsal ramus and ventral ramus) after emerging from the vertebral column; It's tiny and it reenters vertebral canal to innervate meninges and blood vessels;

*Dorsal ramus*

The spinal nerve divides into *this* (also divides into the ventral ramus and memingneal branch) after emerging from the vertebral column; It's short

Glycogen

The storage carbohydrate of animal tissues | Stored primarily in skeletal muscles and liver cells | Highly branched and a large molecule | When blood sugar levels drop sharply, liver cells break this molecule down and release its glucose units to the blood | Because it has so many branch endings, glucose can be released simultaneously from all of them giving body cells an almost instant access to glucose fuel |

Osteon

The structural unit of compact bone; Also called a Haversian system; Each of these is an elongated cylinder oriented parallel to the long axis of the bone; Function as weight-bearing pillars;

Sensory receptors

The structures that are specialized to respond to changes in their internal or external environment (*stimuli*)

Gross/macroscopic anatomy

The study of large body structures. The study of body structures visible to the naked eye. For example, heart, lungs, and kidneys.

Solvent

The substance in a solution present in the greatest amount | Usually liquids |

Thoracic Cavity

The superior subdivision, surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest | Further subdivided into lateral pleural cavities and the medial mediastinum |

Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) division of the ANS

The sympathetic division supplies the visceral organs in the internal body cavities and visceral structures in the superficial (somatic) part of the body; The visceral structures in the soma include sweat glands and erector pili muscles, smooth muscle in arteries and veins, etc.; All preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic division come from preganglionic neurons that have their cell bodies in spinal cord segments T1-L2; The preganglionic neuron cell bodies are in the *lateral horns* of gray matter in these regions of the spinal cord;

Diffusion:

The tendency of molecules or ions to move from an area where they are in high concentration to an area where they're in lower concentration (along their concentration gradient)

Osmotic pressure

The tendency of water to move into the cell by osmosis

Antiport System

The two transported substances cross the membrane in opposite directions | They "wave to each other" as they cross in opposite directions |

Why are levers important?

They allow a given effort to move a heavier load or move load faster or farther than would be possible otherwise

Transmembrane proteins that are involved in transport:

They cluster together to form channels (like pores) | Small water soluble molecules or ions can move through these channels, bypassing the lipid part of the membrane | Others act as carriers that bind to a substance and then move it through the membrane |

*Middle ear (tympanic cavity)*

This is a small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity; It's flanked laterally by the tympanic membrane and medially by bone; There are two openings in the bone: the *oval window (vestibular)* and the *round (cochlear) window*; The anterior wall of the middle ear contains the opening of the *pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube*

Control Center

This is the second component of homeostatic control mechanisms | It determines the set point (the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained) | Analyzes the input it receives and determines the appropriate response |

Peripheral Connective Tissue Root Sheath (Fibrous Sheath)

This is what composes the wall of a hair follicle; It's derived from the dermis; Outer;

Normal Body Temperature

This must be maintained in order for chemical reactions to continue at life-sustaining rates | When this lowers, metabolic reactions become slower and slower until they finally stop | When this is too high, chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace and body proteins lose their characteristic shape and stop functioning | At either extreme death occurs |

*Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube*

This tube links the middle ear cavity with the nasopharynx (the superior part of the throat) and the mucosa (that lines the pharyngotympanic tube) is continuous between all these structures; The pharyngotympanic tube is usually closed, but it opens to equalize pressure in middle ear cavity with external air pressure -- this is important for proper vibration of the tympanic membrane

Medial view of the right elbow

This view shows the ulnar collateral ligament

Elements of the Thoracic Cage

Thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum, costal cartilages (the costal cartilages secure the ribs to the sternum)

Physical properties

Those we can detect with our senses (like color and texture) or measure (like boiling and freezing point)

General senses include:

Touch, temperature, pain, proprioception, pressure, stretch, chemicals, nausea, and hunger; The simple receptors of the general senses are involved in detecting things like tactile sensation, temperature monitoring, pain, and the "muscle sense" of proprioceptors (so like where your body is and moving in space);

Opposition

Touching the thumb to other fingers on the same hand

Keratin

Tough fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties

Posterior (Dorsal)

Toward or at the back of the body; behind | Example: The heart is _____________ to the breastbone

Vitreous humor

Transmits light, supports the posterior surface of the lens, and holds the retina in place

Figure highlighting the accessory structures of the eye: *Conjunctiva*

Transparent mucous membrane that line the eyelids and cover the whites of eye, but they do not cover the cornea; They produce mucous to prevent the eye from drying out; The *palpebral conjunctiva* lines the eyelids; The *bulbar conjunctiva* covers the anterior surface of eye (except for the cornea)

Different tasks membrane proteins perform:

Transport (provides a channel across the membrane that allows certain things through) | Enzymes (the active site is exposed to substances in the solution) | Signal transduction (receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers and relay messages to the cell's interior) |

For secondary active transport where does the energy come from?

Transport is driven indirectly by energy stored in concentration gradients of ions created by primary active transport pumps | They move more than one substance at a time |

Rotation of the head, neck, and lower limb

Turning of a bone along its own axis; When you shake your head no, it's doing this with your head and first cervical vertebra around the dens of the second cervical vertebra; Medial rotation is doing this directed toward the midline; Lateral rotation is doing this directed away from the midline;

Inversion

Turns the sole of the foot so that it faces medially

Plane joints

Type of synovial joint that has flat articular surfaces and allow gliding movements; Nonaxial movement; Example: the joints between the carpals;

Regional Terms

Used to designate specific areas within the major body divisions

Computed Tomography (CT)

Uses a refined form of X-ray equipment | Donut-shaped X-ray tube rotates around the body | The beam is confined to a "slice" of the body as thick as a dime resulting in a detailed cross-sectional picture of each body region scanned | Mostly used for problems with the brain and abdomen |

Photopigments

Visual pigments that change shape when they absorb light (both rods and cones have these)

Basement membrane

We find this beneath all epithelial tissues; It's between the epidermis and underlying dermis; It contains molecules from both the epidermis and the dermis but it does not contain cells and is non-living;

Building a plasma membrane from scratch (Step 2);

We have added Na leakage channels to our plasma membrane; Note that the relative number of K and Na leakage channels shown in the figure represents reality (i.e. there are more K+ leakage channels in a plasma membrane than there are Na+ leakage channels, so the plasma membrane (at rest) is much more permeable to K+ than it is to Na+); Na influxes into the cell through the leakage channels following its electrochemical gradient (i.e. down its concentration gradient and toward an area of opposite charge) and the movement of Na+ into the cell (the positively charged ions) reduces the negative membrane potential slightly from -90 mV to -70 mV;

Language areas

Wernicke's area (involved in speech comprehension); And Broca's area (involved in speech production);

Muscle's *insertion*

When a muscle contracts, the *movable bone* is the muscle's *insertion*. The insertion is moving towards the origin.

Muscle's *origin*

When a muscle contracts, the movable bone (insertion) is moving towards the *immovable or less movable bone* which is the muscle's *origin*

*Period of contraction* of a muscle twitch

When cross bridges are active; The muscle shortens if tension (pull) becomes great enough to overcome the resistance of the load;

How do a cells ATP get replenished?

When glucose and other fuel molecules are oxidized and their bond energy is released | The same amount of energy that is liberated when ATP's terminal phosphates are split off must be captured and used to reverse the reaction to reattach phosphates and re-form the energy-transferring phosphate bonds |

Irreversibly denatured

When the protein structure is damaged beyond repair like when the pH or temperature change is very extreme | When this happens, the globular proteins can no longer perform their roles because their function depends on the presence of specific arrangements of atoms | Example: hemoglobin becomes totally unable to bind and transport oxygen when blood pH is too acidic, because the structure needed for its function has been destroyed |

Oxidized

When the reactant in a redox reaction loses electrons

Reduced

When the reactant in a redox reaction takes up the transferred electrons

*Fovea centralis*

Where light passes almost directly to photoreceptors for highly detailed color vision (this will make more sense once we cover the physiology of vision)

Neuromuscular junction:

Where the end of the axon (called the axon terminal) and the muscle fiber get very very close; They remain separated by a space called the *synaptic cleft*

Elbow joint

Where the humerus, ulna, and radius come together; Very stable hinge joint; Allows flexion and extension in a single plane only; Gripping of the trochlea by the ulna's trochlear notch that forms the "hinge" and stabilizes the joint;

Shoulder (glenohumeral) joint

Where the scapula and humerus come together; Most freely moving joint in the body; Stability is sacrificed to provide for a big range of movement;

Cilia

Whiplike, motile extensions on the exposed surface of some cells; They're motile, so they can move themselves; Their function is to move substances across the surface of the cell; I.e. In the lungs, cilia sweep mucus containing particles out of the lungs; Microtubles form the cores of them and centrioles are at their bases;

Figure that shows general structure of connective tissue (various cells):

Within each connective tissue are various cells; Each major class of connective tissue has a particular cell type; These cells exist in immature and mature forms; The *immature* forms of the cells have the *"blast"* suffix: they're actively mitotic (can divide to produce new cells) and secrete ground substance; The *mature* forms have the suffix *"cyte"*: they're less active and don't divide or produce ground substance, but they help to maintain the health of the extracellular matrix; Connective tissues also contain other, accessory cells, such as fat cells, and white blood cells such as lymphocytes, mast cells, neutrophils, and macrophages;

Fourth ventricle

Within the brainstem (continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord inferiorly); Continuous with the third ventricle via the *cerebral aqueduct* (it's canal-like and it runs through the midbrain; Lies in the hindbrain;

Third ventricle

Within the diencephalon; It's narrow; It communicates with the lateral ventricles via two *interventricular foramina*; Continuous with the fourth ventricle (communicates with the fourth ventricle via the *cerebral aqueduct*);

Do muscles store ATP? How much?

Yes, but they store very little ATP and have high energy needs, so they need to be able to produce ATP regularly

Example of the three functions of the nervous system working together:

You're driving and see a red light ahead (*sensory input*). Your nervous system *integrates* this info (red light means "stop") and your foot hits the brake (*motor output*).

Other Negative Feedback Mechanisms regulate...

heart rate, blood pressure, rate and depth of breathing, blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, minerals, etc.

Example of pH of 7:

pH of 7: [H+] is 10^-7 M | Solution is neutral (neither acidic or basic) | The number of hydrogen ions exactly equals the number of hydroxyl ions (pH=pOH)

The more hydrogen ions in a solution, the more _______ the solution is

Acidic

Osteogenic tissue:

Contains bone forming and bone destroying cells

Ilium

Large flaring bone that forms the superior region of a hip bone

Refractory period

The time needed for a neuron to generate another action potential; This occurs while the plasma membrane potential is depolarized or repolarizing; During this period, the Na+ channels are first open and then they are being reset; While this is happening (while the channels are being open or being reset) it's difficult/basically impossible to cause another action potential (even with a very strong stimulus) because if all of the Na+ channels are open, you can't get further depolarization because there are no more sodium channels to open

First name of epithelial tissue classification figure:

The top is simple, the bottom is stratified

Second name of epithelial tissue classification figure:

The top is squamous, middle is cuboid, and bottom is columnar

Osmolarity

The total concentration of all solute particles in a solution

General structure of a synovial joint: Fibrous capsule

The tough outer layer made of dense irregular connective tissue; Continuous with the periostea of the articulating bones;

Spongy bone organization

The trabeculae align precisely along lines of stress to help bone resist stress; In the trabeculae, the lamellae are arranged irregularly and osteocytes are connected by canaliculi; No osteons are present;

Cornea

The transparent portion on the anterior surface of the fibrous layer; This lets light enter the eye, and it has a high capacity for regeneration;

Phagocytosis

"Cell eating" | The cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material (like a clump of bacteria or cell debris) | When a particle binds to receptors on the cell's surface, cytoplasmic extensions (pseudopods) form and flow around the particle. This forms a phagosome (an endocytotic vesicle). The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome and its contents are digested | Examples: in the human body only macrophages and certain white blood cells are experts at phagocytosis. They help protect the body by ingesting and disposing of bacteria, foreign substances, and dead tissue cells

Cerebellum ("small brain")

(Cauliflower-like); Accounts for 11% total brain mass; Located dorsal to the pons and medulla, and under the occipital lobe; Processes inputs from the cerebral motor cortex, various brain stem nuclei, and sensory receptors; Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction for smooth, coordinated movements like driving, writing, playing instruments, etc.; It's bilaterally symmetrical (it has two cerebellar hemispheres); Like the cerebrum, it has a thin outer cortex of gray matter, internal white matter, and small, deeply situated paired masses of gray matter;

Organs with smooth muscle:

(Like the organs of the digestive tract) Smooth muscle cells are arranged in two sheets of opposing fibers: *longitudinal layer* (muscle fibers run parallel to the long axis of the organ. When these fibers contract the organ shortens) and *circular layer* (fibers run around the circumference of the organ. Contraction of this layer constricts the lumen (cavity inside) of the organ);

Ammonia

(NH3) A base that is a common waste product of protein breakdown in the body | It has one pair of unshared electrons that strongly attracts protons |

Transcription

(Occurs in nucleus) Process of transferring information from a gene's base sequence to a complementary RNA molecule; The same general steps occur in the transcription of all RNA molecules; First step: One segment of the DNA molecule is unwound and the strands separate and gene activating chemicals (transcription factors) bind to specific site on DNA, which is the beginning of a gene. Then: RNA polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of a strand of RNA based on the DNA sequence. Based on the rules of complementarity, the RNA molecule is synthesized and is complementary to the template strand of DNA (RNA has U instead of T, so if the DNA strand has an A, a nucleotide with U will be inserted into the complementary RNA strand); Often, the next step is RNA splicing (Genes are not made up entirely of coding sequences, so the first RNA molecule that's transcribed (Primary transcript) has to be processed, and the sequences that are complementary to DNA introns are removed and the sequences that are complementary exons are fused together to produce the final RNA transcript; These processes are mediated by spliceosomes which consist of RNA and proteins.

Translation

(Occurs in the cytoplasm) The synthesis of a protein in the cytoplasm based on the instructions contained in the mRNA molecule; The mRNA molecule is read 3 bases at a time, and each three-base sequence is called a *codon*; Each codon is complementary to a particular DNA triplet; Each codon specifies a particular amino acid or is a stop signal (which indicates that the polypeptide chain is complete); The genetic code is redundant (There are 64 possible codons, but only 20 amino acids used in protein production); Many amino acids are specified by more than one codon; Example: There are 6 codons that all specify the amino acid leucine (Leu). Because of this redundancy, some genetic mutations that change DNA base sequences can have absolutely no effect because mutations can results in a codon that specifies the same amino acid as the original sequence did;

Smooth muscle is capable of both hyperplasia and hypertrophy:

(Skeletal muscle is only capable of hypertrophy); *Hyperplasia* is an increase in cell number via cell division (for example, the smooth muscle lining the uterus undergoes hyperplasia during pregnancy); *Hypertrophy* is increase in individual cell size;

Classification by stimulus type:

(The name usually indicates the stimulus that activates the receptor); *Mechanoreceptors*, *Baroreceptors*, *Thermoreceptors*, *Photoreceptors*, *chemoreceptors*, *nociceptors*, and *osmoreceptors*;

Neurotransmitters released by autonomic nerve fibers and the receptors they bind to (Ach and NE):

*Acetylcholine (Ach)*: Ach is released by all ANS preganglionic axons, and all parasympathetic postganglionic axons at their synapses with effectors. Axons that release Ach are called *cholinergic fibers*. All Ach receptors are either *nicotinic receptors or muscarinic receptors*. Binding of Ach to nicotinic receptors always results in stimulation (i.e. it causes depolarization). Binding of Ach to muscarinic receptors can be stimulatory (causing depolarization) or inhibitory (causing hyperpolarization) depending on the subclass of receptor; *Norepinephrine (NE)*: NE is released by most sympathetic postganglionic axons. Axons that release NE are called *adrenergic fibers*. NE receptors are either *alpha (α) or beta (β) receptors*. Binding of NE can be stimulatory or inhibitory (depending on the subclass of receptor it binds to).

Cycle of hair growth

*Active phase* (ranges from weeks to years) the new cells are produced and hair grows; *Inactive phase* there's no new growth and the hair either falls out or is pushed out once the follicle becomes active again and a new hair grows out of it;

Endochondral Ossification

*All bones below the base of the skull form by this* (except for the clavicles); Osteoid is deposited within cartilage model and hydroxyapatite crystals settle on the osteoid, forming hard bone matrix. Eventually the cartilage model is replaced by bone. Occurs within cartilage models...uses hyaline cartilage "bones" for bone construction. It's more complex than intramembranous ossification because the hyaline cartilage must be broken down as ossification proceeds;

Ligaments that reinforce the elbow joint:

*Anular ligament* (surrounds the head of the radius forming a pivot joint), *ulnar collateral ligament* and *radial collateral ligament* (these two capsular ligaments are strong and restrict side-to-side movements;

Neuroglia/glial cells in the CNS:

*Astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes*; Most of these have branching processes (extensions) and a central cell body. They can be distinguished by their much smaller size and their darker-staining nuclei; Make up about half of the mass of the brain and outnumber neurons in the CNS 10:1

Ligaments that stabilize the shoulder joint:

*Coracohumeral ligament* (provides only strong thickening of capsule and helps support weight of upper limb), three *glenohumeral ligaments* (strengthen the front of the capsule but are weak and can even be absent), *coracoacromial ligament* , and *transverse humeral ligament*

Innervation of the skin:

*Dermatome* refers to the area of skin innervated by cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve;

Figure highlighting the accessory structures of the eye: *Eyelids (palpebrae)*

*Eyelids (palpebrae)*: Thin, skin-covered folds that are supported internally by connective tissue structures called *tarsal plates*; The upper and lower eyelids meet at the medial and lateral corners of the eye in areas called the *medial and lateral commissures*; The medial commissure has a fleshy elevation called the *lacrimal caruncle* which contains sebaceous and sweat glands

Processing at the receptor level:

*First step*: First, a stimulus must excite a receptor; Then, an action potential must be generated and it must reach the CNS in order for sensation and perception to occur; In order for this to occur, the stimulus must match the specificity of receptor (example: touch/pressure for mechanoreceptors, heat/cold for thermoreceptors etc.); The stimulus must also be applied to sensory receptor's *receptive field* (the area of the body in which the receptor can detect the stimulus); Example: Mechanoreceptors on the palm of your hand will be excited by pressure on the palm, but will not be excited by pressure applied to the back of your leg because their receptive field is limited to a small area on the palm; *Next step*: The energy of the stimulus must be converted into the energy of a *graded potential*. Example: mechanical pressure opens mechanically gated ion channels on the receptor cell membrane. In this case, the graded potential is called a *receptor potential* because it happens in a sensory receptor; The receptor potential can be a depolarization or a hyperpolarization. *Transduction* is the process of converting the energy of a stimulus to a graded potential; *Next step*: If receptor potentials summate and change the membrane potential by a certain threshold (15-20mV) and therefore lead to the generation of action potentials in an afferent fiber (i.e. axon that sends messages to the CNS), then those receptor potentials are called *generator potentials* (lead to the generation of an action potential); Remember: a *receptor potential* is a graded potential on sensory receptor cell membrane and a *generator potential* is a graded potential on a sensory neuron that leads to an action potential; If the sensory receptor and sensory neuron are the same cell, then the receptor potential and generator potential are the same thing; If, however, (like in the special senses), the sensory receptor and sensory neuron are separate cells, then the receptor potential and generator potential are separate things;

Figure showing general structure of connective tissue (extracellular matrix):

*Ground Substance*-the unstructured material that fills the space between cells and contains fibers. The composition of this varies across different connective tissues; *Fibers*-provide support. *Collagen fibers* are very strong and have high tensile strength (they can resist longitudinal stretching). *Elastic fibers* contain the protein elastin, which allows them to return to their original shape after being stretched. *Reticular fibers* are short, fine, collagenous fibers that form delicate mesh networks. Together the ground substance and fibers make up the extracellular matrix;

Ligaments that reinforce the hip joint:

*Iliofemoral ligament* (strong, V-shaped ligament), *Pubofemoral ligament* (triangular thickening of the inferior part of the capsule), *Ischiofemoral ligament* (spiraling posterior ligament), and *ligamentum teres* (ligament of the head of the femur. it's a flat intracapsular band that runs from femur head to lower lip of acetabulum. It's slack during most hip movements so it doesn't help stabilize. It has an artery that supplies the head of the femur)

Parts of the lever system, as they relate to the body:

*Joints* are the *fulcrums*; *Bones* are the *levers*; *Muscle Contraction* provides the *effort* that's applied at the muscle's insertion point on a bone; *Bone* is the *load* (along with the overlying tissues and anything else you're trying to move with the lever);

Three pigments that determine skin color & which ones are made in the skin

*Melanin*, *carotene*, and *hemoglobin*; Only melanin is made in the skin;

More *Encapsulated dendritic endings*:

*Muscle spindles*, *Golgi tendon organs*, and *Joint kinesthetic receptors*;

Regions of the wall of hair follicle

*Outer connective tissue roots sheath* (derived form the dermis); a thickened *basement membrane*, which is called the *glassy membrane* (this is the same type of basement membrane seen between epithelial and connective tissues); An inner *epithelial root sheath* (this is derived form the epidermis) and has two regions: an internal and external epithelial root sheath;

Figure showing the internal chambers and fluids of the eye

*Posterior segment (Cavity)*: behind the lens. It's filled with a clear gel called *vitreous humor*; *Anterior segment (Cavity)*: It's in front of the lens. It's filled with *Aqueous humor*

Components common in all reflex arcs:

*Receptor*: the site of stimulus action; *Sensory neuron*: transmits afferent impulses to the CNS; *Integration center*: Where there's a synapse between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron or multiple synapses with chains of interneurons; *Motor neuron*: Conducts efferent impulses from the integration center to the effector organ; *Effector*: a muscle fiber or gland cell

Distinguishing between *sensation* and *perception*:

*Sensation*: Passive process of bringing information to the central nervous system (CNS) regarding changes in internal and external environments; *Perception*: Conscious interpretation of stimuli;

Factors that affect joint stability in synovial joints:

*Shape*: The shapes of articular surfaces of bones play a minimal role in stabilizing the joint; *Ligaments*: ligaments at synovial joints prevent excessive or unwanted movements and help stabilize the joint. The more ligaments, the more stable the joint is; *Muscle tone*: Refers to low levels of contractile activity in relaxed muscles that keep the muscle healthy and ready to respond to stimulation. Keeps tendons crossing the joint taught. Most important factor in joint stability;

Three types of muscle tissue:

*Skeletal* (skeletal, striated, voluntary); *Cardiac* (cardiac, striated, involuntary); *Smooth* (visceral, non-striated, involuntary)

Series of events that occur during contraction:

1) *Cross bridge formation:* Ca binds to troponin (found in thin filament), which changes shape and shifts tropomyosin away from the myosin binding sites. Myosin binds to actin and forms a cross bridge between the thick and thin filaments. 2) *Power Stroke:* Myosin releases ADP and P (Phosphate). This changes the shape of myosin. When the myosin changes shape the head shifts toward the left, moving the thin filament toward the left. When this happens myosin drags the thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere (toward the M line) dragging the Z discs with them and shortening the entire sarcomere. This happens to all sarcomeres, so the myofibrils contract, which causes the muscle fibers to contract, which causes the muscle to contract. 3) *Cross bridge detachment:* ATP binds to myosin and this causes myosin to detach from actin (called cross bridge detachment) 4) *Cocking of the myosin head:* ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and P. This activates myosin so that it can bind again to actin and move it further along toward the M line.

Process of bone repair following a fracture:

1) A hematoma forms: When bone breaks, blood vessels in the bone and periosteum are torn and hommorhage. As a result, a mass of clotted blood (hematoma) forms at fracture site. Soon, bone cells deprived of nutrition die and the tissue at the site becomes painful swollen and inflamed. 2) Fibrocartilaginous callus forms: Fibroblasts from the periosteum and endosteum produce collagen fibers that bridge the broken bone surfaces (like a natural splint) and osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone resulting in *soft callus* (*a fibrocartilaginous callus*) 3) Bony callus forms: Within a few days osteoblasts being to form a *bony (hard) callus*. Takes 6 weeks to completely form. 4) Bone remodeling occurs: The bony callus forms a strong connection between the formerly separated pieces of bone. Further remodeling smooth out and often reduces size of bony callus and might eventually erase any sign of fracture.

Generation of an action potential involves:

1) A temporary increase in plasma membrane permeability to Na+; Na+ influxes into the cell and this leads to depolarization; 2) This is followed by restoration of relative impermeability of the plasma membrane to Na+; So the plasma membrane becomes less permeable to Na+; 3) Then there's a temporary increase in K+ permeability; K+ effluxes/exits the cell and this causes the membrane potential to repolarize (return to the resting membrane potential) with a brief period of hyperpolarization;

Process of information transfer across a chemical synapse:

1) An action potential arrives at the axon terminal of the presynaptic cell. 2)This arrival of the action potential causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open, and when that happens Ca2+ enters the axon terminal. 3) Ca2+ acts as an intracellular messenger that works inside the cell, and it causes synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal to fuse with the plasma membrane of the axon terminal, and when that happens those synaptic vesicles empty those neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. 4) The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell membrane. 5) The binding neurotransmitters opens chemically gated ion channels on the post synaptic cell and this results in a graded potential. 6) The neurotransmitter effects have to be terminated, and there are several mechanisms for accomplishing this. Have to be terminated is because if they weren't they would just remain the the synaptic cleft and keep binding to the receptors and it would cause additional stimulation of the post synaptic cells in the absence of the action potential an electrical impulse from that presynaptic cell. Ways to terminate: *reuptake* by astrocytes in the area or by the presynaptic cell, or *degradation* of the neurotransmitter by enzymes from the postsynaptic cell or in the synaptic cleft, or the neurotransmitter might *diffuse* away from the synapse (so it's no longer available to bind to the receptors);

Three factors act to bind cells together:

1) Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive 2) Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a tongue and groove fashion 3) Special cell junctions form

2 advantages of hard keratin over soft keratin:

1) It is tougher and more durable 2) Its individual cells do not flake off

Three main levels of Neural Integration operate in the somatosensory (or any sensory) system

1) Receptor level: sensory receptors; 2) Circuit level: processing in ascending pathways; 3) Perceptual level: processing in cortical sensory areas

Steps of Cerebellar Processing:

1) The frontal cortex communicates the intent to initiate voluntary movement to the cerebellum (so the cerebral cortex is like "hey" cerebellum I'm going to do this particular movement); 2) At the same time, the cerebellum receives input concerning balance and tension in muscle and ligaments and joint position from *proprioceptors* located throughout the body; 3) The cerebellar cortex calculates the best way to coordinate muscle activity given the force, direction, and extent of muscle contraction to prevent overshoot, maintain posture, and ensure smooth, coordinated movements; 4) Relays the best mechanism/way to coordinate muscle activity back to the cerebral cortex so that when the movement does occur it's as efficient and smooth as possible;

Osmotic imbalances cause animal cells to swell or shrink until...

1) The solute concentration is the same on both sides of the plasma membrane OR 2) The membrane stretches to its breaking point

What happens when 100 molecules of acetic acid was placed in 1 ml of water:

100 HAc→90 HAc + 10H+ + 10Ac-

Cranial nerves:

12 *pairs* of nerves that originate from the brain; Almost all nerve just the head and the neck (except the vagus nerves which extends to the abdomen and innervates structures within the thorax and abdomen); Some are mixed nerves (so they relay messages to AND from the brain (V, VII, VIII, IX, X); Some are purely sensory nerves (only delivering sensory info towards the brain) (I and II); Some are motor nerves (they deliver motor information towards effectors) (the (III, IV, VI, XI, XII);

Phalanges

14 of these; Thumb has two of these (proximal phalanx and distal phalanx); All other fingers have three phalanges (proximal phalanx, intermediate phalanx and distal phalanx);

Concentric Rings of Lamellar Bone

5-15 of these surround the central canal; All of the collagen fibers in a particular lamella run in a single direction, the collagen fibers in adjacent lamellae always run in different directions to withstand torsion stresses;

Avogadro's Number

6.02 x 10^23 One mole of any substance always contains exactly the same number of solute particles (this number)

Membrane potential

A voltage across the membrane that occurs due to a separation of oppositely charged particles (ions)

Synchondroses

A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones; All of these are synarthrotic (immovable); Example: the joint between first rib and manubrium;

Covalent Bonds

A bond where there's a single orbital common to both atoms in which electrons are shared (in the outer shell) | Can be single, double, or triple bonds (in single one pair of electrons is shared, in double two pairs are shared, etc.) | Strongest chemical bond |

Hyoid

A bone in the neck; It's the only bone that doesn't directly articulate (touch) with other bones; It's suspended form the temporal bones by ligaments;

Molecule

A combination of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds | Most atoms do not exist in the free state so instead they're chemically combined with other atoms and become this |

Compound

A combination of two or more atoms of different elements

Integumentary System

A complex set of organs that serves many functions (mostly protective) consisting of the skin and its derivatives (sweat and oil glands, hair, nails)

*Depolarization*

A decrease in membrane potential; Occurs when the interior of the plasma membrane becomes less negative (moves closer to or above 0) than the resting membrane potential; Increases the probability of producing nerve impulses; Example: A change in resting potential from -70 mV to -65 mV is this; Also includes events in which the membrane potential reverses and moves above zero to become positive; It's ANY change that makes the membrane potential even slightly less negative;

Diaphragm

A dome-shaped muscle important in breathing | It separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity

Standard anatomical position

A human is standing, with eyes facing forward, both limbs straight, the feet together and toes pointing forward, and the palms of the hands facing forward with the thumbs pointing to the side and away from the body;

Ceruminous glands

A modified apocrine gland in the ear canal that secretes earwax (cerumen) and traps particles

Broca's area

A motor speech area that controls muscles involved in speech production; Normally located in the left hemisphere (present in one hemisphere only usually); Becomes active as we prepare to speak;

Stretch reflexes:

A muscle contraction in response to stretching of the muscle (increases in length); This keeps muscles at an appropriate length and is important in things like maintaining posture;

Antagonist & example

A muscle that opposes or reverses a particular movement; When a prime mover is active, this might be stretched or remain relaxed, but *usually* it contracts slightly to provide some resistance; This is located on the opposite side of the joint from the Prime Mover; Example: triceps brachii (on the posterior arm) extends to the elbow, so it's this to the biceps brachii, but it's also a prime mover of elbow extension;

Agonist (Prime mover) & example

A muscle that provides the major force for a particular movement; Example: biceps brachii muscle (on the anterior arm) is this for elbow flexion;

Atomic symbol

A one or two letter chemical shorthand that each element is labelled with.

Regional anatomy

A part of gross anatomy, where all the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the body (abdomen, leg) are examined at the same time.

Facilitated diffusion

A passive transport process where the transported substance either binds to protein carriers in the membrane and is carried across or moves through water filled protein channels

Resonance of the *basilar membrane*

A pressure wave travels through the perilymph in the scala vestibuli; Sounds with frequencies high enough for you to hear cause pressure waves that move through the *cochlear duct* and vibrate the *basilar membrane*; Vibration of the *basilar membrane* leads to *depolarization of hearing receptor cells*; Very low frequency sounds are not perceived (by our brains) because the resulting pressure wave travels the entire route through the cochlea through the scala tympani and right back out the round window; These sounds are below the threshold of hearing because they do not excite hearing receptor cells;

Homeostatic Imbalance

A result of the disturbance in homeostasis | Most disease is a result of this | As we age our body's control systems become less efficient, and our internal environment becomes less and less stable which increase our risk for illness and produce the changes associated with aging

Action potential

A series of changes in the membrane potential of a cell's plasma membrane; It's a wave of *depolarization* followed by a wave of *repolarization*

Tight Junction (Long definition)

A series of integral protein molecules in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells fuse together and form an impermeable junction that encircles the cell | Help prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells | Example: these between epithelial cells lining the digestive tract keep digestive enzymes and microorganisms in the intestine from seeping into the bloodstream |

X-ray/Radiograph

A shadowy, negative image of internal structures. Dense structures absorb the X-rays most so they appear as light areas

*External acoustic meatus* (auditory canal) (external auditory meatus)

A short tube (about 2.5 cm long) that extends from the auricle to the *eardrum*; It's lined with skin with hairs, sebaceous glands, and ceruminous glands;

Simple cuboid epithelium

A single layer of cube-shaped cells; Examples: kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of small glands;

Simple squamous epithelium

A single layer of flattened cells; Found in places such as the air sacs of lungs and lining of the heart and blood vessels;

Simple columnar epithelium

A single layer of tall cells; Some have microvilli or cilia on surfaces for increased absorption; Examples: lines most of the digestive tract, excretory ducts of some glands

Fused (complete) tetanus

A smooth, sustained muscle contraction resulting from high frequency stimulation; All evidence of muscle relaxation disappears and the contractions fuse into a smooth sustained contraction; (Type of temporal summation)

First step in homeostatic regulatory mechanisms

A stimulus causing a change in some body variable; Example: if you walk outside on a very cold day, the external temperature will cause your body temp to drop;

Embryology

A subdivision of developmental anatomy that concerns developmental changes that occur before birth

Surface anatomy

A subdivision of gross anatomy that studies internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface. It's used when identifying bulging muscles beneath bodybuilder's skin and when clinicians are locating the appropriate blood vessels to draw blood and feel pulses.

Three basic regions of each of the cerebral hemispheres:

A superficial cerebral cortex of gray matter; Internal white matter; Basal nuclei (islands of gray matter situated deep within the white matter);

Characteristic of muscle tissue: *Contractility*

Ability to contract (shorten) forcibly when stimulated; Sets muscle apart from all other tissue types;

*Perceptual detection*

Ability to detect that a stimulus has occurred; Simplest level of perception;

Characteristic of muscle tissue: *Elasticity*

Ability to resume the original length after being stretched;

Stratum Granulosum (Granular layer)

Above the stratum spinosum; 3-5 cell layers thick; Contains keratinocytes that are undergoing drastic physical changes; The process of keratinization (the cells fill with keratin) begins here; The cells flatten, the plasma membranes thicken and secrete water-resistant lipids that coat the outer surfaces of the cells (it's basically waterproofing);

Water

Accounts for 50-60% of human's body weight | Single most abundant chemical substance in the body Provides the environment necessary for chemical reactions | Provides the fluid base for body secretions and excretions | Obtain this from ingested foods or liquids | Lose this by evaporation from the lungs and skin and in body excretions |

Weak base

Accept relatively few protons | Example: Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) ionizers incompletely and reversibly, it accepts relatively few protons so its released bicarbonate ion is considered this

Three things occur when focusing for close vision:

Accommodation, constriction, and convergence

How are proteins classified?

According to their overall appearance and shape as either fibrous or globular

Cholesterol & its function

Accounts for 20% of membrane lipid | Has a polar region (its hydroxyl groups) and a non polar region (its fused ring system) | It wedges its platelike hydrocarbon rings between the phospholipid tails which stabilize the membrane while decreasing the mobility of the phospholipids and the fluidity of the membrane | Part D in the picture |

Solutions with a pH below 7

Acidic solutions | The hydrogen ions outnumber the hydroxyl ions | The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution | ***(A solution with a pH of 6 has ten times as many hydrogen ions as a solution with a pH of 7)***

Strong acids

Acids that dissociate completely and irreversibly in water | They can dramatically change the pH of a solution | Examples: Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid

Weak acids

Acids that do not dissociate completely | Release some, but not all of their H+ when placed in water | Most acids in the body are these kinds of acids | Examples: carbonic acid (H2CO3), and acetic acid (HAc)

Transmission of sound to the internal ear:

Airborne sound waves enters the *external acoustic meatus* and strike the *tympanic membrane*, causing it to vibrate at the same frequency as the sound wave; The motion of the *tympanic membrane* is amplified and transferred to the *oval window* by the *auditory ossicles*--from *tympanic membrane, to malleus, to incus, to stapes, to oval window*; The vibration of the *stapes* against the *oval window* causes pressure waves in the *perilymph* in the *cochlea* on the other side of the *oval window*;

Solutions with a pH above 7

Alkaline solutions | The relative concentration of hydrogen ions decreases by a factor of 10 with each higher pH unit | ***(solutions with pH values of 8 and 12 have, respectively, 1/10 and 1/100,000 {1/10 x 1/10 x 1/10 x 1/10 x 1/10} as many hydrogen ions as a solution of pH 7

Generalized/Composite Cell

All cells have the same basic parts and some common functions

Nonliving extracellular matrix

All connective tissues are composed of this, that separates a relatively small number of cells; Connective tissues, unlike epithelial tissues, are not highly cellular; Epithelial tissue has lots of cells with very little extracellular material between them, so connective tissue and epithelial tissue have a very different arrangement;

Indirect (extrapyramidal) pathways (type of descending pathway)

All motor pathways other than pyramidal pathways; They're the *tectospinal, vestibulospinal, rubrospinal, reticulospinal, (ventral, medial, lateral) tracts*; They regulate muscles that maintain posture and balance, control coarse limb movements, and head neck, and eye movements involved in tracking visual objects;

Rami (so the dorsal ramus, ventral ramus, and the meningeal branch)

All of these are mixed; I.E. they carry both sensory and motor fibers;

Five taste sensations

All of your taste buds detect all five taste qualities, but each taste cell has receptors for only one taste sensation Sweet; Sour; Salty; Bitter; Umami;

Parasagittal planes

All sagittal planes other than the median/midsagittal plane; Offset from the midline

Simple epithelia:

All simple epithelia consist of a single layer of cells, but the cell shapes vary; Mostly involved in absorption, secretion, and filtration but they are not good for protection because their single layer of cells is easily removed;

Directional Terms

Allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another

Levers that operate at mechanical disadvantage allow what?

Allow you to move a load rapidly over a large distance (with a wide range of motion);

Levers that operate at mechanical advantage allow what?

Allow you to move much heavier loads than would be possible without the lever;

Primary somatosensory cortex

Allows for *spatial discrimination* so you can detect the location of stimulation; Neurons receive information from the general somatic sensory receptors in the skin and form proprioceptors (position sense receptors) in skeletal muscles, joints, and tendons; The neurons then identify the body region being stimulated (which is an ability called *spatial discrimination*);

Nervous tissue:

Allows for internal communication within the body; Generally, that communication occurs between the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the rest of the body; This allows the body to respond to internal and external stimuli; Includes: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression | Maintains posture | Produces body heat | Consists of three types of muscle (cardiac, smooth, skeletal)

What is the function of integral proteins having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions?

Allows them to interact with both the non polar lipid tiles buried in the membrane and the water inside and outside of the cell

Neurotransmitters

Along with electrical signals, they're the language of the nervous system; The means by which neurons communicate to process and send messages to the rest of the body;

Hip joint

Also called Coxal joint; Where the femur and coxal bone come together; Ball and socket joint; Has a good range of motion, but not as good as the shoulder joint; Movements occur in all possible planes but are limited by the joint's strong ligaments and its deep socket;

Condyloid joints

Also called Ellipsoid joints; Type of synovial joint that has oval articular surfaces that fit into a complementary depression on another bone; Allows for all angular movements (i.e. flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction); Biaxial movement; Example: metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints;

Tactile Cells

Also called Merkel cells; Each one of these is intimately associated with a sensory nerve ending; Functions as a sensory receptor for touch; Present at the epidermal junction;

Triglycerides:

Also called Neutral fats | Commonly known as fats when solid or oils when liquid | Large molecules that contain hundreds of atoms | Provide body's most efficient and compact form of stored energy in the human body | When oxidized, yield large amounts of energy | The glycerol molecule is linked to 3 fatty acids via dehydration reaction |

*Wall Layers*

Also called Tunics; The eyeball has three of them

Synthesis

Also called a combination reaction | Happens when atoms or molecules combine to forma larger, more complex molecule | Always involves bond formation | A+B→AB; Basis of anabolic processes in body (like protein synthesis); Example is a dehydration (also called condensation) reaction which removes the H and OH from the ends of reactants so that the reactants can join together and combine forming water in the process;

Gap junction (Long definition)

Also called a nexus | A communicating junction between adjacent cells | The adjacent plasma membranes are very close and the cells are connected by hollow cylinders (connexons) composed of transmembrane proteins | Ions, simple sugars, and other small molecules pass through these water-filled channels from one cell to the next | Present in electrically excitable tissues (heart and smooth muscle) where ion passage from cell to cell helps synchronize their electrical activity and contraction

Joints

Also called articulations; Sites where two or more bones meet; Almost all bones in the human body articulate with at least one other bone (major exception is the hyoid);

Centrosome

Also called cell center; Microtubules anchored at one end in an inconspicuous region near the nucleus; Acts as a microtubule organizing center and plays a role in cell division;

Fingers

Also called digits; Numbered 1-5 beginning with the thumb (*pollex*); Third one of these is the longest; Each of these has three phalanges: distal, middle, and proximal (except for the thumb...it doesn't have a middle phalanx);

Exchange Reaction

Also called displacement | Involve both synthesis and decomposition | Bonds are made and broken | Example: when ATP reacts with glucose and transfers its end phosphate group to glucose, forming glucose-phosphate | AB + C→ AC + B

Colloids

Also called emulsions | Heterogeneous mixtures (means that their composition varies throughout the mixture | Solutes are suspended (they don't settle) Often appear translucent or milky | Solute particles still don't settle out | Scatter light |

Direct attachments

Also called fleshy attachments; In these, the epimysium of the muscle is fused to the periosteum (around bone) or perichondrium (around cartilage);

Globular proteins

Also called functional proteins | Compact spherical proteins that have at least tertiary structure (some also have quaternary structure) | Water soluble | Chemically active molecules | Play crucial roles in virtually all biological processes | More likely to denature (lose 3D structure) because of the breaking of hydrogen bonds Examples: antibodies help to provide immunity, protein-based hormones regulate grown and development, enzymes are catalysts that oversee just about every chemical reaction in the body |

Hip bone/ Coxal bones

Also called os coxae; Consists of three separate bones during childhood: ilium, ischium, and pubis; In adults these are fused together but the regions are still the same;

Pectoral girdle

Also called shoulder girdle; Consists of clavicle and scapula; Paired pectoral girdles and associated muscles form your shoulders; Very light, allow the upper limbs a degree of mobility not seen anywhere else in the body; These attach the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and provide attachment points for many of the muscles that move the upper limbs;

C1 Vertebrae

Also called the *atlas*; Has no body and no spinous process; It allows you to nod your head "yes"; Its inferior articular facets form joints with the C2 vertebrae;

Internal (inner) ear:

Also called the *labyrinth*; The labyrinth has two major portions: a *bone/ bony labyrinth* and a *membranous labyrinth*

C2 Vertebrae

Also called the Axis; Not as specialized as the Atlas; The only unusual feature is that it has the *dens*; Dens is the missing body of the atlas; The Dens acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas; This joint allows you to rotate your head from side to side to indicate "no";

Hypogastric Region

Also called the pubic region; located inferior to the umbilical region | Contains the urinary bladder

Smooth muscle

Also under involuntary control and is found in the walls of hollow organs and other areas

Peristalsis

Alternating contraction and relaxation of the longitudinal and circular layers mixes substances in the lumen and squeezes them through the organ's internal pathway;

Striations

Alternating repeating series of dark A bands and light I bands along the myofibrils

Non-gated channels (leakage channels)

Always open; Allow specific ions to cross the plasma membrane at all times; Example: Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) leakage channels that are always open and allow just these ions to cross the plasma membrane;

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

An extensive system of tubes and parallel membranes enclosing fluid-filled spaces (called cisternae); It's continuous with the nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus; Two types of it: smooth and rough;

*Hyperpolarization*

An increase in membrane potential; Occurs when the membrane potential becomes more negative (moves farther away from 0) compared to the resting membrane potential; The interior of the cell at the plasma membrane becomes more negatively charged; Reduces the probability of producing nerve impulses; Example: A change from -70 mV to -75 mV is this;

Growth

An increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole. Accomplished by increasing the number of cells, not just the cells increasing in size. Constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than destructive properties

Salt

An ionic compound containing cations other than H+ and anions other than the hydroxyl ion (OH-)

Nucleus

An organelle that controls cellular activities | Lies at the cell's center |

Coenzyme

An organic cofactor derived from vitamins (especially B complex vitamins)

Annulus Fibrosis

An outer collar of collagen fibers and fibrocartilage; Limits the expansion of the nucleus pulposis when the spine is compressed; Also binds successive vertebrae together; Withstands twisting forces and resists tension in the spine;

Cortex

An outer layer of *gray matter*; In the brain, the cerebrum and cerebellum have an outer layer of gray matter called this; This is not found in the spinal cord;

Desmosomes (short definition)

Anchoring junctions that bind adjacent cells together and act like velcro and also help form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers

Withdrawal reflex

Another type of neural control mechanism | Example is when the hand jerks back after getting put on a hot stove

Alkaline

Another way to say basic

Olfactory Nerves (I)

Arise from the olfactory bulb neurons in the nose and the olfactory tract send messages to the olfactory cortex; The olfactory nerves carry afferent (sensory) impulses for the sense of smell;

Neuron *processes*

Armlike projections that extend from the cell body of all neurons; Bundles of these are called *tracts* in the CNS and *nerves* in the PNS;

Peptide bond

Arrangement of linked atoms resulting from the acid end of one amino acid linked to the amine end of the next | Two united amino acids form a di________, three a tri_________, ten or more is a poly___________

Synovial joints

Articulating bones are separated by a fluid-filled joint cavity

Regeneration

As a rule, mature neurons do not divide; So, if there's damage to nervous tissue is severe or close to the cell body, the entire neuron may die; However, if the cell body remains intact, axons in peripheral nerves that are cut or compressed can regenerate; Limited to PNS because most CNS axons never regenerate if they're damaged because oligodendrocytes have growth inhibiting proteins which impede regeneration;

Homeostasis

As our internal and external environments change, physiological systems work together to maintain a stable internal environment | The body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously | We live in an environment that's very different from our internal environment, so we have to have a way to keep our internal environment in a dynamic state of equilibrium | Indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium (aka balance) where internal conditions vary, but always stays within relatively narrow limits |

Differences in ionic concentration

As seen in the picture, cytosol (the fluid inside the cell) has a lower concentration of Na+ and a higher concentration of K+ than is seen in the extracellular fluid; Negatively charged (anionic) proteins balance the K+ concentration inside the cell; Chloride ions (Cl-) (also anionic because they're negatively charged) balance the Na+ outside of the cell; (There are other solutes involved, but Na+, K+, anionic proteins, and Cl- are the most important solutes in terms of determining the membrane potential);

Figure showing excitation of hair cells in the spiral organ (of Corti)

As shown, the spiral organ consists of: supporting cells and *cochlear hair cells*

Differences in plasma membrane permeability

At rest, the plasma membrane is impermeable to large anionic cytoplasmic proteins (means that the large negatively charged proteins that are inside the cell cannot cross the plasma membrane so they'll stay inside the cell and contribute to the negative charge that's just inside the plasma membrane); At rest, the plasma membrane is slightly permeable to Na, and is highly permeable to K and Cl (so some sodium can cross, but much more potassium and chloride can pass through the membrane); The permeability to Na, K, and Cl when the cell is at rest is all due to leakage ion (non-gated) channels that are present in the plasma membrane; There are many K leakage channels, so lots of K leaves the cells, which makes the inside of the plasma membrane negative;

Macula lutea

At the back of the eyeball, and it has a tiny region in the center called *fovea centralis*

Adaptation

At the receptor level, *this* might occur; It's a change in the sensitivity of a receptor and in the generation of action potentials in the presence of a constant stimulus; Many sensory receptors are capable of *this*; This is one reason you get used to smells, sounds, bright lights, the feel of clothing against your skin, etc.

Chemical level

At this level atoms combine to form molecules such as water and proteins. Molecules associate in specific ways to form organelles.

Octet rule/ Rule of 8s

Atoms tend to interact so that they have 8 electrons in their valence shell; Atoms are stable with 8 electrons in the valence shell OR the maximum number possible in the valence shell;

Chemically inert

Atoms that are unreactive | Happens when the outermost energy level of an atom is filled to capacity (contains 8 electrons) | Called the noble gases

Electropositive

Atoms with one or two valence shell electrons | The atom's electron-attracting ability is so low that they usually lose their valence shell electrons to other atoms | Potassium and sodium are good examples |

Skeletal muscle

Attaches to bones and causes movement of the entire body and individual body parts

Skeletal muscle

Attaches to the skeleton and is involved in voluntary (consciously controlled) movement;

Events that lead to the generation of an action potential across the sarcolemma

Axon terminal forms a neuromuscular junction with a muscle fiber; When an action potential (nerve impulse) reaches the axon terminal, it causes the axon terminal to release ACh into the synaptic cleft; The ACh crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the sarcolemma; These receptors are part of chemically gated ion channels (allow Na+ and K+ to pass. The driving force for Na+ is greater than that for K+, more Na+ diffuses in (influxes) than K+ diffuses out (effluxes)); More Na+ rushing in causes the interior of the sarcolemma to become less negative (depolarization); Depolarization at first is just a local event and occurs just in the areas surrounding the ion channels. Called an *end plate potential*; The end plate potential ignites an action potential which spreads in all directions away from the neuromuscular junction. As it moves along the length of the sarcolemma (propagates), the local depolarization wave of the action potential spreads and opens voltage-gated sodium channels; Na+, normally restricted from entering, diffuses into the cell following its electrochemical gradient (positive feedback mechanism); This leads to the spread of depolarization all across the sarcolemma; Repolarization occurs when sodium channels close and voltage gated potassium channels open, allowing K+ out of the cell down its concentration gradient; This restores the negative charge in the membrane (restores the resting membrane potential);

Proteins

Basic structural material of the body | Compose 10-30% of cell mass | Not all of them are construction materials | Many play vital roles in cell function | Examples of these: enzymes, hemoglobin of the blood, contractile ___________ of muscle | Have the most varied functions of any molecules in the body | All of these contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen. Many contain sulfur too | Long chains of amino acids joined together by dehydration synthesis, with the acid of one amino acid linked to the amine end of the next |

Why do chemical bonds occur?

Because electrons need to be in certain arrangements; They need to gain, lose, or share electrons with other atoms in order to achieve stability;

Photoreceptors synapse with what cells?

Bipolar cells

Bipolar cells

Bipolar neurons that receive messages from photoreceptors

Red Marrow

Blood forming tissue that produces red and white blood cells and platelets

Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. | The heart pumps blood | Consists of the heart and blood vessels |

Three classes of extracellular materials:

Body fluids, Cellular secretions, and extracellular matrix

Systemic anatomy

Body structure is studied system by system. For example, when the cardiovascular system is studied, the heart and the blood vessels of the entire body would be studied. (Also a subdivision of gross anatomy)

Osteoblasts

Bone forming cells that secrete bone matrix; (Based on the suffix -blast, we know they're immature cells); Actively mitotic; Produce *osteoid* (which is rich in collagen); Hydroxyapatite crystals deposit on *osteoid* to form bone, and eventually osteoblasts get surrounded by bone and become *mature osteocytes*; Unmineralized bone matrix they secrete includes collagen (90% of bone protein) and calcium-binding proteins that make up the initial *osteoid* (unmineralized bone); Also play a role in matrix calcification; When surrounded by the matrix being secreted, they become *osteocytes*; Derived from dormant *osteoprogenitor cells (osteogenic cells)*;

Bone function--mineral and growth factor storage:

Bone is a place where minerals are stored (most importantly calcium and phosphate); Stored minerals are released into bloodstream as needed for distribution in all parts of the body;

Syndesmoses

Bones are connected by a ligament (a cord or band of fibrous connective tissue); Connective fibers are longer than in sutures, so some of them are amphiarthroses (semi able to move) (i.e. radius and ulna have fibers long enough to allow the radius to rotate over the ulna);

Cartilaginous Joints

Bones are joined by cartilage and there is no joint cavity; Not highly movable; Two types: synchondroses, and symphyses

Fibrous joints

Bones are joined by collagen fibers of connective tissue (fibrous tissue) and there's no joint cavity; Amount of movement depends on length of connective tissue fibers; Most are immovable, but a few are slightly movable; Three types are sutures (between bones of skull, immovable), syndesmoses (bones are connected by ligaments, cords, or bands of fibrous tissue, movement possible), gomphoses (teeth);

Appendicular Skeleton

Bones of the limbs and their girdles are collectively called this; The bones of the upper and lower limbs differ in function and mobility, they have the same fundamental plan: Each limb is composed of three major segments connected by movable joints;

Bone function--Hormone production:

Bones produce osteocalcin (a hormone that helps regulate insulin secretion, glucose homeostasis, and energy expenditure)

Bone function--Support:

Bones provide a framework that supports the body and cradles its soft organs

Patella

Bony knee capon the anterior surface of the distal end of the femur; Triangular sesamoid bone ; Protects the knee joint; Improves the leverage of the thigh muscles along the knee;

Bursae and tendon sheaths

Both are sacs of lubricant that reduce friction at synovial joints; Not technically part of the synovial joint itself; *Bursae* are flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and they occur where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together; *Tendon sheaths* are elongated bursae that wrap around a tendon ; They're two protective structures that are found associated with many synovial joints;

Posterior view: Muscles associated with the *Forearm*

Brachioradialis; Extensor carpi radialis longus; Flexor carpi ulnari; Extensor carpi ulnari; Extensor digitorum; Iliotibial tract;

Axon collaterals

Branches of an axon (each neuron only has one axon, but axons may have occasional branches);

Digestion

Breaking down of ingested foodstuffs into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood

Catabolism

Breaking down substances into simpler building blocks

Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells | Indigestible food pieces are eliminated as feces | Consists of oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus |

Sternum

Breastbone; At the anterior midline of the thorax; Made up of three fused bones (listed from superior to inferior: manubrium, sternal body, and xiphoid process);

Action potentials (nerve impulses)

Brief reversal of membrane potential with a total amplitude (change in voltage) of about 100 mV (from -70mV to +30mV); Generally only occur in axons (this is when we're talking about the nervous systems and neurons); The principle way neurons communicate over long distances; They do not vary in voltage with distance from the stimulus (as is the case with graded potentials);

Amino acids

Building blocks of proteins | 20 common types | Have two important functional groups: amine group and organic acid group | May act either as a base (proton acceptor) or an acid (proton donor) | All are identical except for a single group of atoms called their R group

The way muscles work

By PULLING, never pushing; As a muscle contracts, it shortens and the insertion (the attachment on the moveable bone) and moves toward the origin (fixed, immovable, or less movable point or attachment);

How does each spinal nerve connect to the spinal cord?

By a *dorsal root* and a *ventral root*; Each root forms from a series of *rootlets* (smaller rootlets) that attach to the spinal cord;

Function of Muscle: *Produces movement*

By acting on the bones of the skeleton it allows for all locomotion and manipulation; Allows for movement of blood by pumping blood and maintaining blood pressure in the walls of blood vessels; Allows for movement of substances through hollow organs, like food through digestive system;

How is hair color determined?

By different types of melanin and a red pigment (trichossiderin); Made by melanocytes at the base of the hair follicle and transferred to the cortical cells;

What's the principle way neurons send signals over long distances?

By generating and propagating (transmitting) action potentials;

How do bones grow?

By getting longer and wider; Growth in the length of the bone occurs at epiphyseal growth plate at the ends of bones between each metaphyses and epiphysis; Epiphyseal growth plate is cartilaginous and as new cartilage cells are formed, it grows away from the center of the bone; The growing cartilage is gradually replaced by bone; The growth of bones continues until the cells in the growth plate stop dividing the epiphyses fuse with the metaphyses;

Cervical Vertebrae

C1-C7; Distinguished from other vertebrae because they have *transverse foramina* (small holes that allow for passage of vertebral arteries); Smallest, lightest vertebrae; Features: Oval body -- wider from side to side than in anteroposterior dimension. Except in C7, spinous process is short, projects directly back, and is bifid (split at its tip). Vertebral foramen is large and triangular.; C7 is not bifid and it's larger than the other cervical vertebrae;

Direct Phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)

CP is a high energy molecule stored in muscles; Its phosphate group can be added to ADP to produce ATP; One molecule of CP can produce one molecule of ATP; Provides power for 14-16 seconds of activity; Anaerob process (doesn't require oxygen); Occurs in the sarcoplasm;

Hormone that can stimulate bone remodeling

Calcitonin; Produced by the parafollicular cells (C cells) of the thyroid; Calcitonin causes osteoblasts to secrete osteoid and hydroxyapatite crystals settle on the osteoid, and this causes a drop in blood calcium levels; Calcitonin also inhibits osteoclasts, so they do not destry as much bone; Calcitonin does not play a major role in normal bone homeostasis, but is more imp in regulating high Ca levels resulting from pathology;

31 pairs of *spinal nerves* emerge along the length of the spinal cord (image)

Can also see the cervical and lumbar *enlargements* of spinal cord where nerves that serve the limbs emerge from the spinal cord; Cervical (upper limbs) and lumbar enlargements (lower limbs) are where nerves that serve the upper and lower limbs emerge from the spinal cord; At the inferior end of vertebral canal instead of a solid cord, there's a diffuse collection of nerve roots called the *cauda equina* (horses tail); Spinal nerves are part of the PNS not CNS

Major functional groups of organic compounds:

Carboxyl(COOH), amino(NH2), hydroxyl(OH), and phosphate(PO4)

Skeleton of the hand includes these bones:

Carpus (wrist), metacarpus (palm), and phalanges (bones of the fingers)

Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion:

Carriers (transmembrane integral proteins) are specific for transporting certain polar molecules or classes of molecules (like sugars and amino acids too large to pass through membrane channels). Carrier protein changes shape to move the binding site from one face of the membrane to the other | Substances transported by this move down their concentration gradient |

The motor (efferent) division of the PNS

Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands); Brings about (effects) a motor response; Has two subdivisions (somatic and autonomic)

RNA

Carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA | Single strands of nucleotides | Bases includes A, G, C, and U | Sugar is ribose |

Motor (efferent) nerves

Carry impulses only away from the CNS

Sensory (afferent) nerves

Carry impulses only toward the CNS

Why is cartilage better than bone for the growth of the skeleton in fetuses?

Cartilage is mostly collagen and so it's very flexible and grows more rapidly than bone.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Cause depolarization (in the post synaptic cell); Example: acetylcholine

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Cause hyperpolarization (in the post synaptic cell); Inhibits action potentials;

Surface tension

Caused by hydrogen bonding | It's the tendency of water molecules to cling together and form films

Ganglia

Collections of neuron cell bodies associated with nerves in the Peripheral Nervous System;

Mixtures

Combinations of matter that do not have chemical bonds between the components; The components can be physically separated;

Epidermal dendritic cells

Come from bone marrow & migrate to the epidermis; Also called Langerhans cells; Ingest foreign substances (means they're macrophages) and are key activators of our immune system; Form a continuous network around the keratinocytes;

Oral Cavity

Commonly called the mouth | Contains the teeth and tongue | Part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs |

Gap junctions (short definition)

Communicating junctions that allow ions and small molecules to pass. Particularly important for communication in heart cells and embryonic cells.

Two different bone textures:

Compact and spongy bone; Figure is a cross section of the femur;

Multimodal association areas

Complexly connected areas that receive inputs from multiple senses and send outputs to multiple areas; Allows us to give meaning to the info that we receive, store it in memory, tie it to previous experience and knowledge, and decide what action to take; Where sensation, thoughts, and emotions become conscious;

Nucleic acids

Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorous | Largest molecules in the body | 2 major classes: DNA and RNA

White matter

Composed of myelinated and nonmyelinated axons; Mostly myelinated fiber tracts;

Elastic filaments

Composed of the protein *titin*; They're springy and help anchor thick filaments to the Z disc and they run through the core of thick filaments to attach to the M line;

Duodenal glands of the small intestine

Compound tubular

Salivary glands

Compound tubuloalveolar

Reticular connective

Contains a lot of reticular cells, and the only fibers are reticular fibers; It forms an internal framework that supports other cells within lymph nodes, the spleen, and bone marrow

Metatarsus

Consists of five small, long bones called metatarsals; Numbered 1-5 beginning on the medial (big toe) side of the foot; First metatarsal (imp role in supporting weight) is short and thick; Arrangement of this is more parallel than that of the metacarpals of the hand;

Glycocalyx

Consists of glycoproteins and glycolipids that form a fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface | Provides highly specific biological markers by which approaching cells recognize each other (example: a sperm recognizes an ovum {egg cell} by the ovum's unique __________) |

What does cartilage consist of and why is that important?

Consists of mostly water; It's why cartilage is so resilient and has the ability to spring back to its original shape after being compressed;

Autonomic nervous system

Consists of visceral motor nerve fibers that regulate the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands (it's also called the involuntary nervous system because we generally cannot control the activities that it does); Has two subdivisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions;

Anabolic process

Constructive activities in body cells, like joining small molecules called amino acids into large protein molecules | The basis for these are synthesis reactions;

Dorsal roots

Contain *sensory* (afferent) fibers from sensory neurons that have their cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia; These afferent fibers conduct impulses from peripheral receptors to the spinal cord;

Mixed nerves

Contain both sensory and motor fibers, and thus transmit messages to and from the CNS; Most nerves are this type;

Organic compounds

Contain carbon | All covalently bonded molecules | Many are large and complex | Exceptions are carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, although they contain carbon they are not considered organic compounds | (Examples: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids)

Nutrients

Contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building | Taken in via the diet |

True solution

Containing gas, liquids, or solids dissolved in water

Chemical composition of bone:

Contains both *organic components* (bone cells and osteoid) and *inorganic components* (mineral salts); When the components are present in the right proportions, bone is strong and durable without being brittle;

Gray matter

Contains mostly neuron cell bodies and nonmyelinated fibers;

Nucleus of an atom

Contains protons and neutrons tightly bound together

Mediastinum

Contains the pericardial cavity and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, and others)

Components of apocrine secretion

Contains the same basic components as true sweat, but also has fatty substances and proteins; It is viscous and has a milky or yellowish color; The products are odorless, but once they're released they are decomposed by bacteria which produces a musky smell;

Abdominal Cavity

Contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs | Superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity |

*Anterior* and *Posterior longitudinal ligaments*

Continuous bands down the front and back surfaces of the vertebral column; Prevent bending too far backward and forward;

Smooth ER

Continuous with rough ER, but not studded with ribosomes; Contains integral proteins in its membrane that catalyze various reactions such as cholesterol synthesis, synthesis of steroid-based hormones, and detoxification of drugs;

Digestive Cavity

Continuous with the oral cavity | Opens to the body exterior of the anus |

Sarcomeres

Contractile elements; Smallest contractile unit of a muscle cell (thus is the *functional unit of skeletal muscle*); Contain *myofilaments* which are fibers made up of various proteins; Region of a myofibril between two successive Z discs, so it includes an entire A band flanked by half an I band at each end (so it is an entire A band and two halves of two different I bands); Each I band is part of two adjacent sarcomeres, but each A band is only in one sarcomere;

Myofilament or filament

Contractile myofilaments are of two types: thick and thin; Thick filaments contain bundled myosin molecules; Thin filaments contain actin molecules (plus other proteins); Sliding of the thin filaments past the thick filaments produces muscle shortening; Elastic filaments (not shown here) maintain the organization of the A band and provide elastic recoil when tension is released;

Graded Muscle Responses

Contractions that vary in strength according to different demands; They're needed for proper control of skeletal movement;

Muscle tissue:

Contracts (shortens) to cause movement; Three types: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle;

Example of Hormonal Negative Feedback

Control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin | When you eat food blood glucose levels rise. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense the change and the pancreas (the control center) secretes insulin into the blood. This change prompts body cells to absorb more glucose, removing it from the blood stream. As blood sugar falls, the stimulus for insulin release ends. |

Motor areas of the cortex

Control voluntary movement; Located in the frontal lobes; The Primary motor cortex, Premotor cortex, Broca's area, and the frontal eye field;

Frontal eye field

Controls eye movement; Controls voluntary movement of the eyes;

Anterior and Posterior Lobes

Coordinate movements;

Microscopic anatomy

Deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye. Most of these studies are done with very thin slices of body tissue that is stained and mounted on a glass slide to be examined under a microscope.

Oxidation-Reduction Reaction (Redox Reactions)

Decomposition reactions | The basis of all reactions in which food fuels are broken down for energy | Also an exchange reaction because electrons are exchanged between the reactants | The reactant losing the electrons is oxidized, and the reactant taking up the transferred electrons is said to be reduced |

As the hydrogen ion concentration __________, the hydroxyl ion concentration ____________

Decreases; Increases (also works vice versa)

Dermis

Deep to the epidermis; Made up of strong and flexible connective tissue; Its matrix binds the entire body together, making up the human "hide"; Has a rich supply of nerve fibers, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; It's where hair follicles and oil/sweat glands are found (but they come from epidermal tissue);

Vascular layer

Deep to the fibrous layer; Also called the *middle layer* or the *uvea*;

Reticular layer

Deeper and thicker layer of the Dermis; Makes up 80% of the thickness of the dermis; Made up of coarse, dense, irregular connective tissue; The network of blood vessels that nourishes this layer (called the cutaneous plexus) lies between this layer and the hypodermis; The collagen fibers run parallel to the skin surface and give skin strength and resiliency and bind water (which helps keep skin hydrated); The collagen fibers in this layer don't stretch very well They do help to prevent penetration of the skin; The elastic fibers provide the stretch-recoil properties of the skin (i.e. if they allow skin to be stretched and allow it to recoil to its original shape when you let it go. You start to lose these elastic fibers in your 20s);

Fluid Mosaic Model

Depicts the plasma membrane as a very thin (7-10nm) structure composed of a double layer (bilayer) of lipid molecules with protein molecules plugged into and dispersed in it | Most of the proteins float in the fluid lipid bilayer |

*Quality discrimination*

Differentiating among submodialites of a sensation; Example: sweet versus sour tastes. smell of a peach versus cinnamon, etc;

Two main types of Passive Transport:

Diffusion (imp for every cell of the body) & Filtration

Why does diffusion occur rapidly in physiological systems? (and examples)

Diffusion is very important in physiological systems and it occurs rapidly because the distances molecules are moving are very short | Examples: movement of ions across cell membranes; movement of neurotransmitters between two nerve cells

Examples of organ systems that participate in excretion

Digestive system (Feces) Urinary system (Urine)

Cerebrum

Divided into two *cerebral hemispheres*; Forms the superior part of the brain; Accounts for 83% of total brain mass; (It's like the mushroom cap covering the top of its stalk); Characterized by *gyri* (ridges) and *sulci* (grooves)

Primary hormonal control of bone remodeling:

Done to regulate levels of Calcium (Ca) in the blood; PTH (parathyroid hormone) is produced by the parathyroid glands and is released when blood levels of Ca is too low; PTH stimulates osteoclasts to release enzymes that dissolve bone, which releases Ca into the blood; This raises blood calcium levels and signals the parathyroid glands to stop releasing PTH; (This is a negative feedback mechanism);

Interphase

During this stage the cell grows and carries on its usual activities from the time it is formed until it divides; Three main phases of interphase: Gap 1 phase, S phase, and Gap 2 phase

Branches of the Trigeminal nerves (V)

Each branch of the trigeminal nerves innervates a different region of the face;

Figure showing structure of *crista ampullaris* (the sense organ involved in dynamic equilibrium)

Each crista ampullaris in a semicircular canal is excited by rotation of the head; It has supporting cells and hair cells that are similar in structure and function to the hair cells in the maculae and cochlea; The hair cell stereocilia and kinocilia are embedded in a *cupula* which is a jelly-like mass; When the head rotates, the stereocilia bend and the direction in which they bend indicates the direction the head is rotating; When they bend in one direction, the hair cells depolarize, which can cause a faster stream of impulses to the brain; When they bend in the opposite direction, the hair cells hyperpolarize, which can cause slower impulses to the brain

Convergence of the eyeballs:

Each eyeball rotates medially so that each eyeball is directed toward the object

Superficial reflexes

Elicited by gentle cutaneous stimulation; Example: stroking a foot causes curling of the toes;

Sweet

Elicited by sugars, alcohols, some amino acids, and some lead salts

Umami

Elicited by the amino acids glutamate and aspartate, and is used to describe the taste of meats and the tang of cheese, tomato;

Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body | Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood | Consists of kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra |

Trochlear nerves (IV)

Emerge from the brainstem and run toward the eyes; They innervate muscles that move the eyeball;

Another view of the organization of the spinal cord (as described in the previous slide)

Emphasizes what's located in the dorsal horns, ventral horns, and the structures approaching the spinal cord; Everything outside the spinal cord is the PNS;

Vertebral/Spinal Cavity

Encloses the delicate spinal cord | Runs within the bony vertebral column |

Pericardial Cavity

Encloses the heart

Two major types of glands:

Endocrine and exocrine

Mechanical Energy

Energy Directly involved in moving matter | When riding a bike your legs provide this kind of energy that moves the pedals

Two examples of Positive Feedback Mechanisms

Enhancement of labor contractions during birth and blood clotting and lactation (the more a baby nurses, the more milk is produced via a surge in hormone secretion)

Hydrolases

Enzymes that add water during hydrolysis reactions

Inactive enzymes

Enzymes that are produced in the inactive form, to be activated later on | Example: digestive enzymes produced in the pancreas are activated in the small intestine. If they were produced in the active form they'd digest the pancreas itself | Some enzymes are inactivated immediately after they've performed their catalytic function (like the enzymes that promote blood clot formation when the vessel wall is damaged) |

Posterior view: Muscles associated with the *Neck*

Epicranius, occipital belly; Sternocleidomastoid; Trapezius;

Changes in membrane potentials depend on what?

Establishment and changes in membrane potentials depend upon membrane ion channels (membrane proteins that allow certain things to cross the plasma membrane via diffusion) and changes in membrane potentials also depend on pumps (membrane proteins that use the energy in ATP to force substances across the membrane via active transport);

In lever systems that operate at a mechanical disadvantage (speed levers) what happens?

Force is lost, but speed and range of movement are gained

Hypoglossal nerves (XII)

Extend from the brain stem to the tongue; They innervate the tongue, and play a role in chewing, swallowing, and speech;

Glossopharyngeal Nerves (IX)

Extend from the brain stem toward the throat; They innervate the tongue and throat, and play a role in swallowing and transmit afferent impulse involved in sensations of touch, pressure, and pain from the tongue and throat;

Trigeminal nerves (V)

Extend from the brain toward the face; They are the major sensory nerves of the face and also innervate muscles involved in chewing

Abducens nerves (VI)

Extend from the brainstem toward the eye, where they innervate extrinsic muscles that move the eye;

Occulomotor nerves (III)

Extend from the brainstem toward the eyes; They contain motor fibers that innervate muscles that move the eye, constrict the pupil, adjust the shape of the lens, and raise the upper eyelid;

Facial nerves (VII)

Extend from the brainstem toward the face; They innervate muscles of the face that are involved in facial expression and tear and saliva secretion, and they transmit sensory impulses from the taste buds;

Accessory nerves (XI)

Extend from ventral rootlets emerging from the spinal cord and innervate muscles in the neck;

Spinal cord

Extends from the base of the skull to the level of the 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebrae and provides a 2-way conduction pathway to and from the brain; Serves as a *major reflex center*; Spinal reflexes are initiated and completed entirely at the level of the spinal cord;

Compact bone (Cortical Bone)

External layer; Solid, dense bone; Makes up the external surfaces of all bones and the walls of shafts of long bones;

Distal

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk | Example: The knee is ______________ to the thigh

Palpation

Feeling organs with your hands

The tissues innervated by the facial nerves (VII)

Figure showing the tissues innervated by the facial nerves (VII)

What is the function of dermal/epidermal ridges?

First of all they are our fingerprints and toe prints; They increase friction; They improve grasping abilities; They increase the sensitivity of touch;

Figure of cell in early and late prophase:

First step of mitosis (there are 4 steps, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase); During this phase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes, which consist of two sister chromatids joined at the center by a centromere; The centrosomes separate to opposite poles of the cell and act as focal points for the growth of the mitotic spindle, which aids in mitosis; The mitotic spindle is made of microtubules; The nuclear membrane breaks apart into fragments;

Steps of tissue repair:

First step: inflammation, which prepares the damaged area for repair (i.e. inflammation increases blood flow to an area and brings white blood cells to that area to clean up cellular debris and invading foreign substances that might cause infection; Next step: organization, whereby new capillaries grow in areas and lay down a new capillary bed to restore the blood supply; Regeneration and fibrosis bring about permanent repair

Three classes of levers:

First-class lever; Second-class lever; Third-class lever;

Vesicular Transport

Fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside bubble like membranous sacs called vesicles | Moves substances into the cell and out of the cell | Also used for combination processes like transcytosis and vesicular trafficking | It's like the FedEx of the cell | It's energized by ATP |

Structural Classification of Joints

Focuses on the material binding the bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present; Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints; Only synovial joints have a joint cavity;

*Physiology of taste*:

For a chemical (*tastant*) to be tasted, it must be *dissolved* in saliva, move into a taste pore, and *contact a gustatory hair*; *Binding* of the food chemical (tastant) to the gustatory cell membrane induces a *graded depolarization* of the membrane, which causes the gustatory cell to release neurotransmitter; Binding of neurotransmitter to the associated sensory cell dendrites triggers graded potentials that may generate action potentials in the sensory neurons;

Chemical equilibrium

For each molecule of the product formed, one product molecule breaks down; It's what happens when you die; Life is the avoidance of chemical equilibrium;

Table of the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on various organs:

For the heart muscle, the parasympathetic division decreases heart rate (rate of contraction), and the sympathetic division increases the rate and force of the heartbeat; For coronary blood vessels (the blood vessels that serve the heart), the parasympathetic division has no effect (because it does not innervate them), and the sympathetic division causes vasodilation (increasing blood vessel diameter); In the lungs, the parasympathetic division constricts bronchioles (decreases the diameter of small airways), and the sympathetic division dilates bronchioles (increases the diameter);

Schwann cells (also called Neurolemmocytes)

Form myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the PNS; Functionally similar to the oligodendrocytes; Vital to regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fibers;

Covering and lining epithelia

Form the outer layer of skin and line parts of the body such as the digestive system and reproductive system

Hydrogen bonds

Form when a hydrogen atom (already covalently linked to one electronegative atom {usually nitrogen or oxygen}) is attracted by another electron-hungry atom, so that a "bridge" forms between them | Common between dipoles like water molecules because the slightly negative oxygen atoms of one molecule attract the slightly positive hydrogen atoms of other molecules; Relatively weak bonds between partially charged atoms in a polar molecule;

Endochondral ossification (paragraph description):

Formation of a ring of calcium crystals at the center of a cartilage model. Blood vessels penetrate the calcified tissue and bring bone cells. Osteoblasts secrete osteoid and hydroxyapatite crystals settle on the osteoid forming hard bone matrix.

How is myelin sheath formed in the PNS?

Formed by Schwann cells; Each Schwann cell wraps around the axon several times (like wrapping gauze around a finger), forming concentric rings around an axon; Adjacent Schwann cells do not touch, so there are gaps in the myelin sheath (called the *nodes of Ranvier* or *myelin sheath gaps*); The nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of the Schwann cell end up as a bulge just external to the myelin sheath (this portion is called the outer collar of perinuclear cytoplasm);

Sacrum

Formed by five fused vertebrae S1-S5; Triangular; Shapes the posterior wall of the pelvis;

How is myelin sheath formed in the CNS?

Formed by processes of oligodendrocytes; Oligodendrocytes have multiple flat processes that wrap around axons (i.e. the entire cell doesn't wrap around the axon) at once (can wrap around up to 60 axons at the same time);

How is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) formed?

Formed by structures called *choroid plexuses*; These hang from the roof of each ventricle; Each consist of clusters of capillaries, covered by pia mater, and ependymal cells lining the ventricles; In this figure, the choroid plexuses are the red structures in the ventricles

Pelvic girdle

Formed by the sacrum (part of axial skeleton) and a pair of hip bones; Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton; Transmits full weight of upper body to the lower limbs; Supports visceral organs of the pelvis;

What is cerebrospinal fluid made of?

Formed from blood (and has a similar composition to blood), but fewer proteins and different ion concentrations;

Spinal nerve

Formed where dorsal and ventral roots unite just distal to dorsal root ganglion

In general, epithelial tissue....

Forms boundaries, protects other structures in the body, secretes substances, absorbs, filters, and senses stimuli

Glandular epithelia

Forms glands, which produce secretions such as mucus, sweat, oil, and milk

Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering | Protects deeper tissues from injury | Synthesizes Vitamin D | Houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc) receptors and sweat and oil glands | Consists of hair, skin, nails |

Axial skeleton

Forms the long axis of the body; Includes: skull, vertebral column, and rib cage; These bones protect, support, or carry other body parts;

Ischium

Forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone; L shaped, has a thicker body adjoining the ilium;

Callus

Forms when there is consistent friction; Cell production and keratin formation is accelerated in places that get persistent friction;

Multiunit smooth muscle

Found in large airways to the lungs, large arteries, arrector pili muscles in hair follicles, and the iris of the eye; In this type, the cells are structurally in depend of each other because gap junctions are rare;

Smooth muscle

Found in various areas of the body including: muscles of the walls of hollow organs (digestive tract organs), iris of the eye, and within the walls of some blood vessels

Omega-3 fatty acids

Found naturally in cold-water fish | Decrease risk of heart disease and inflammatory diseases |

Stratum Lucidum (Clear layer)

Found only in thick skin (soles of feet and palms of hand); 2-3 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes; Thin translucent layer right above stratum granulosum; Under a microscope it looks like a clear layer between stratum granulosum and stratum corneum;

Rotator cuff

Four tendons (and the associated muscles) make up this; It encircles the shoulder joint and blends with the articular capsule; Muscles include the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor;

*Connective tissue sheaths* surrounding various structural levels of each muscle:

From external to internal: *Epimysium, Perimysium and Fascicles*, and *Endomysium*

Example of carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion

Glucose. It's normally in higher concentrations in the blood than in the cells (where it's rapidly used for ATP synthesis) | Therefore, glucose transport is unidirectional (into the cells) | When all the glucose carriers are "engaged" they are said to be Saturated which means glucose transport is occurring at its maximum rate |

Posterior view: Muscles associated with the *Hip*

Gluteus medius; Gluteus maximus;

Glycolysis and Lactic Acid Formation

Glycolysis converts glucose to lactic acid; Glucose is broken down into two pyruvic acid molecules, releasing enough energy to form small amounts of ATP; 2 ATP per 1 glucose molecule; Under anaerobic conditions the pyretic acid is converted into lactic acid (process called anaerobic glycolysis); Not efficient, but it's quick and provides energy for 30-40 seconds of activity; Occurs in the sarcoplasm;

Blind spot

Got its name because there are no photoreceptors in that area (where the optic nerve exits the eye) and thus no visual information detected in that area;

Organic components of the bones: Osteoid

Ground substance and collagen fibers (both of these are secreted by osteoblasts); Gives bone flexibility and tensile strength;

Polyatomic ions

Groups of atoms that bear an overall charge (like sulfate)

Tissues

Groups of similar cells that have a common function

Basal Nuclei

Groups of subcortical nuclei (in this context, nuclei refers to a collection of neuron cell bodies in the CNS) located deep within cerebral white matter; Play a role in motor control and regulating attention and cognition; Include the *caudate nucleus*, *putamen*, and *globus pallidus*; Receives input from the whole cerebral cortex so it influences muscle movements directed by the primary motor cortex; Helps filter out incorrect or inappropriate responses (passing only the best response on the cortex);

When does cartilage growth typically end?

Growth ends typically during adolescence when the skeleton stops growing

Interstitial Growth

Growth from within (rather than on the surface of) existing cartilage; Occurs due to division of lacunae-bound chondrocytes and the secretion of matrix by newly formed cells inside the cartilage

Hormonal controls of bone growth during childhood:

Growth hormone from the anterior pituitary (whose effects are affected by thyroid hormones)

Appositional Growth

Growth in the diameter of the bone; The shaft increases in diameter as osteoblasts in the periosteum deposit bone on the external surface. While this is happening, osteoclasts within the medullary cavity remove bone so that the thickness of the diaphyseal wall remains relatively constant and the bone stays relatively lightweight as its diameter increases. Osteoclasts work at a slower rate than osteoblasts so that there is a slight increase in the thickness of shaft as the bone grows

What 4 elements make up the bulk of living matter?

H, N, C, O

Spinal column curvature. Why and how it is.

Has a S or sinusoid, shape; Cervical and lumbar curvatures are concave posteriorly; Thoracic and sacral curvatures are convex posteriorly; Curvatures increase resilience and flexibility of the spine, allowing it to function like a spring rather than a rigid rod, also helps maintain balance when sitting and walking;

Psuedostratified columnar epithelium

Has a single layer of cells of varying heights; Looks like it has more than one layer of cells, but it's just one layer; Examples: Upper respiratory tract

Dense irregular connective tissue

Has bundles of collagen fibers that are arranged irregularly (rather than running in same direction as in dense regular connective tissue); It forms the leathery dermis of skin;

Dense regular connective tissue

Has closely packed collagen fibers that are all running in the same direction (i.e. the fibers are regularly arranged); It's found in tendons and ligaments;

Dense connective tissue

Has more fibers (that's why it's also referred to as fibrous connective tissue) and a tougher matrix compared to loose connective tissue; The types of dense connective tissue are *dense regular*, *dense irregular*, and *elastic connective tissue*;

Fibrocartilage

Has thick collagen fibers so it's compressible and has great tensile strength; Occurs in areas that experiences lost of pressure and stretch; Examples include: Menisci of the knee and in vertebral discs;

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Has two parts, but the regions aren't separated by a muscular or membrane wall

Fibrocartilage

Has very thick collagen fibers so it's very strong and withstands intense pressures; It's found in intervertebral disks between the vertebrae, and in the public symphysis between the two pubic bones;

Glands with compound ducts:

Have a duct that branches; Can have secretory units that are tubular, alveolar, or tubuloalveolar

Hypertonic solutions

Have a higher concentration of non-penetrating solutes than seen in the cell | Cells immersed in this type of solutions lose water and shrink (crenate) | Example: a strong saline solution |

Electrons

Have a negative charge; Surrounding the nucleus and orbiting; Have a very tiny mass so it doesn't count; The number of these in an atom, produces the negative electrical charge of the atom; The number of these is equal to the number of protons in an atom, so every atom is electrically neutral;

Protons

Have a positive electrical charge and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu); The number of these in the nucleus produces the positive electrical charge of the atom; IF you know how many there are of this in an atom you can determine the number of electrons (because they are the same)

Unipolar neurons:

Have a single short process extending from the neuron cell body that divides into proximal and distal branches; One branch is the *peripheral process* (and is associated with receptors, so it receives information); The other branch is the *central process* (it enters the CNS to send messages to the CNS); Most of these have their cell bodies in ganglia in the PNS;

Irregular bones

Have complicated shapes that don't fall into the other categories; They have varied shapes, sizes, and surfaces; A specific type of this type of bone is *sutural bones* Examples: vertebrae and some bones of skull such as the ethmoid and sphenoid;

Axons with larger diameters

Have faster condition velocities; Larger axons conduct more rapidly because they offer less resistance to the flow of local currents, bringing adjacent areas of the membrane to threshold more quickly;

Unsaturated fats

Have less hydrogen, and have one or more double covalent bond between carbon atoms | Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms (mono_______ and poly___________ respectively) | The double bonds cause the fatty acid chains to kink so that they cannot be packed closely enough to solidify | Oils at room temperature | Typical of plant lipids | Example: olive oil and peanut oils

Apocrine sweat glands

Have little role in maintaining constant body temperature; Larger than eccrine glands, and lie deeper in the dermis and the hypodermis and their ducts empty into hair follicles; Despite their name they are merocrine glands which release their products via merocrine secretion (aka their products are released by exocytosis with the cell staying intact) rather than through apocrine secretion (in which the entire apex of the cell breaks off and the plasma membrane is repaired);

Cones

Have low sensitivity to light, so they respond only to bright light; Have three kinds of visual pigments (though each cone has only one kind) and this allows for color vision

Electrical synapses

Have neurons that are electrically coupled via protein channels (gap junctions); These allow for the direct exchange of ions from cell to cell; Leads to a very rapid transmission of messages; Less common than chemical synapses;

Bipolar neurons:

Have two processes (one axon and one dendrite); Found in the special sense organs; In each case (and this is true for all bipolar neurons) there's a single dendrite, but that dendrite divides into multiple dendritic endings (this is not the same thing as having multiple dendrites);

Bone function--Blood cell formation:

Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation) occurs in red marrow cavities of certain bones

When bases dissolve in water:

Hydroxides dissociate, but hydroxyl ions (OH-) and cations are liberated | Example: ionization of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) produces a hydroxyl ion and a sodium ion and then hydroxyl ion then binds to (accepts) a proton present in the solution | The reaction produces water and reduces the acidity of the solution | Example: NaOH→Na+ + OH- and then OH- + H+→ H2O (where the Na+ is a cation and the OH- is a hydroxyl ion)

Cellular secretions

Include: substances that aid in digestion (intestinal and gastric fluids), substances that act as lubricants (saliva, mucus, and serous fluids)

Three types of chemical bonds

Ionic, Covalent, and Hydrogen | Result from attractive forces between atoms |

Electrochemical gradients

Ions diffuse according to these (Important just like concentration forces) | These maintained by the Na+ and K+ pump underlie most secondary active transport of nutrients and ions, and are crucial for cardiac, skeletal muscle, and neuron function |

Electron donor

In ionic bonds, it's the atom that loses electrons

Summation

In order for an action potential to be generated or prevented/inhibited, there has to be *this* by the postsynaptic neuron; A single graded potential is not enough to induce an action potential (EPSPs) or inhibit an action potential (IPSPs); Graded potentials need this, need to add together the effects of individual synaptic events in order for an action potential to be produced or inhibited;

*Propagation* of the Action Potential (AP)

In order for an action potential to serve as the neuron's signaling device, it has to be propagated along the axon's entire length; It's transmission of the action potential (AP) that occurs as local currents cause depolarization of adjacent areas of the plasma membrane; This is what's happening in the positive feedback mechanism when Na+ is influxing and causing the additional voltage-gated Na+ channels more sodium influxes, so that's the spread of depolarization and then you have the voltage-gated K+ channels opening, K+ effluxes and that also spreads in the same manner along the plasma membrane;

The physiology of smell

In order for you to smell an odorant, it must be *volatile* (i.e. in the gaseous state as it enters nasal cavity, and then it must dissolve in fluid coating the nasal epithelium); Dissolved odorants bind to receptor proteins on the *olfactory cilium membrane*, as shown in the figure; Binding of the odorant activates a *G protein (Golf)*, which activates enzymes (*adenylate cyclases*) that synthesize cyclic AMP; Cyclic AMP opens cation channels, which allows Na and Ca into the olfactory receptor cell; The influx of Na causes depolarization of the olfactory cell and conduction of a signal to the olfactory bulb; The influx of Ca results in adaptation i.e. the decreased response to sustained stimulus (i.e. this allows you to get used to smells);

Action potentials: threshold

In the bottom figure, at the left side, we see a low voltage stimulus that only causes a slight local depolarization of the plasma membrane, but that depolarization is below the threshold necessary to generate an action potential, so no action potential occurs; In the middle and to the right of the figure there's a stronger stimulus that depolarizes the membrane potential to at least the threshold value necessary to generate an action potential, so an action potential results; The higher stimulus does not change the characteristics of the individual action potential, it just leads to more of them being generated in response compared to the weaker stimulus;

Figure of the thick and thin filaments in smooth muscle

In the figure we can see the thick and thin filaments arranged diagonally across cell and the bundles of non contractile intermediate filaments anchored to *dense bodies*; Also see dense bodies anchoring the thin filaments and in the contracted muscle cell on the right we can see how when the thin filaments slide across the thick filaments they drag the dense bodies closer together;

Brachial Plexus Picture

In the figure you can see that the ventral rami that give rise to the brachial plexus (called roots) unite to form trunks (upper, middle, and lower) which divide into anterior and posterior divisions which unite to form cords (lateral, medial, posterior) and these give rise to the major nerve branches of the brachial plexus

Small part of one myofibril enlarged to show myofilaments and striation

In the middle of each dark (A) and there is a lighter region called the *H zone* and in the center of the H zone is a darker *M line*; In the middle of each light I band there is a dark area in middle called the *Z disc* or Z line;

Figure showing what happens in a rod when the visual pigment is bleached

In the photoreceptor, when light-activated rhodopsin is activated by light (and there is bleaching of the visual pigment), it activates a *G protein* (which is called *transducin*); Activated transducin then activates *PDE* (phosphodiesterase) which breaks down *Cyclic GMP* (*cGMP*); In the dark, cGMP keeps Na and Ca channels open, allowing Na and Ca into the cell which depolarizes the cell to a *dark potential* of -40 mv; Once cGMP is broken down, the Na and Ca channels close and the cell hyperpolarizes to -70mv;

Cranial Cavity

In the skull, encases the brain

Ascending pathways

In the spinal cord, they conduct sensory impulses up the spinal cord to the brain; Conscious sensation; Unconscious sensation;

Tentorium cerebelli

In the transverse fissure between the cerebrum and cerebellum;

Amino acids

In their non-modified forms can act as neurotransmitters; Neurotransmitter role is certain in glutamate, aspartate, glycine, and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA); GABA is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammals (the effects of GABA are amplified by the use of alcohol);

Excitatory synapses

In these, neurotransmitter binding causes depolarization of the postsynaptic cell membrane and thus it causes an EPSP; Typically this involves the opening of Na+ channels in response of the binding of the neurotransmitter, and that allows an influx of Na+ into the cells;

Inhibitory synapses

In these, neurotransmitter binding causes hyperpolarization and thus causes IPSPs; This typically involves the opening of channels that allow K+ (positively charged) out of the cell or Cl- (negatively charged) into the cell so it makes the membrane potential more negative whichever one happens; IPSPs lead to an increase in the negativity of the membrane potential across the plasma membrane;

Brain stem:

Includes (from superior to inferior) the *midbrain*, *pons*, and *medulla oblongata*; Produces rigidly programmed, automatic behaviors that are necessary for survival (e.g. the rate and depth of breathing/respiration, heartbeat (under the influence of the hypothalamus), swallowing, coughing, vomiting etc.; The medulla oblongata blends with the spinal cord inferiorly; Green in the picture;

Motor unit

Includes a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates; When a motor neuron fires (transmits an action potential) all the muscle fibers it innervates contract;

Posterior association area

Includes areas of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes; It receives input from all sensory areas, and integrates signals into a single thought; Plays a role in recognizing patterns and faces, localizing us and our surroundings in space, and binding different sensory inputs into a coherent whole; Also involved in understanding written and spoken language;

Postcranial skeleton

Includes everything in the skeleton below the skull

Carbohydrates

Includes sugars and starches | Represents 1-2% of cell mass | Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the hydrogen and oxygen atoms usually occur in the same 2:1 ratio as water | Major function in body is to provide cellular fuel |

Epithalamus

Includes the *pineal gland* (which secretes melatonin and regulates sleep-wake cycles) and a *choroid plexus*;

Limbic association area

Includes the cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, and other regions; Provides the emotional impact that makes a scene important to us; The hippocampus establishes memories that allow us to remember incidents;

Angular movements

Increase or decrease the angle between two bones and can occur in any plane of the body; Include *flexion*, *extension*, and *hyperextension* ;

Recruitment or Multiple Motor Unit Summation

Increases the force of contraction by the neural activation of an increasing number of motor units serving the muscle; Eventually reaches a point when all motor units are being activated, and when that happens no further increase in the force of contraction can occur regardless of the strength of the stimulus to the nerve (maximal stimulus);

How temperature influences the rate of chemical reactions:

Increasing temperature of a substance increases the kinetic energy of its particles and the force of the collisions | Therefore, chemical reactions are quicker at higher temperatures |

G-protein linked receptor

Indirect effects; Involved in slow synaptic responses; Part of transmembrane protein complexes; The binding of a neurotransmitter activates an associated G protein; G proteins typically work by controlling the production of second messengers inside the cell (such as cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP, or Ca2+); Second messengers regulate ion channels, initiate cascade of enzyme reactions, and have other functions; Focus on these G-protein linked receptors are mediating indirect effects; Distinguished from direct effects because when the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor the ion channel doesn't open immediately in response;

Secondary Active transport

Indirectly driven by an Na+-K+ Pump. The pump stores energy (in the ion gradient) by moving sodium across the plasma membrane against its concentration gradient. Then, as sodium moves back into the cell with the help of a carrier protein, other substances are "dragged along" or cotransported by the same carrier protein | This is a symport system | Because the energy for this type of transport is the concentration gradient of the ion (in this case Na+) Na+ has to be pumped back out of the cell to maintain its concentration gradient |

Efferent Pathway

Information (output) flows from the control center to the effector along this

Figure showing the equilibrium pathway to the brain

Information from balance receptors goes directly to reflex centers in the brain stem;

Lipids

Insoluble in water | Dissolve readily in other lipids and in organic solvents like alcohol and ether | All of these molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but the proportion of oxygen in these molecules is much lower than in carbohydrates | Phosphorous is found in more complicated versions of these molecules | Needed for cell membranes, to produce hormones, and many other functions |

The two distinct populations of membrane proteins:

Integral & Peripheral

Somatosensory association cortex

Integrates sensory information (temperature, pressure, etc.), and produces an understanding of the stimulus being felt; Example: when you reach into your pocket *this* draws upon stored memories of past sensory experiences to perceive the objects you feel as coins or keys. If you had damage to this area you couldn't recognize these objects without looking at them;

Sutures

Interlocking joints in the skull that bring the bones of the skull together; Important ones are *sagittal suture*, *coronal suture*, and *lambdoidal suture*;

Intermediate filaments

Intermediate diameter (10 nm); Made of various proteins (varies by cell type) which is why there are numerous names for these cytoskeleton elements;

Viscera/Visceral Organs

Internal organs housed in the ventral body cavity

Two main periods of the cell life cycle:

Interphase and cell division (the M-phase)

Limbic System

Involved with emotions, and is extensively connected through the brain, allowing it to integrate and respond to a wide variety of stimuli; It includes parts of the cerebral hemispheres (i.e. *amygdala, hippocampus*) and diencephalon (i.e. *hypothalamus*); Most of this limbic system output is relayed through the hypothalamus; Because the hypothalamus is the clearinghouse for both autonomic (visceral) function and emotional response. This is why emotional stress can cause visceral illness (called *Psychosomatic illness*);

Fat synthesis:

Involves attaching three fatty acid chains to a single glycerol molecule by dehydration synthesis | Result is an E shaped molecule | (Glycerol backbone is the same in all triglycerides, but the fatty acid chains vary which is why different types of fats and oils exist)

Synthesis of a nucleotide:

Involves attachment of a base and a phosphate group to the pentose sugar

Tertiary structure

Involves the amino acid's R groups | Achieved when alpha helical or beta pleated regions of the polypeptide chain fold upon one another to produce a compact ball-like (globular) molecule | Hydrophobic R groups are on the inside of the molecule | Hydrophilic R groups are on the outside | The unique shape is maintained by the interactions of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic R groups and those reinforced by covalent and hydrogen bonds |

Gated-channels

Ion channels that have parts that open and close the channel in response to different signals;

Most salts are ______________ compounds

Ionic

The bony (osseous) labyrinth

Is a system of chambers and channels worming through the bone of the skull; Those chambers and channels are called the *vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals*; These are all filled with a fluid called *perilymph* that suspends the *membranous labyrinth*

High heat capacity of water:

It absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before it changes its own temperature | This prevents sudden changes in temperature caused by external factors (sun or wind exposure) or internal events that release heat rapidly (vigorous muscle activity) |

What has to happen for a muscle to contract:

It must first be stimulated by a *somatic nerve ending* so that a change in membrane potential occurs; This is the *activation step*; Then, the muscle fiber must generate an *electrical current* called an *action potential* along the sarcolemma; Then, intracellular Ca ion levels must rise briefly which provides the final trigger for contraction; (The last two steps are grouped together and called *excitation-contraction coupling* because they link the electrical signal to contraction)

Life span of hairs

It varies; Follicles on scalp active for 6-10 years before becoming inactive for a few months; Eyebrows remain active for a few months (which is why eyebrows aren't as long as head hairs);

What does splitting the terminal phosphate bond of ATP yield?

It yields a molecule with two phosphate groups: adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate group (indicated by Pi) accompanied by a transfer of energy |

Clathrin & its function

It's a bristle-like protein on the cytoplasmic face of the pit that starts endocytosis | It helps in selecting what will be taken into the cell | It also deforms the membrane so that the vesicle can be produced |

Figure of the position of the ANS within the organization of the nervous system

It's a division of the motor (efferent) division of the PNS; The other division of the motor division is the somatic nervous system;

*Eyeball*

It's a photoreceptor organ, (i.e. specialized to detect light energy); It is a slightly irregular, hollow sphere with a wall surrounding an internal cavity;

Structure of ATP

It's an adenine-containing RNA nucleotide to which two additional phosphate groups have been added

Basal surface

It's attached surface of an epithelial cell; It rests on a thin sheet called the basal lamina (a non-cellular sheet of molecules that are produced by the epithelial cells and acts as a filter;

Knee joint

Largest and most complex joint in the body; It's a single joint cavity, with three different joints; The three joints are the *femoropatellar joint* (between the femur and patella) and the *medial* and *lateral tibiofemoral joints* (between the femur and tibia)

Special features of epithelial tissue:

It's composed of *closely packed* cells with very little extracellular material between them; Adjacent epithelial cells are bound together by *specialized contacts* such as desmosomes and tight junctions; The individual cells exhibit *polarity*, which means that two opposite ends of the cell are different and distinguishable from one another; They have a free apical surface and an attached basal surface, and the two surfaces are different from one another; Epithelial tissues also have polarity; Apical surface is exposed to the exterior of the boyd or to the cavity of an organ; Basal surface rests on a thin sheet called the basal lamina, which is a non-cellular sheet of molecules (e.g. glycoproteins) that are produced by the epithelial cells and acts as a filter; It's *supported by an underlying connective tissue*. Deep to the basal lamina is the reticular lamina, which consists of extracellular matrix that's part of the underlying connective tissue. Together, the basal lamina of the epithelial tissue and the reticular lamina of the connective tissue create a basement membrane; The *basement membrane*, like the basal lamina and reticular lamina, is non-cellular; It is *innervated* (supplied by nerve fibers), *but avascular* (it has no blood supply); Because it's avascular, epithelial cells receive oxygen and nutrients via diffusion from the underlying connective tissue; It has a *high regenerative capacity*; Epithelial cells are capable of cell division, and thus the tissue can be continuously replenished (example: epithelial cells on the surface of our skin get rubbed off, and the lost cells are replaced quickly by cell division. if this didn't occur our skin would quickly wear away to nothing);

What is the resting membrane potential generated by?

It's generated by differences in the ionic makeup of intracellular and extracellular fluids and differential membrane permeability to solutes; (Pg. 399)

Medullary cavity:

It's inside the diaphysis; It's an opening that runs through the center of the diaphysis and is filled with marrow (yellow marrow in adults); (Also called the yellow marrow cavity because in adults it contains fat which makes it yellow marrow)

Elastic cartilage

It's like hyaline cartilage, but contains more stretchy elastic fibers and are better able to stand up to repeated bending; It forms part of the external ear and the epiglottis (flap that covers the opening of the larynx when we swallow)

Why is there so much variation in skin color in our species?

It's not because of variation in number of melanocytes (all humans have the same number of melanocytes); People with the lighter skin produce less of the darker variety of melanin, and it isn't retained as long in their skin. Darker skin is typically found in populations closer to the equator. Dark skin protects against the damaging effects of UV radiation. The farther we get from the equator, the less UV radiation you're exposed to. Lighter skin may be adaptive in areas away from the equator because lighter skin allows for the production of Vitamin D.

Appositional growth

It's outward expansion of the tissue due to secretion of cartilage matrix on the external surface of existing cartilage

Hematopoietic Tissue & where it's located

It's red marrow; The location of it in bones varies with age; In children it's found in long bone medullary cavities, within trabecular bone in flat bones, irregular bones (like the hip bone), and epiphyses of long bones; In adults, most marrow in medullary cavities is yellow and the red marrow is restricted to spongy bone in flat bones, irregular bones, and proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur (aka blood cell production occurs only in the heads of the femur and humerus);

How is the knee joint stabilized?

It's stabilized and strengthened by different ligaments such as the *patellar ligament* (on the anterior surface and attaches to the patella), the *fibular (lateral) collateral* and *tibial (medial) collateral ligaments* (are on the lateral and medial sides respectively and prevent lateral and medial rotation when the knee is extended), *anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments* (prevent anterior and posterior displacement of the joint);

Chemical gradient

It's the concentration gradient; Things will move from high concentration to low concentration when they're following their chemical/concentration gradient;

Central nervous system (CNS) main function:

It's the integrating and control center of the nervous system; It interprets sensory input and dictates motor output based on reflexes, current conditions, and past experience;

Orbital model

It's the more modern way of predicting the chemical behavior of atoms | It depicts probable regions of greatest electron density by denser shading (the cloud is called the electron cloud) |

Function of the *shaft* in hair

It's the portion where keratinization is complete; It projects form the skin, extends halfway down the portion of the hair embedded in the skin; (Part you can see in a hair that is still attached to the body)

Photoreception

It's the process by which the eye detects light energy

Figure showing the *olfactory epithelium*

It's the special sense organ for the sense of smell (olfaction): Consists of psuedostratified epithelium in the roof of the nasal cavity; It contains *olfactory receptor cells* (which are bipolar neurons) surrounded by columnar epithelial supporting cells; Olfactory receptor cells each have a thin dendrite that terminates in several *olfactory cilia*; The olfactory cilia lie in mucus produced by olfactory glands: this mucus captures airborne odorants; Each olfactory receptor cell is activated by certain odorants (all specialized to a special smell chemical); The axons of the olfactory receptor cells are gathered into *fascicles* that form the *filaments of the olfactory nerve*; These filaments of the olfactory nerve project through the bone at the roof of the nasal cavity to *synapse with mitral cells* in the *olfactory bulb*; The synapses between olfactory receptor cells and mitral cells occur in structure called *glomeruli*;

Is ATP stable or unstable and why?

It's very unstable because its three negatively charged phosphate groups are closely packed and repel each other | The triphosphate tail is like a tightly coiled spring ready to uncoil with tremendous energy | When its terminal high-energy phosphate bonds are broken (hydrolyzed), the chemical "spring" relaxes and the whole molecule becomes more stable |

Function of the *root* in hair

It's where keratinization is ongoing; It is embedded deep in the hair follicle;

A muscle *origin*

Its fixed or immovable point of attachment

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

Jaw joint; Modified hinge joint; Allows hinge-like movement when we depress and elevate the mandible, and some side-to-side movement;

Rami communicantes

Joined to the base of ventral rami of thoracic spinal nerves; Contain autonomic (visceral) nerve fibers;

Synovial Cavities

Joint Cavities | Enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body (like the knee and elbow joints) | Membranes lining these cavities secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction as the bones move across one another |

The most important factor that secures cells together

Junctions

Innervation of visceral muscle and glands:

Junctions between autonomic motor endings and effector cells are simpler than the neuromuscular junctions between somatic motor endings and skeletal muscle fibers; Axon ending has varicosities that contain synaptic vesicles and these release acetylcholine or norepinephrine;

Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen | Removes carbon dioxide | Gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs | Consists of nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, lung |

Driving force for diffusion & what influences the speed of diffusion:

Kinetic energy of the molecules | Molecules and ions have intrinsic kinetic energy with makes them collide constantly, randomly, and at high-speeds; with the collisions, the particles hit each other and change direction which scatters the particles throughout the environment; The greater the difference in concentration of the diffusing molecules and ions between the two areas, the more collision occur and the faster the particles scatter. Therefore, the speed of diffusion is influenced by molecular size (smaller=faster)and by temperature (warmer=faster)

Lumbar Vertebrae

L1-L5; Largest of the individual vertebrae; It's the small of the back; It receives the most stress; The vertebrae are more sturdy because of the enhanced weight-bearing that they do; Features: Massive bodies. Triangular vertebral foramen. Short and thick pedicles and laminae. Spinous processes are short, flat, hatchet shaped, and easily seen when someone bends forward. Orientation of the facets differed substantially from the other vertebra types.; The lumbar vertebrae lock together and provide stability by preventing rotation of the lumbar spine; Flexion and extension are possible, as is lateral flexion;

Interstitial Lamellae

Lamellar bone that is not part of an osteon; They fill in the gaps between newly forming osteons or are remnants of earlier osteons that existed prior to bone remodeling;

Crystals

Large arrays of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds

Macromolecules

Large complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 amino acids | Most proteins are this |

Processing at the perceptual level:

Last step in sensory integration; Involves interpretation by the cerebral cortex of sensory input that's been sent to it; The ability to identify sensations depends on the location of target neurons in the sensory cortex (depends on which neurons in the sensory cortex are receiving the messages); Example: if sensory impulses are sent to neurons in the visual cortex, the sensation will be identified as visual stimuli; The cerebral cortex always interprets the activity of a specific sensory receptor as a specific sensation (no matter how it's activated); Example: if you close your eyes and press on your eyelids, you activate photoreceptors using mechanical force and you "see" light even though the photoreceptors have been stimulated by something other than light. This is called *projection*;

Gap 2 (G2)

Lasts 2-5 hours; During this phase, the enzymes and the proteins needed for cell division are synthesized;

S phase

Lasts 6-8 hours; DNA is replicated via the process of DNA synthesis; During DNA synthesis, the DNA helix untwists and hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken by an enzyme called helicase; Each strand then can act as a template (pattern) for the synthesis of its complementary (opposite) strand; This occurs following the rules of complementarity, so A binds to T, and C binds to G; At the end of DNA replication, there are two new DNA molecules, each with one strand from the original molecule and one newly synthesized strand;

Hydration layers

Layers of water molecules around large charged molecules like proteins, shielding them from the effects of other charged substances and preventing them from settling out of solution

Channel-linked neurotransmitter receptors

Ligand-gated ion channels that mediate *direct* neurotransmitter action; Part of ion channels and they mediate fast synaptic transmission; They allow neurotransmitters to have *direct* effects on postsynaptic cells; ACl binding to a channel linked neurotransmitter receptor and when it binds it causes the associated ion channel to open and allows the ions to cross the plasma membrane of the cell;

Frontal Planes/ Coronal Plane

Like sagittal planes, they lie vertically | They divide the body into anterior and posterior parts

What's the spinal cord protected by?

Like the brain, it's protected by bone, meninges, and CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) (as shown in the figure); The *spinal dura mater* is a single layer (different from the dura mater that covers the brain) (there's no periosteal layer as there is in the dura mater surrounding the brain); There's an *epidural space* between the vertebrae and the spinal dura mater that's filled with fat (acts as a shock absorber to help protect the spinal cord) and veins; The *arachnoid* and *pia mater meninges* are separated by a subarachnoid space (filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)); Extensions of the pia mater anchor the spinal cord to the coccyx and prevent excess movement of the cord within the vertebral canal that runs through the vertebrae; The pia mater is also anchored the the dura mater with *denticulate ligaments*;

Gray matter of the spinal cord

Located in its core

Primary auditory cortex

Located in the temporal lobe; Sound energy exciting the hearing receptors of the inner ear causes impulses to be transmitted to this cortex; Impulses are interpreted as pitch, loudness, and location;

Circumferential lamellae

Located just deep to the periosteum and just superficial to the endosteum; Extend around the entire circumference of the diaphysis and help the long bone to resist twisting;

Epigastric Region

Located superior to the umbilical region | Contains most of the stomach |

Nasal Cavity

Located within and posterior to the nose | Part of the respiratory system passageways |

3-d view of basal ganglia showing their position in the cerebrum

Located within each cerebral hemisphere; Together, the basal nuclei form a structure called the *corpus striatum*; Included in the corpus striatum are the *caudate nucleus* and the *lentiform nucleus*; The lentiform nucleus includes the *putamen* and *globus pallidus*;

Phospholipid

Lollipop-shaped molecule | Made of a polar "head" that is charged and hydrophilic & an uncharged non polar "tail" that is made of two fatty acid chains and is hydrophobic

DNA

Long double-stranded polymer | A double chain of nucleotides | Bases are A, G, C, T | Pentose sugar is deoxyribose | Hydrogen bonds hold the two nucleotide chains together between the bases | A always bonds with T and G always bonds with C |

Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Long, cylindrical cells with multiple oval nuclei; Have so many nuclei because hundreds of embryonic cells fuse to produce a single fiber;

4 shapes bones are classified by:

Long, short, flat, or irregular

Skull Function

Made up of 22 cranial and facial bones that form a framework for the face, protect the brain, contain cavities for special sense organs (taste, sight, smell), provide openings for passage of air and food, secure teeth, anchor muscles of facial expression and speech;

Endomembrane system

Made up of the nuclear membrane, ER, golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, and lysosomes; All are involved in protein processing;

General structure of a synovial joint: Articular capsule (also called joint capsule)

Made up of two layers that enclose the joint cavity; The fibrous capsule and the synovial membrane;

Stratified epithelia:

Main function is protection, and they're capable of this because they have multiple layers of cells, so if top layers are removed, there are still more cells remaining in deeper layers; They regenerate from the basal layers, so the superficial layers are the oldest and the deep layers are the youngest; Their shape classification (squamous, cuboid, or columnar)is based on the appearance of the top (apical) layer of cells, regardless of the shapes of cells in deeper layers;

Function of carbohydrates:

Main function is to provide a ready easily used source of cellular fuel | Only small amounts of carbs are used for structural purposes (some sugars are found in our genes, and others are attached to external surfaces of cells to guide cellular interactions) |

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Maintains membrane potential; Powered by ATP, it pumps 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions it pumps in; Both sodium and potassium are moved by the Na-K pump *against* their concentration gradients and that maintains the concentration gradients seen in the figure; The non-gated (leakage) ion channels allow sodium and potassium and chloride to move across the plasma membrane following their chemical gradients and their electrical gradients, BUT the pump is using energy to move potassium and sodium against their concentration gradients so from low concentration areas to high concentration areas;

*Neuron cell body* (Also called the *Perikaryon* or *Soma*)

Major biosynthetic center of a neuron (means that it's where all of the typical processes you'd expect to happen in a cell are happening); Contains the usual organelles needed to synthesize proteins and other chemicals (except they don't contain centrioles because most neurons aren't capable of mitosis and centrioles play a role in mitosis);

Carbohydrates

Major energy fuel for body cells

Nervous tissue

Makes up the main component of the nervous system; The predominant cell types in nervous tissue are neurons and supporting cells; The neurons generate and conduct electrical impulses, which allow for the cells to send messages to other cells; The supporting cells are nonconductive cells (i.e. they do not generate and send electrical impulses) that support, insulate, and protect the neurons;

Somatotopy

Mapping of the body in CNS structures; Example: the pyramidal cells that control foot movements are in one place and those that control hand movements are in another;

Nervous System

Master controlling and communicating system of the body; Every thought, action, and emotion reflects its activity; Its cells communicate by electrical and chemical signals; It communicates rapidly and specifically, and usually cause almost immediate responses;

Extracellular materials

Materials found outside cells that contribute to body mass;

Solutes of true solutions

Minute, usually in the form of individual atoms and molecules | Not visible to the naked eye | Do not settle out | Do not scatter light |

Osteogenic Cells/ Osteoprogenitor Cells

Mitotically active stem cells; Found in periosteum and endosteum; In growing bones they're flattened or squamous cells; When stimulated, these cells differentiate into osteoblasts or bone-lining cells while other persist as osteogenic cells; Produce osteoid, which is rich in collagen;

Types of nerves:

Mixed nerves; Sensory (afferent) nerves; Motor (efferent) nerves;

The sympathetic division:

Mobilizes the body during activity; It's involved in "fight or flight" functions; It prepares the body to respond in an emergency or threatening situation or vigorous exercise;

Glycerol:

Modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol)

Phospholipids

Modified triglycerides | Key component of cell membranes | Specifically, they're *diglycerides* with a phosphorus-containing group and two (rather than three) fatty acid chains | Hydrocarbon portion (the "tail") is non polar and interacts only with non polar molecules | Phosphorous-containing part (the "head") is strongly polar and attracts other polar or charged particles (like water or ions) | Their unique characteristic allows them to be used as the chief material for building cellular membranes |

Hypotonic solutions

More dilute (contain a lower concentration of non penetrating solutes) than cells | Cells placed in this type of solution plump up rapidly as water rushes into them | Example: Distilled water represents the most extreme example of this type of solution. It contains no solutes so water continues to enter cells until they finally burst (lyse) |

Extracellular matrix

Most abundant extracellular material | Jellylike substance composed of proteins and polysaccharides | It's secreted by the cells, and the molecules self assemble into an organized mesh in the extracellular space | Act as a cell "glue" that helps to hold body cells together | Particularly abundant in connective tissues |

Hyaline Cartilage

Most abundant skeletal cartilage; Provides support with flexibility and resilience; Their chondrocytes are spherical; The only fiber type in their matrix is fine collagen fibers; Examples include: articular cartilages at the ends of most bones at movable joints, costal cartilages which join the ends of ribs to the breastbone/sternum, and the nasal cartilages which support the external nose

Stratified squamous epithelium

Most abundant stratified epithelium in the human body; The cells on the free (apical) surface are squamous, and the underlying cells are cuboid or columnar; It's found in areas that are exposed to a lot of wear and tear, such as the surface of the skin; (stratified cuboid and stratified columnar epithelium are rare in the body)

Nervous System

Most important system for maintaining homeostasis |Fast-acting control system of the body | Responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands | Consists of brain, spinal cord, and nerves |

Interaction between the ANS divisions

Most visceral organs receive *dual innervation* by the parasympathetic and sympathetic division of the ANS; Normally, both ANS divisions are partially active, which produces a dynamic antagonism that allows for precise control of functions. Example: one division will slow down a process, and the other will speed that process up. However, sometimes the two divisions cooperate;

Thin filaments composition

Mostly made up of the protein actin; Extend from the z-disc across the I band and partway into the A band (they're held together by proteins at the Z disc); Each actin molecule has active sites to which myosin heads attach during contraction; Also contain regulatory proteins *tropomyosin and troponin* that help binding of myosin and actin;

Thick filaments composition

Mostly made up of the protein myosin; Extend the entire length of an A band; Each myosin molecule has two globular heads and a long tail; The long tails of myosin molecules join together to form the bulk of the thick filament; The globular heads extend from the thick filament; Myosin heads can connect the thick and thin filaments during muscle contraction (called forming cross bridges);

Anterior of the skull

Mostly the face; Contains the facial bones;

Protraction

Moves the mandible anteriorly and juts the jaw forward;

Depression

Moving a body part inferiorly; Like letting lifted shoulders drop or dropping the mandible to open the mouth;

Elevation

Moving a body part superiorly; Like shrugging the shoulders or lifting the mandible to close the mouth;

Circumduction

Moving a limb so that it outlines a cone in the air; Example:

Vesicular Trafficking

Moving substances from one area (or membranous organelle) in the cell to another

Endocytosis

Moving substances into the cell

Transcytosis

Moving substances into the cell, across the cell, and then out of the cell | Common in endothelial cells lining blood vessels because it provides a quick means to get substances from the blood to the interstitial fluid |

Exocytosis

Moving substances out of the cell

Spongy Bone (Cancellous or Trabecular bone, or Diploë)

Much more porous and lightweight than compact bone; In a cross section, it looks like sponge or honeycomb; Called trabecular bone because it is formed by thin needle-like or flat pieces called *trabeculae*; Found in the ends of long bones, inside short bones, inside vertebral bodies, and sandwiched within flat bones; Site of red and yellow marrow; Spongy bone in the bones of the cranial vault is called diploë

Paranasal sinuses

Mucosa-lined, air-filled cavities near the nose; Located within the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillae bones; Help to lighten the load of the skull so that it is not too heavy and they warm and humidify air that is inhaled;

Neuron's resting membrane potential:

Neurons have a resting membrane potential like all cells, however, unlike most cells neurons can rapidly change their membrane potential;

What do neurons use as communication signals?

Neurons use changes in their membrane potential as communication signals; These changes in membrane potential are described relative to the neuron's resting membrane potential;

Biogenic amines

Neurotransmitters synthesized from amino acids; (include the catecholamines like dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, and the indolamines like serotonin and histamine;

The human body is electrically __________

Neutral; It has the same number of positive and negative charges; However, there are regions where one type of charge is bigger, making those specific regions either positively or negatively charged;

Electroneutral

Never loses or gains electrons, instead it always shares them | Carbon forms four covalent bonds with other elements as well as with other carbon atoms, which makes carbon help form long chainlike molecules (fats), ring structures (carbs and steroids)

Purines

Nitrogen-containing chemicals that are breakdown products of nucleic acids; ATP (adenosine triphosphate) the cell's universal form of energy, is now recognized as a major neurotransmitter

Mixtures vs Compounds

No chemical bonding occurs between components of a mixture | In a mixture, the components can be separated by physical means (straining, filtering, evaporation, etc.) | Some mixtures are homogenous, but others are heterogenous |

Carbon's importance

No other small atom is electroneutral

Do smooth muscles have striations?

No, and they also don't have sarcomeres and they have a lower ration of thick to thin filaments compared to skeletal muscle;

Can photoreceptors and bipolar cells generate action potentials?

No; Photoreceptors and bipolar cells are only capable of generating graded potentials; Only the ganglion cells have the ability to generate action potentials;

Are triglycerides polar or non polar molecules?

Non polar; their hydrocarbon chains make them non polar |

Enzyme inhibitor

Non substrate molecules that have a structure similar enough to the substrate that they can occupy or block the enzyme's active site

Introns

Non-coding sequences that don't provide instructions for amino acid sequences

Figure of cell in interphase

Note that the nuclear envelope is intact and the chromatin is diffuse (not condensed)

Anterior view of right shoulder joint capsule

Notice the coracohumeral ligament, 3 glenohumeral ligaments, coracoacromial ligament, and transverse humeral ligament

Anterior view of right knee

Notice the fibular (lateral) collateral and tibial (medial) collateral ligaments and the patellar ligament;

Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS are called...

Nuclei; Most neuron cell bodies are in the CNS where they're protected by the skull and vertebral column;

Antagonistic interactions (when the two divisions of the ANS are cooperating)

Occur when the two divisions of the ANS have opposite effects on a single organ or system. Example: in fight or flight situations (when the body is stressed), the sympathetic division increases heart rate, dilates airways, inhibits digestion and elimination. After stress has ended, the parasympathetic division returns heart rate and airway diameter to normal, and allows digestion and elimination to resume.

Temporal summation

Occurs in response to several successive releases of neurotransmitter at a single synapse;

Decomposition Reaction

Occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms | Bonds are broken | AB→A+B

Chemical reaction

Occurs when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken

Third-class levers in the body:

Occurs when the biceps brachii lifts the distal forearm and anything that's in the hand, and the *effort* is exerted on the proximal radius, the *fulcrum* is the elbow, and the *load* is the hand and anything carried in it; They always operate at *mechanical disadvantages*; Most skeletal muscles of the body act in this lever class; They permit a muscle to be inserted very close to the joint across which movement occurs, which allows rapid, extensive movements (like throwing), with relatively little shortening of the muscle; Muscles involved in this lever class set to be thicker and more powerful;

Spatial summation

Occurs when the postsynaptic cell is stimulated at the same time by multiple axon terminals (from the same or different neurons) at different synapses; Post synaptic potentials at several different synapses all occurring at the same time;

First-class lever in the body:

Occurs when you lift your head off of your chest; Some first-class levers in the body work at a *mechanical advantage* (for strength) and others work at a *mechanical disadvantage* (for speed and distance);

Dorsiflexion

Occurs when you raise your toes and this decreases the angle between the top of the foot (its dorsal surface) and the anterior surface of the tibia;

Second-class levers in the body:

Occurs when you stand on tip-toes; They're not common in the body; They all work at a mechanical advantage because the *insertion/effort* is always farther from the *fulcrum* than the *load* is;

Active process

Occurs whenever a cell uses energy to move solutes across the membrane | Substances moved actively are usually unable to pass in the necessary direction by passive transport processes (might be too large, incapable of dissolving in the lipid bilayer, or moving against its concentration gradient) |

Step 3 of homeostatic regulatory mechanisms

Once a receptor detects a change in a body variable, it sends information about this change to a control center in the body; The message is sent along the afferent pathway;

Measuring membrane potential in neurons with a voltmeter:

One electrode is inserted into a neuron (just inside the plasma membrane) and the ground electrode is placed in the extracellular fluid (outside the cell); The voltmeter measures the difference in electrical charge between the two points where the electrodes are located; The voltage is recorded at a -70mV; The negative sign means that the cytoplasmic side (inside) of the membrane is negatively charged relative to the outside;

What does the acidity of a solution reflect?

Only the free hydrogen ions, not those still bound to anions

Voltage-gated channels

Open and close in response to change in the membrane potential; In the picture on the left, the cell is at rest and we can see the resting membrane potential (the outside of the membrane is positively charged, and the inside is negatively charged) and the channel is closed, so Na cannot cross through it; In the picture on the right, the cell has depolarized (the inside is now positively charged and the outside is negatively charged). This change in the membrane potential causes the voltage-gated channel to open, allowing Na to pass through it (so there will be an influx of Na);

Chemically gated ion channels

Open when specific chemicals bind to them; In the absence of those chemicals, the ion channels close;

Chemically gated (Ligand-gated) channels

Open when the appropriate chemical (in this case a neurotransmitter) binds to the receptor region; On the picture on the left the channels is closed and Na cannot cross the membrane through it, and in the picture on the right a specific chemical binds to the receptor region of the chemically-gated channel, and this opens the channel so Na can cross through it;

Contralateral

Opposite side of the body; Each cerebral hemisphere is chiefly concerned with the sensory and motor functions of *this* side of the body;

Direct (pyramidal) pathways (type of descending pathway)

Originate in *pyramidal neurons* of the motor cortex in the cerebrum; They're the *lateral and ventral corticospinal tracts*; They regulate fast, finely controlled, or skilled movements;

Organic components of the bones: The Bone Cells

Osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes

Types of bone cells:

Osteoblasts, osteogenic cells, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and bone-lining cells

Vision

Our dominant sense; We're very visual creatures, and rely on vision for perceiving the world around us; About 70% of the human body's sensory receptors are in the eye;

Figure showing what happens in focusing for distant vision

Our eyes are best adapted for distant vision (viewing things relatively far away); This is because the light bouncing off objects far away approaches the eye as nearly parallel rays; When the rays of light are nearly parallel, the eye does not need to do much work to focus the light on the retina. When objects are 20 feet or further from the eye, the light rays are focused on the retina by the cornea, the two humors, and the at-rest lens (so the lens is not doing any work); During distant vision, the *ciliary muscles are relaxed and the lens is relatively flat*

Where are Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands located? How many are in a person?

Over the entire skin surface (except nipples and parts of external genitalia); Over 3 million per person; They're simple tubular glands (the secretory unit is coiled around itself)

Why is passive transport by diffusion (simple or facilitated) important?

Oxygen, water, glucose, and other ions are vitally important to cellular homeostasis | By transporting passively, a tremendous amount of cellular energy is saved |

Example of Positive Feedback Mechanism: Contractions

Oxytocin (a hypothalamic hormone) intensifies labor contractions during the birth of a baby. Oxytocin causes the contractions to become more powerful and more frequent. The increased contractions cause more oxytocin to be released, which causes more contractions, and so on until the baby is born. The birth ends the stimulus for oxytocin release and shuts off the positive feedback mechanism

Metacarpals/ Metacarpus

Palm of the hand; Contains 5 of these; Numbered 1-5 from lateral (thumb-side/radial side) to medial (pinky side or ulnar side);

Two layers of the Dermis

Papillary layer (superficial layer) and the Reticular layer (deep layer)

*Localized* versus *diffuse* effects of the two divisions of the ANS:

Parasympathetic division exerts short-lived, localized control over its effectors (this is because one preganglionic neuron synapses in one, or at most, a few ganglionic neurons); Also, parasympathetic postganglionic axons release Ach, and the effects of Ach are inactivated quickly; The effects of the sympathetic division are more persistent and widespread. Preganglionic sympathetic axons branch profusely as they enter sympathetic trunk and these branches synapse with ganglionic neurons at several levels. Also, sympathetic postganglionic axons release NE, which is inactivated more slowly than Ach, so the effects of NE last longer;

Table of the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on various organs:

Parasympathetic division promotes digestive functions (i.e. increasing motility of the GI tract to move food substances through, causes the release of digestive enzymes, relaxes sphincters so foodstuff moves from one organ to another). The sympathetic division decreases digestive activity (e.g. by decreasing the release of digestive enzymes and constricting sphincters to prevent the movement of foodstuffs).; The parasympathetic division causes vasodilation and thus erection of the penis and clitoris, and the sympathetic division causes muscle contraction of the penis (leading to ejaculation) and of the vagina;

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Part B

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Part C

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Part D

Cranial nerves

Part of the PNS; Carry impulses to and from the brain;

Spinal nerves

Part of the PNS; Carry nerve impulses (action potentials) to and from the spine;

Active site

Part of the enzyme where catalytic activity occurs

Parietal Serosa

Part of the membrane lining the cavity walls | It fold in on itself to form the visceral serosa (covering the organs in the cavity) | In the balloon example, it's the outer wall of the balloon (however unlike the balloon, this is never exposed buy always fused to the cavity wall) |

Cellular extensions

Parts that extend from the surface of some cells

Two ways substances move through the plasma membrane:

Passively (substances cross the membrane without any energy input from the cell) or Actively (the cell provides the metabolic energy {usually ATP} needed to move substances across the membrane)

Gomphosis

Peg-in-Socket joint; Only example is the joint between the tooth and the bone of the jaw; Tooth is attached by periodontal ligament;

Perimysium and Fascicles

Perimysium (a dense, irregular connective tissue) surrounds groups of muscle fibers that resemble a bundle of sticks (called fascicles)

Auditory association area

Permits the perception of the sound stimulus which we "hear" it for what it is like a scream, music, thunder, etc.;

Three types of endocytosis that use protein-coated vesicles:

Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis | They all differ in the type and amount of material taken up and the means of uptake |

Lymphatic System/Immunity

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood | Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream | Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity | Maintains blood pressure | Immune defense | Consists of red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, and lymph nodes |

Optic nerve

Pierces the sclera posteriorly

Prostaglandins

Play roles in various body processes like blood clotting, regulation of blood pressure, inflammation, and labor contractions | Their synthesis and inflammatory actions are blocked by NSAIDS (ibuprofen. stands for non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) |

Steroid hormones

Present in the body in small quantities | Vital to homeostasis | Example: Without sex hormones, reproduction would be impossible. Total lack of corticosteroids produced by the adrenal glands is fatal

DNA Synthesis

Process by which DNA is replicated (copied); Starts with one DNA molecule (it's a double-stranded molecule); An enzyme, helicase, separates the two strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases in each strand; Then, each strand can provide the pattern for making its complement (matching strand), and this occurs according the the rules of complementarity; I.E. if the exposed strand of DNA has a T, enzymes will bring in a nucleotide containing A to bind to the T; At the end of the process, you have two new DNA molecules, and each one contains one strand from the original molecule and one brand new strand;

Axons

Processes that generate and conduct nerve impulses away from the cell body to *axon terminals* (also called synaptic knobs or boutons); Each neuron has ONLY one of these; Length of the axon varies across neurons; Contain all organelles except the ER and golgi apparatus, so they get their proteins and membrane components from the cell body; It's the conducting region of the neuron (it *generates nerve impulses and transmits them* typically away from the cell body); These quickly decay if cut or severely damaged; Some of these (the long ones) are nerve fibers, but not all of these are nerve fibers;

Golgi Tendon Reflexes

Produce the opposite effect of stretch reflexes; Produce muscle relaxation and lengthening in response to tension; This causes muscle relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might be torn; It also smooths the onset and termination of muscle contraction;

Bitter

Produced by alkaloids (e.g. nicotine, caffeine, morphine) and many non-alkaloid substances (e.g. aspirin)

Salty

Produced by metal ions (inorganic salts)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Produces high contrast images of soft tissues, an area that X-rays and CT scans are weak | Primarily maps the body's content of hydrogen, most of which is water | It distinguishes body tissues based on their water content, so it can differentiate between the fatty white matter and the more watery gray matter of the brain |

Merocrine secretion

Products are released through exocytosis; The cell remains intact and continues to produce secretions; Example: Some sweat glands, salivary glands, pancreatic glands secrete via merocrine secretion

Holocrine secretion

Products are released when whole cell ruptures; This mode of secretion destroys the cells; This is how sebaceous (oil) glands in the skin release products;

How much of the plasma membrane do proteins make up by mass? And what are they responsible for?

Proteins make up half of the plasma membrane by mass | They are responsible for most of the specialized membrane functions |

Three parts of atoms

Protons, neurons, and electrons

DNA instructions are provided in what?

Provided in "words" that are sequences of 3 bases called triplets; Each triplet codes for a specific amino acid; Only 2% of nuclear DNA actually codes for proteins; This means about 98% of human genome does not compromise coding sequences; This DNA used to be referred to as "junk DNA" because people thought it had no function, but now we know that much of the non-coding DNA does have a function, such as helping in translation, regulating gene function, marking the beginning and end of genes, and providing a buffer against damage;

Nail structure

Proximal root (embedded in the skin & not visible); Body (visible attached portion); Free edge;

Range of the length of cells

Ranges from 2 micrometers in the smallest cell, to over a meter long (nerve cells)

Exergonic Reactions

Reactions that release energy | Yield products with less energy than the initial reactants, along with energy that can be harvested for other uses | (Both catabolic and oxidative reactions are normally this type of reaction)

Tibia

Receives the weight of the body from the femur and transmits it to the foot; Second only to the femur in size and strength;

Classification by location:

Receptors can be grouped into three receptor classes according to either their location or the location of the activating stimulus: *Exteroceptors*; *Interoceptors* (*Visceroreceptors*); *Proprioceptors*

Step 2 in homeostatic regulatory mechanisms

Receptors detect the change in the variable; Receptors are sensors that monitor the status of a specific variable; In the example, it's sensing drop temperature;

*Pattern recognition*

Recognizing a pattern in the stimuli; Example: faces, the melody of song

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Abdomen*

Rectus abdominis; External oblique; Internal oblique; Transversus abdominis;

Conduction velocity

Refers to how fast action potentials travel along an axon; Nerve fibers that transmit impulses most rapidly are found in neural pathways where speed is essential, such as those that mediate postural reflexes; Axons that conduct impulses more slowly typically serve internal organs (the gut, glands, blood vessels), where slower responses are not a handicap;

Lateralization

Refers to the fact that each cerebral hemisphere has unique abilities not shared by the other half; One hemisphere (the left in 90% of humans) dominates (called *cerebral dominance*) language abilities, math, and logic; The other half (usually right) dominates visual-spatial skills, intuition, emotion, artistic and musical skills; Most individuals with left cerebral dominance are right-handed; Each cerebral hemisphere has unique abilities that are not shared by/controlled by the opposite half;

*Sympathetic and parasympathetic tone*

Refers to the fact that each division primarily controls certain things in the body; The sympathetic division is the primary controller of blood pressure, even at rest. *Sympathetic tone* is the innervation of the vascular system by sympathetic fibers that keeps blood vessels in a continual state of partial constriction (i.e. relatively small diameter). When higher blood pressure is needed, sympathetic fibers fire more rapidly causing blood vessels to constrict further, which increases blood pressure. When lower blood pressure is needed, sympathetic fibers fire more slowly, which causes the blood vessels to dilate and thus blood pressure decreases. The parasympathetic division dominates control of the heart and the smooth muscles of the digestive and urinary tract organs. *Parasympathetic tone* maintains normal homeostatic levels of function unless it is overridden by the sympathetic system during stress;

White matter

Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing dense collections of myelinated fibers; Primarily fiber tracts;

Nutrient foramen

Relatively large round opening through the bone; Allows large blood vessels to enter and exit bone;

Main process involved in bone homeostasis:

Remodeling of bones happens throughout life, even after bones have fully formed and their parts are completely fused together; *Osteoblasts* continue to add bone and *osteoclasts* continue to remove it; Bone responds to stressors detected by *osteocytes*;

Osteocytes

Respond to stimuli and aid in bone remodeling; Spidery, mature (know this because of the suffix -cyte), bone cells that occupy spaces (lacunae) that conform to their shape; Respond to stimuli and aid in bone remodeling; Monitor and maintain bone matrix; If they die, they matrix is resorbed; Respond to mechanical stimuli (bone loading, deformation, and weightlessness) and communicate this info to the cells responsible for bone remodeling (osteoblasts and osteoclasts) so that bone matrix can be made or degraded to preserve calcium homeostasis;

Sensory receptor classified by Location: *Interoceptors (visceroreceptors)*

Respond to stimuli within/inside the body; Monitor chemical changes, tissue stretch, temperature, causes us to feel pain, discomfort, hunger, or thirst;

Cardiac muscle

Responsible for involuntary heart movements

Parasympathetic division of the ANS

Resting and digesting

Learned/acquired reflexes

Result from practice or repetition; The process is largely automatic, but only after lots of practice; Example: driving a car or playing an instrument

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

Result in local depolarization in the post synaptic cell and make it possible for an action potential to be generated by the post synaptic cell (an action potential isn't guaranteed though);

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

Result in local hyperpolarization and that makes it more difficult for the postsynaptic cell to generate an action potential;

Electrical Energy

Results from the movement of charged particles | Example: in your body, electrical currents are generated when charged particles called ions move along or across cell membranes (the nervous system uses electrical currents called nerve impulses to transmit messages from one part of the body to another)

Figure showing *Retinal* and *Opsins*

Retinal (a light-absorbing molecule) and opsins; The opsins determine the wavelength of light absorbed by retinal (there are different kinds of opsins in the different visual pigments);

Retraction

Returns the mandible to its original position or pulls it posteriorly;

Repolarization

Returns the plasma membrane potential to its original resting state

Myofibril or fibril (complex organelle composed of bundles of myofilaments)

Rodlike contractile elements that occupy most of the muscle cell volume; Composed of sarcomeres arranged end to end, they appear banded, and bands of adjacent myofibrils are aligned

Myofibrils

Rodlike structures that run parallel to the length of the cell; Hundreds of thousands of these in a single cell; Contain the smallest contractile elements of a muscle cell and of a muscle; Each of these contains hundreds to thousands of sarcomeres; The central *thick filaments* contain the protein *myosin* and they extend the entire length of an A band; They're held together in middle of the sarcomere (and in the middle of the A band) by proteins in the M line; *Thin filaments* contain the protein *actin* and they extend from the z-disc across the I band and partway into the A band; Held together by proteins at the Z disc;

Stimulation of rods:

Rods contain the visual pigment *rhodopsin*, which contains retinal and an opsin; The retinal absorbs light and then changes shape, which causes rhodopsin to separate into retinal and opsin; This process is called *bleaching* of the pigment; (The stimulation of cones is very similar, they just require a lot more light than the rods do);

Volkmann's Canals/ Perforating Canals

Run perpendicular (at right angles) to the long axis of the bone; Connect the blood and nerve supply of the medullary cavity to the central canals;

Ventral median fissure and dorsal median sulcus

Run the length of the cord and partially divide it into right and left halves

Falx cerebelli

Runs between the two halves of the cerebellum

Transverse Plane

Runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts | Also called a horizontal plane | A transverse section is also called a cross section

Central canal (Haversian canal)

Runs through the middle of the osteon along the entire length of the osteon, parallel to the long axis of the bone; Contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers;

What do sebaceous glands secrete? How do they secrete?

Secrete and oily substance called sebum; They are holocrine glands (means the cells in the secretory unit get engorged with oily lipids and then burst and release the oily contents...this destroys the cell itself);

Exocrine glands

Secrete products onto a body surface (either the external surface of the body or a surface within a body cavity, such as the lining of the stomach); Can be unicellular or multi cellular;

Apocrine secretion

Secretions are released when just part of cell pinches off; The cells remain intact and alive, so it continues to produce secretions; This is how the mammary glands release milk;

One sarcomere

See the M line in the center of the sarcomere and in the center of the A band; The thick filaments extend the length of the A band; The thin filaments attach to the z-disc and extend from there though the I band and into the A band where they overlap with the thick filaments; The elastic filaments can be seen attached to the Z-disc and entering into the center of the thick filaments;

Posterior view of basal nuclei (transverse section of the brain)

See the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus; All of these structures are found in the right cerebral hemisphere AND the left cerebral hemisphere

Posterior view of right hip joint, capsule in place

Seen is the iliofemoral ligament and the ischiofemoral ligament

Anterior view of right hip joint, capsule in place

Seen is the pubofemoral ligament

Genes

Segment of DNA that contains the instructions for one polypeptide chain (the primary structure of proteins); Genes include exons and introns

Sensory receptor classified by Location: *Exteroceptors*

Sensitive to stimuli arising outside the body; Most are at the surface of the body or near the surface body; Include touch, pressure, pain, and temperature receptors in the skin and most receptors of the special senses;

Location and function of cranial nerves:

Sensory (S), Motor nerves (M), or both so Mixed Nerves (B) Olfactory nerves (I)-smell (s); Optic nerves (II)-vision (s); Oculomotor (III)-movement of eyeball and pupil constriction (when the diameter of the pupil becomes smaller) (M); Trochlear (IV)-movement of eyeball (M); Trigeminal (V)-sensation of face, motor control of chewing muscles (B). Each of these has three branches: *Opthalmic division (V1), Maxillary division (V2)*, and the *Mandibular division (V3); Abducens (VI)-movement of the eyeball (M); Facial (VII)-facial expression, salivation, tear production, and taste (B); Vestibulochochlear (VIII)-hearing and balance (B); Glossopharyngeal (IX)-innervate the tongue and pharynx (B); Vagus (X)-several visceral organs (B); Accessory (XI)-accessory to the vagus nerves and innervate muscles of head and neck (M); Hypoglossal (XII)-tongue (M);

Serous Fluid

Separates the serous membranes | It's a thin layer of lubricating fluid secreted by both membranes | Allows the organs to slide without friction across the cavity walls and one another as they carry out their routine functions (especially important for mobile organs like the pumping heart and the churning stomach) |

Cytoskeleton

Series of rods running through the cytosol; Supports cellular structures; Aids in movement of the cell and movement of substances within the cell; None of the cytoskeleton elements are membrane covered; (The other thing that isn't membrane covered is a ribosome);

Desmosomes (Long definition)

Serve as anchoring junctions | Hold cells tightly together with a network of fibrous proteins. Prevent separation of cells and reduce chances of tearing when tissue is stretched | Mechanical couplings scattered like rivets along the sides of adjacent cells to prevent their separation (basically molecular velcro) | On the cytoplasmic face of each plasma membrane is a button like thickening called a plaque | Adjacent cells are held together by think linker protein filaments (cadherins) that extend from the plaques and fit together like the teeth of a zipper in the intercellular space | Thicker keratin filaments extend from the cytoplasmic side of the plaque across the width of the cell to anchor to the plaque on the cell's opposite side | These bind neighboring cells together into sheets | Distributes tension throughout a cellular sheet and reduces the chance of tearing when it is subjected to pulling forces | Example: Abundant in tissues subjected to great mechanical stress like skin and heart muscle |

Stratum Spinosum (Prickly layer)

Several cell layers thick; Weblike system of intermediate filaments; The keratinocytes in this layer have spines/prickles (which is where their other name comes from); The spines don't exist in living cells, they happen when the cells shrink but their desmosomes hold tight (when the cells are prepared for the slide); Melanin granules and dendritic cells are most abundant in this epidermal layer;

Cortex

Several layers of flattened cells surrounding the medulla; Part B

Sulci

Shallow grooves between the ridges found in the cerebrum;

Short bones

Short and cube shaped, blocky; Include bones of the wrist and ankle;

Dendrites

Short processes at the receptive (input) regions of the neuron; They *receive messages*; They contain all typical organelles (except for centrioles); Motor neurons typically have hundreds of these clustering close to the cell body; Provide an enormous surface area for receiving signals from other neurons; Convey incoming messages *toward* the cell body (these electrical impulses are usually not action potentials/nerve impulses but are short-distance signals called graded potentials;

Graded potentials

Short-lived, localized changes in membrane potential; NOT the same thing as action potentials; Can be either depolarizations or hyperpolarizations; Cause current flows across the plasma membrane that decrease in magnitude with distance from the original site of the stimulus; The change in the membrane potential is highest at the point of stimulation, and the magnitude decreases with increasing distance from that point; They're called "graded" because the magnitude of the change in the membrane potential depends on the strength of the original stimulus (The stronger the stimulus, the greater the change in voltage, and the farther the current flows from the original point of stimulus); Triggered by some change (stimulus) in the neuron's environment that opens gated ion channels; Because the current dissipates quickly and decays (declines) with increasing distance from the site of initial depolarization, these can act as signals only over very short distances. Nonetheless they are essential in initiating action potentials (the long distance signals);

Figure showing the cross section of the cochlea

Shows the three scalae (chambers); Note the location of the *basilar membrane* and the *spiral organ*

Simple tubular glands:

Simple glands with a tubular secretory structure (the secretory unit is elongated)

Simple alveolar glands

Simple glands with an alveolar secretory structure (the secretory unit is rounded)

Intestinal glands

Simple tubular

Sebaceous (oil) glands

Simple, branched, alveolar glands that are found all over the body (except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet); They're small on the body trunk and limbs, and large on the face, neck, and upper chest;

Attachments

Skeletal muscles are connected to bone or other muscles by these; They span joints and cause movement to occur; May be direct or indirect

Bone function--anchorage:

Skeletal muscles, which attach to bones with tendons, use bones as levers to move the body and its parts; As a result we can walk, grasp, and breathe

*Protection* function of integumentary system

Skin forms a chemical barrier via skin secretions and melanin (a chemical shield against UV damage); Also forms physical or mechanical barriers, which are provided by continuity of the skin and hardness of keratinized cells; Provides biological barriers also (dendritic cells of the epidermis, macrophages in the dermis, and DNA itself);

*Vitamin D production* function of integumentary system

Skin provides the metabolic function of producing vitamin D when exposed to sunlight; Modified cholesterol molecules are converted to a precursor to vitamin D in dermal blood vessels; Vitamin D is used throughout the body (like calcium metabolism);

Microglia

Small and ovoid cells with relatively long "thorny" processes; Monitor the health of the CNS; Perform defense functions for neurons (example: they can phagocytize invading microorganisms);

Electronegativity

Small atoms that attract electrons very strongly have this capability | The atoms that have 6 or 7 valence shell electrons like oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine are electron-hungry and have this capability |

Microvilli

Small extensions of the plasma membrane of cells that increase the surface area of the cells; They enhance for absorption by cell, and are found, I.E. on cells lining the gut where they help in the absorption of nutrients in the gut; They're not motile so they don't move on their own (like cilia and flagella do);

Figure highlighting the accessory structures of the eye: *Eyelashes*

Small hairs that extend from the margins of the upper and lower eyelids; The hair follicles of the eyelashes are richly innervated, so when the eyelashes are touched, it triggers reflex blinking; This helps to prevent particles from entering the eye; The eyelids contain several kinds of glands that secrete substances that help to prevent drying of the eye;

Hair follicles

Small invaginations of the epidermal surface into the dermis; Deep end of the follicle, (4mm below the skin surface) extends to form a *hair bulb* ;

Ligamentum Flava

Small ligaments that connect to adjacent vertebrae; Contains elastic connective tissue and is very strong; Stretches as we bend forward, recoils when we resume an erect posture;

Organelles

Small structures that perform specific cell functions

Centrioles

Small, barrel-shaped organelles made from microtubules that are located within each centrosome; They're also located at the base of cilia and flagella;

Smooth muscle cells:

Small, spindle-shaped cells with ONE central nucleus; Smooth muscles lack the coarse connective tissue coverings of skeletal muscle, but they do have *endomysium* between cells;

How particle size influences the rate of chemical reactions:

Smaller particles move faster than larger ones (at the same temperature) and collide more frequently and more forcefully | Therefore, the smaller the reacting particles, the faster a chemical reaction |

Microfilaments

Smallest diameter (7nm); Made of protein actin

Atoms

Smallest particle of an element, that contains all of the properties of that element; Identical particles; Building blocks; Each atom has a central nucleus that contains tightly packed *protons* and *neutrons*

Cells

Smallest units of living things

The special senses:

Smell, taste, sight, hearing, and equilibrium

Varicosities

Smooth muscle doesn't have neuromuscular junctions like skeletal muscles does; Instead it has this; They're numerous bulbous swellings of the innervating nerve fibers that release chemicals into a wide synaptic cleft at *diffuse junctions*

Difference between skeletal and smooth muscle when it comes to SR and T-Tubules

Smooth muscle has a less developed Sarcoplasmic reticulum and has no T-tubules; Instead, the stool muscle cell sarcolemma has multiple *caveolae* (pouchlike infolding of the sarcolemma that sequester CA2+ within extracellular fluid); Skeletal muscle does not depend on extracellular CA2+ for excitation-contraction coupling but smooth muscles do

Smooth muscle stretching

Smooth muscle initially contracts when stretched, but this contraction is brief and then the cells relax to accommodate the stretch; This allows a hollow organ to fill or expand slowly without expelling contents; Stretches more and generates more tension when stretched than skeletal muscle stretched to a comparable extent (this allows hollow organs to tolerate tremendous changes in volume without becoming flabby when emptied)

Spinal reflexes:

Somatic reflexes mediated by the spinal cord; Many of these occur without direct involvement of higher brain centers

Sutural bones

Special type of irregular bone; They are little pieces of extra bone found within joints called sutures in the skull;

Sesamoid bones

Special type of short bone that form a tendon (lie within tendons) and have no joint with another bone; Examples include: the patella; Small bones of this type in the hand and foot are found in some people; Some act to alter the direction of pull of a tendon;

Chemical synapses

Specialized for the release and reception of chemical neurotransmitters; The cells convert the electrical signal of an action potential to chemical signals (and vice versa); A synaptic cleft divides the two cells; Most common type of synapse; Made up of two parts: axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron which contains many tiny membrane bound sacs called synaptic vesicles, each containing thousands of neurotransmitter molecules, and a neurotransmitter receptor region on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane (usually located on a dendrite or cell body); To clarify: in these chemical synapses you have an action potential that spreads along the axon of the presynaptic cell and that electrical impulse, that action potential, once it reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic cell it causes the release of a chemical message, so we have the conversion of an electrical message to a chemical message and those chemicals (neurotransmitters) cross the synaptic membrane, bind to receptors on the post synaptic cell so a chemical message, and that's going to generate an electrical impulse in the post synaptic cell. A chemical message being reconverted to an electrical message in the post synaptic cell;

Active sites

Specific arrangements of atoms on the surfaces of globular proteins | Regions that fit and interact chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge |

Nucleoli

Spherical bodies within the nucleus; Usually 1-2 nucleoli per nucleus; These are the sites of the assembly of ribosomal subunits (proteins and ribosomal RNA);

Lysosomes

Spherical, membranous vesicles filled with digestive enzymes; Specifically, they contain acid hydrolyses which are enzymes that work in acidic conditions; These enzymes can digest almost any biological molecule; The membrane of the lysosome functions to allow the products of digestion to be released to the cytosol, but is also to contain the acid hydrolyses inside the lysosome so they don't damage the rest of the cell (so digestion occurs inside the cell without damaging the cell itself)

2 polysaccharides important to the body:

Starch and Glycogen | Both are polymers of glucose |

Building a plasma membrane from scratch (Step 1); Concentrating on the elements that establish and maintain the resting membrane potential;

Start with a plasma membrane with K leakage channels; K effluxes (exits) from the cell through the leakage channels down its concentration gradient; By itself, this movement of positively charged K+ ions out of the cell would produce a resting membrane potential of -90 mV, at which point the concentration gradients and electrical gradients are balanced; So at a certain point (-90 mV) some K+ is drawn back into the cell as it is attracted to the negative charge inside the plasma membrane;

Potential Energy

Stored energy | Inactive energy that has the capability to do work but is not presently doing so | Example: the batteries in an unused toy; leg muscles when you're sitting on the couch

List the layers of the epidermis in order from most superficial to deepest

Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale;

Two ways to classify neurons:

Structural classification and Functional classification; Normally functional classification is used;

Nucleotides

Structural units of nucleic acids | Consist of three components: nitrogen-containing base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group

Neurons (nerve cells)

Structural units of the nervous system; There's billions of them; Large, specialized cells that conduce messages in the form of *nerve impulses (electrical impulses/action potentials)* from one part of the body to another; Long lived and can optimally function for a lifetime (over 100 years); They're *amitotic* (as they develop into mature neurons, they lose the ability to divide); Have a high metabolic rate (require continuous and abundant supplies of oxygen and glucose);

Rough ER

Studded with ribosomes (which is why it's called rough); Site where synthesis of many proteins and phospholipids is initiated; Ribosomes manufacture all proteins secreted from cells; It's the "membrane factory" where integral proteins and phospholipids that form part of all cellular membranes are manufactured;

Radiographic anatomy

Studies internal structures as visualized by X-ray images or specialized scanning procedures

Pathological anatomy

Studies structural changes caused by disease

Biochemistry

Study of all chemical composition and reactions of living matter

Hypodermis

Subcutaneous tissue just deep (under) the skin; It's not technically part of the skin, but it is protective like the skin; Consists mostly of adipose fat tissue; Shock absorber and insulator; It anchors the skin to the structures underneath (mostly muscles) loosely enough that it can basically slide freely over those structures; Also called the *superficial facia* because it is superficial to the facia (connective tissue) that covers muscle beneath the skin;

Cytology

Subdivision of microscopic anatomy that considers the cells of the body

Histology

Subdivision of microscopic anatomy that is the study of tissues.

Acids

Substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts | Also referred to as proton donors | Have a sour taste | React with (dissolve) metals | Can burn holes in rugs |

Bases

Substance that take up hydrogen ions (H+) in detectable amounts | Also referred to as proton acceptors | Have a bitter taste | Feel slippery | Common ones include hydroxides |

Extracellular materials

Substances contributing to body mass that are found outside the cells | Examples are: body fluids, cellular secretions, extracellular matrix

Solute

Substances in a solution present in smaller amounts | Dissolves into the other part of the solution |

Cellular secretions

Substances that aid in digestion, lubrication, or other functions; Example: mucus and gastric juices

Electrolytes

Substances that conduct an electrical current in solution | Essential for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction |

Catalysts

Substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves becoming chemically changed or part of the product |

Insulators

Substances with high electrical resistance; They resist the flow of current;

Conductors

Substances with low electrical resistance;

The first step in enzyme action:

Substrate binding causes the active site to change shape so that the substrate and the active site fit together precisely, and in an orientation that favors reaction | Although enzymes are specific for particular substrates, other non substrate molecules may inhibit the enzyme if their structure is similar enough to occupy or block the enzyme's active site

Gases and lipids

Such as nitric oxide (NO) and endocannabinoid; Act at the same receptors as THC (marijuana);

Important disaccharides in the diet and what they're combinations of:

Sucrose (glucose + fructose) {table sugar} Lactose (glucose + galactose) {found in milk} Maltose (glucose + glucose) {malt sugar}

Mass Number

Sum of the masses of an atom's protons and neutrons

Figure showing the *medial rectus muscle*

Superior view of the right eye

Dorsal rami

Supply the posterior body trunk; Travel to the back of the body;

Ventral rami

Supply the rest of the trunk and the limbs; Wrap around the side and front of the body;

7 Functions of bones

Support, Protection, anchorage, mineral and growth factor storage, blood cell formation, Triglyceride storage, hormone production

*Neuroglia* or *glial* cells

Supporting cells; Small cells that surround and wrap the more delicate neurons; There's 6 types (four in CNA and two in PNS);

Connective tissue:

Supports, protects, and binds other tissues together, provides transportation routes in the body; Includes: blood, bones, cartilage, tendons, fat, and other padding material

Epimysium

Surrounds the entire muscle; It's dense, irregular, connective tissue

Visual association area

Surrounds the primary visual cortex and covers much of the occipital lobe; Uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli; Enables us to recognize a flower and appreciate what we're seeing;

*Body temperature regulation* function of integumentary system

Sweat glands help to cool the body by producing sweat; Constriction of dermal capillaries prevents heat loss;

What is sweat made of? Where does it come from?

Sweat is a hypotonic filtrate of blood consisting of 99% water, salts (mostly sodium chloride), Vitamin C, antibodies, metabolic wastes (urea, uric acid, ammonia); Sweat comes from eccrine sweat glands in the dermis, it's released through the sweat pore;

Structures that contain sympathetic nerve fibers and cells bodies:

Sympathetic preganglionic fibers exit the spinal cord via the *ventral root* which joins with the dorsal root to form the spinal nerve; Each sympathetic preganglionic fiber then enters a *white ramus communicans* (the plural is *white rami communicantes*), which is at the base of the ventral ramus of the spinal nerve; Each preganglionic fiber then passes into a *sympathetic trunk ganglion*, which forms part of the *sympathetic trunk/chain*; At this point the preganglionic fiber can do one of the following: 1) the preganglionic fiber can synapse with the ganglionic neuron within that same trunk ganglion (i.e. at the level where the preganglionic fiber emerged from the spinal cord); 2) OR the preganglionic fiber can ascend or descend the sympathetic trunk to synapse with a ganglionic neuron in another trunk ganglion; 3) OR the preganglionic fiber can pass through the trunk ganglion and emerge from the sympathetic trunk (without synapsing in trunk ganglion) to synapse within a *collateral ganglion* (also called a *prevertebral ganglion*) anterior to the vertebral column; Regardless of which of these three routes the preganglionic fiber takes, preganglionic fibers are relatively short and postganglionic fibers are relatively long.; When synapses are made between preganglionic fibers and ganglion neurons in the trunk ganglia, the postganglionic fibers enter the ventral (or dorsal) ramus of the adjoining spinal nerve via the *gray rami communicantes* (the singular is gray ramus communicans); Note: white rami communicantes contain myelinated axons and gray rami communicantes contain unmyelinated axons;

Figure of the second scenario/pathway of sympathetic innervation (2nd scenario described on the previous card)

Synapse at a *higher or lower level*; The preganglionic fiber has ascended (traveled up) the sympathetic trunk to synapse with the ganglionic neuron in another trunk ganglion at a *higher level* than where the preganglionic fiber emerged from the spinal cord; Preganglionic fibers can also descend (travel down) the sympathetic trunk to synapse in a lower ganglion;

Figure of the first scenario/pathway of sympathetic innervation (1st scenario described on the previous card)

Synapse at the *same level*; The preganglionic fiber synapses with the ganglionic neuron within the trunk ganglion at the same level where the preganglionic fiber emerged from the spinal cord

Figure of the third scenario/pathway of sympathetic innervation (3rd scenario described on the previous card)

Synapse in a *distant collateral ganglion anterior to the vertebral column*; The preganglionic fiber has passed through the trunk ganglion (at the level where it emerged from the spinal cord) and exited the sympathetic trunk (without synapsing in trunk ganglion) to synapse within a *collateral ganglion* (*prevertebral ganglion*) anterior to vertebral column;

Three types of chemical reactions:

Synthesis, Decomposition, Exchange Reactions

Golgi apparatus

System of stacked, flattened, membranous sacs with associated membranous transport vesicles; Modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins and lipids that begin their synthesis at the ER; Makes proteins and lipids functional; Products arrive here from the ER via transport vesicles; Some products from the transport vesicles are packaged into secretory vesicles (or granules); and their contents are released by cell via exocytosis; Other products become part of plasma membrane; Other products are digestive enzymes that get packaged into lysosomes;

Functional Brain Systems:

Systems of neurons that are distributed all throughout the brain, but work together for a common purpose;

Bones of the foot:

Tarsus (ankle), Metatarsus (arch), and toes

Chemical senses:

Taste (gustation) and Smell (olfaction)

Primitive senses

Taste and smell; Considered to be this because they let us know if things should be eaten or avoided

Figure showing *taste buds* (the sensory receptor organs for taste)

Taste buds are located primarily in oral cavity, mostly on the tongue in *papillae*, which are projections of tongue mucosa; Each taste bud has about *50-100 epithelial cells*, which come in two varieties: 1) *Gustatory (taste) cells* have long microvilli called gustatory hairs that extend through taste pore to surface of epithelium and their bases are surrounded by sensory dendrites of associated sensory neurons. 2) *Basal cells* are stem cells that differentiate into new gustatory cells;

How taste and smell are influenced

Taste is strongly influenced by smell; About 80% of what you perceive as taste is actually smell;

Atomic Number

Tells you the number of protons in an atoms nucleus

What is the role of eccrine sweat glands?

Temperature regulation; They help cool body temperature by releasing sweat that evaporates on the surface of the skin drawing heat away from the body;

Two main ways to achieve graded muscle responses:

Temporal (wave) summation; Recruitment (multiple motor unit summation)

Two ways summation can occur:

Temporal summation and spatial summation

Hormonal controls of bone growth during adolescence:

Testosterone and estrogen promote a growth spurt and masculinization or feminization of the skeleton and eventually cause growth to cease (age 18 in girls and 21 in boys);

Pathways that terminate in the cerebellum and do not result in conscious sensation (because they don't make it to the cerebral cortex)(so they're unconscious sensation)

The *Dorsal and ventral spinocerebellar tracts*

The middle ear is spanned by 3 auditory ossicles:

The *Malleus, Incus, and Stapes*

Three semicircular canals:

The *anterior, posterior, and lateral semicircular canals*; These are posterior and lateral to the vestibule; Each semicircular canal contains a semicircular duct; Each duct contains a *crista ampullaris*, which is a equilibrium receptor region;

*Accommodation* of the lens:

The *ciliary muscles contract*, which causes the *lens to bulge* (get more rounded), which increases the refractory power of the lens (increases the degree to which the lens can bend light);

First-class levers

The *effort* is applied at one end of the *lever*, and the *load* is at the other end of the *lever*, and the *fulcrum* is somewhere in between; Example: scissors and seesaws;

Second-class levers

The *effort* is applied at one end of the *lever*, the *fulcrum* is at the other end of the *lever*, and the *load* is somewhere in between; Example: a wheelbarrow;

Third-class levers

The *effort* is applied between the *load* and *fulcrum*; Speedy levers; Example: tweezers

Figure showing structure of the ear:

The *external (outer) ear* consists of the *auricle* and the *external acoustic meatus*; The *Tympanic membrane (eardrum)* is the boundary between the outer and middle ears; *Middle ear*; *Inner ear* labyrinth (bony and membranous)

*Cochlear hair cells*

The *hearing receptor cells*; Have several *stereocilia* and one *kinocilium* that are stuck in an overlying *tectorial membrane* (you can see the hairs embedded in the tectorial membrane); The cochlear hair cells synapse with nerve fibers of sensory neurons (whose cell bodies are in the spiral ganglion);

Ligament that strengthens the TMJ

The *lateral ligament* reinforces the joint and prevents lateral displacement of the lower jaw;

Lumbosacral plexus (overlap between the lumbar and sacral plexuses):

The *lumbar and sacral plexuses* overlap and together serve the lower limb, abdomen, pelvis, and buttock; The lumbar plexus is formed from the ventral rami of spinal nerves L1-L4; Its major nerve branches are the: *femoral, obturator, lateral femoral cutaneous, iliohypogastric, ilioguinal, and genitofemoral; The sacral plexus is formed from the ventral rami of spinal nerves L4-S4; Its major nerve branches are the: *Sciatic nerve* (the longest and thickest nerve in the body) is actually two nerves in a common sheath (*tibial and common fibular/peroneal), superior and inferior gluteal nerves, posterior femoral cutaneous, and pudendal nerve*;

Figure showing the rest of the *cranial outflow* and also the *sacral outflow* of the parasympathetic division:

The *sacral outflow* arises from neurons that have their cells bodies in the gray matter of the sacral region of the spinal cord (regions S2-S4); It serves part of large intestine and the pelvic organs;

Acetylcholine (Ach)

The 1st neurotransmitter identified; It's released at neuromuscular unctions and at other synapses; It's synthesized from acetic acid and choline; It's released by all neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles and by many neurons of the ANS. They're also found in the CNS;

What does the spiral organ rest on top of?

The Basilar membrane; When the basilar membrane is moved (i.e. displaced by movement of perilymph), this bends the stereocilia of the hair cells and opens mechanically-gated ion channels near the stereocilia in the cochlear hair cell membrane; This causes depolarization of the hair cell; When the hair cell depolarizes, it releases neurotransmitter into its synapse with nerve fibers of sensory neurons. That causes an increase of the rate of action potentials being sent by afferent fibers of the cochlear nerve to the brain;

Figure showing the relationships between DNA triplets, mRNA codons, tRNA anticodons, and amino acids;

The DNA triplet is complementary to the mRNA codon, which is complementary to the tRNA anticodon; All three specify one amino acid (or provide a stop signal)

Responsiveness/Excitability

The ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them I.E. when you cut your hand on broken glass and you involuntarily pull your hand away from the painful stimulus (the broken glass)

*Feature abstraction*

The ability to identify a specific texture or shape; Round? Square? Prickly?

*Spatial discrimination*

The ability to identify the site or pattern of stimulation; Where on your body are you being touched, how big of a space on your body are you being touched

Synovial joints

The articulating bones are separated by a fluid-filled joint cavity; Permits substantial freedom of movement and all synovial joints are freely movable diarthroses; Most joints of the limbs (and of the body) fall into this class;

Back:

The back of the body is innervated by *dorsal rami* with each dorsal ramus innervating muscle in line with its point of emergence from the spinal cord; Example: a dorsal ramus coming off of the 5th cervical vertebra, it wraps around towards the back of the body. just innervates tissue that's in line with that region of the spinal cord;

Hydrostatic pressure

The back pressure exerted by water again the membrane

Epiphysis/Epiphyses:

The bone ends; Broader than the diaphysis; An outer shell of compact bone forms the epiphysis exterior, and the interior contains spongy bone; Thin layer of articular (hyaline) cartilage covers the joint surface of each of these, cushioning the opposing bone ends during movement and absorbing stress;

*Tympanic membrane* (eardrum)

The boundary between the outer and middle ears; It's a thin, translucent, connective tissue membrane that is covered by skin (externally) and mucosa (mucus membranes) (internally)

The brain includes these four things:

The cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum;

Energy

The capacity to do work, or to put matter into motion | The greater the work done, the more of this is used to do it |

The carrier for a sodium-potassium pump

The carrier is an enzyme called Na+-K+ATPase

Why are the cells in the stratum lucidum and stratum corneum dead?

The cells are dead in these 2 layers because the cells rely on capillaries in underlying connective tissue (dermis) for nutrients and oxygen; The cells in these 2 layers are too far away from dermis (and they're coated in glycolipids so their permeability is reduced) for the nutrients to reach them;

Figure showing the cells in the neural layer of the retina

The cells of the neural layer of the retina are: photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells;

Ventricles of the brain:

The central cavities within the brain; Surrounded by a layer of grey matter; Continuous with one another, and with the central canal of the spinal cord; Lined with ependymal cells (a type of neuroglia pg. 391) and filled with cerebrospinal fluid; There are four of these (two lateral ventricles, third ventricle and fourth ventricle);

Medulla

The central core of the hair; Consists of large cells and air spaces; Only part of the hair that contains soft keratin (and it's absent in fine hairs); Part C

Vestibule

The central, egg shaped cavity of the bony labyrinth; The oval window (that the stapes rests against) is in its lateral wall; It contains two membranous sacs, the *saccule and utricle*, each of which contain *maculae*, which contain receptors involved in equilibrium;

Arbor Vitae ("tree of life")

The cerebellar white matter; Called this because it looks like branching trees;

Cervical Plexus:

The cervical plexus is formed by the ventral rami of the first 5 cervical nerves (C1-C5); Most branches that come off the cervical plexus are *cutaneous nerves* that supply the skin; The main branches of the cervical plexus are the: *phrenic nerve, lesser occipital nerve, greater auricular nerve, transverse cervical nerve, supraclavicular nerve (medial, intermediate, and lateral), ansa cervicalis nerve (superior and inferior roots)*, and *segmental nerve and other muscular branches*;

Resting membrane potential is determined by what?

The concentration gradient of potassium (K+) and Sodium (Na); Active transport pumps ensure that passive ion movement does not lead to an electrochemical equilibrium across the membrane (e.e. maintains resting membrane potential);

Sarcomere (a segment of myofibril)

The contractile unit, composed of myofilaments made up of contractile proteins

Basic characteristics of the nucleus:

The control center of the cell; Controls cell activities by regulating gene expression; Contains cellular DNA; Most cells have a single nucleus, but some (like skeletal muscle cells) are multinucleated; Larger than cytoplasmic organelles;

*Cranial outflow* of the parasympathetic division (i.e. the efferent pathways that start in the brain)

The cranial outflow consists of preganglionic fibers that run in the occulomotor (III), facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus cranial (X) nerves; The vagus nerves provide the major portion of the cranial outflow and provide fibers to the neck and to nerve plexuses that serve almost every organ in the thoracic and abdominal cavities;

*Encapsulated dendritic endings*

The dendrite is enclosed in a connective tissue capsule; Most of these are mechanoreceptors; Include *Meissner's (tactile) corpuscles*, *Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscles*, and *Ruffini endings*;

*Unencapsulated dendritic endings* (textbook calls them *Nonencapsulated (free) nerve endings*)

The dendrites are not enclosed in a connective tissue capsule; Abundant in epithelia and connective tissues; Respond to temperature and painful stimuli, some respond to tissue movements caused by pressure; Others include: *Free nerve endings*, *Tactile (Merkel) discs* (Lie in the deepest layer of the epidermis, function as light touch receptors) and *Hair follicle receptors* (Free nerve endings that wrap basket like around hair follicles, light touch receptors that detect bending of hairs);

Constriction of pupils:

The diameter of the pupil decreases, which prevents the most divergent light rays from actually entering the eye (otherwise you'd have blurred vision)

Osmosis

The diffusion of a solvent (water) through a selectively permeable membrane | It continues until osmotic and hydrostatic pressures acting at the membrane are equal |

Cross section of thorax showing the main roots and branches of a spinal nerve

The dorsal and ventral roots unite just distal to dorsal root ganglion to form a *spinal nerve* (quite short); After emerging from the vertebral column, the spinal nerve divides into a *dorsal ramus* (which is short) and a *ventral ramus* (which is long)

Which electrons have the greatest potential energy and why?

The electrons farthest from the nucleus have the greatest potential energy | It takes more energy for them to overcome the nuclear attraction to reach the more distant energy levels | They also are most likely to interact chemically with other atoms because they're held the least tightly by their own nucleus and the most easily influenced by other atoms and molecules

Activation energy

The energy absorbed to prime the reaction required for every chemical reaction that occurs | Needed to alter the bonds of the reactants so that they can be rearranged to become the product | Present when kinetic energy pushes the reactants to an energy level where their random collisions are forceful enough to ensure interaction | Needed regardless of whether the overall reaction is ultimately energy absorbing or energy releasing | One way to increase the kinetic energy is to increase temperature, but higher temperatures denature proteins so enzymes allow reactions to occur at normal body temperature by decreasing the amount of ___________ ___________ required |

For primary active transport to happen where does the energy come from?

The energy to do work comes directly from hydrolysis of ATP

What happens in the third step of enzyme action:

The enzyme releases the product(s) of the reaction | The enzyme is not changed and returns to its original shape, available to catalyze another reaction |

What happens in the second stop of enzyme action:

The enzyme-substrate complex undergoes internal rearrangements that form the products. This step shows the catalytic roles of enzymes

Step 5 of homeostatic regulatory mechanisms

The final step is the effector causes a change that affects the original stimulus; Most homeostatic mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms; The end result is that the response of the effector returned the variable to the normal equilibrium level;

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

The fluid within the ventricles of the brain and surrounding the brain and spinal cord; Gives buoyancy to the brain (keeps the brain afloat in the skull) and prevents the delicate brain from crushing under its own weight; Protects the brain and spinal cord from impact damage; Acts as a delivery medium/mechanism for nutrients and chemical signals to and from the CNS;

Atmospheric Pressure

The force that air exerts on the surface of the body | Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on the appropriate amount of this |

Organismal level

The highest level of organization. Represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive

What is the cause of every disease?

The loss of cellular homeostasis

Drawing of the parts of a lever system and what the parts represent

The horizontal bar is the *lever*; Triangle it's resting on is the *fulcrum*; Square on the left side of the lever is the *load*; Arrow pointing down on the right side of the lever represents the *effort*;

Pia mater ("gentle mother")

The innermost layer of the meninges; Clings tightly to the brain, following every contour (all of the gyri and sulci); Highly vascular, and it's separated from the arachnoid mater by the *subarachnoid space* (which is filled with *cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)*)

Cranial fossae

The interior of the skull is divided into three major depressions called this; The anterior, middle, and posterior ___________

Cytoplasm

The intracellular fluid packed with organelles (small structures that perform specific cell functions)

Figure showing parts of the *lacrimal apparatus*

The lacrimal apparatus includes the structures that proceed *lacrimal secretion* and drains excess lacrimal secretion from the eye into the nasal cavity; *Lacrimal secretion* (tears) cleanses, protects, and moisturizes the eye; The *lacrimal gland* secretes lacrimal secretion, which is a dilute saline solution. Lacrimal secretion flows across the surface of the eye from the lateral side toward the medial side, sweeping particles like dust from the surface of the eye; Lacrimal secretion enters two tiny *lacrimal canaliculi* through tiny openings called *lacrimal puncta* in the medial corner of the eye; The lacrimal secretion then drains into the *lacrimal sac* and then into the *nasolacrimal duct* which empties into the nasal cavity; This flow of liquid from the eye to the nasal cavity explains why you might get a runny nose when you produce excess tears (e.g. when you cry)

Organism

The living human being. The highest level of organization.

Extracellular matrix:

The most abundant extracellular material; Most extracellular matrix is a jellylike substance consisting of proteins and polysaccharides, but some, like that in bone, is rock hard; Extracellular matrix helps hold body cells together;

Dura Mater ("tough mother")

The most durable, outermost covering; Where it surrounds brain, there are two layers: a superficial *periosteal layer* and a deeper *meningeal layer* (which continues as the spinal dura mater and surrounds the spinal cord); These layers are fused together except where they form *dural venous sinuses* which collect blood from the brain; In certain areas, *this* extends inward to limit movement of the brain, forming several *dural septa*

Contractility

The muscle cell's ability to move by shortening

How are the muscle fibers of a single motor unit arranged?

The muscle fibers are spread through the muscle and not clustered in just one spot; So, when the motor neuron in a motor unit excites its associated muscle fibers, the entire muscle contracts; If all the muscle fibers in a motor unit were in a single spot, when the motor neuron exited them, just that one spot in the muscle would contract;

Cardiac muscle

The muscle of the heart; Causes the heart to pump blood throughout the body

As a muscle contracts, what happens?

The muscle shortens, bringing the insertion toward the origin

Classification of Epithelia:

The names we give to epithelial tissues provide clues about their structure; Have two names: The first name: indicates the number of layers present (*simple*= have just one layer of cells, *Stratified*=have more than one layer); Second name: indicates the shape of the cells (*squamous*=flattened,*cuboidal*=box-like and about as tall as they are wide *columnar*=tall and column shaped)

pH of a solution is defined as:

The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] in moles per liter: -log[H+] The brackets indicate concentration of the substance

What body system is most involved with responsiveness/why?

The nervous system. Because nerve cells are highly excitable and communicate rapidly with each other via electrical impulses But all body cells are excitable to some extent

Presynaptic neuron

The neuron conducting impulses toward the synapse; Sends the information;

Peptides

The neuropeptides include a broad spectrum of molecules with diverse effects; Includes endorphins that act as natural opiates (reducing the perception of pain under stressful conditions);

Processing at the circuit level:

The next step in sensory integration; This involves the delivery of sensory impulses to the appropriate region of the cerebral cortex for localization of the stimulus and perception of that stimulus; Sensory impulses are delivered along the ascending sensory pathways; Impulses sent along the *dorsal column-medial lemniscal (fasiculus cuneatus and fasiculus gracilis)* and *lateral and ventral spinothalamic ascending* pathways reach conscious awareness because they're delivered to the sensory cortex (in the cerebral cortex); Impulses sent along *dorsal and ventral spinocerebellar tracts* end in the cerebellum and are not involved in conscious sensation. Instead of being conscious sensation, theses impulses are involved in coordination of skeletal muscle activity by the cerebellum;

Where is DNA found?

The nucleus of the cell | It constitutes genetic material (genes)

Figure showing the *palpebral conjunctiva* and *bulbar conjunctiva*

The palpebral conjunctiva lines the eyelids; The bulbar conjunctiva covers the anterior surface of eye (except for cornea)

Two divisions of the ANS:

The parasympathetic division, and the sympathetic division; These two divisions generally serve the same visceral organs, but they often cause opposite effects (this is called *dual innervation*) and the two systems often counterbalance each other's activities;

Exon

The parts of the gene that actually provide the code for amino acid sequences (polypeptide chains)

Pigmented Layer

The pigmented layer of the retina is a thin outer layer that absorbs light and phagocytes dead or damaged cells (keeps the area clean)

Graph representing *muscle twitch*:

The response of a motor unit to a single stimulation by its motor neuron;

Motor output:

The response put out by the nervous system; The nervous system causes this response by activating effector organs (muscles and glands);

The typical potential difference in a resting membrane

The resting membrane potential is about -70 mV, but resting membrane potentials range from -40 mV to -90 mV in different neurons; This resting potential exists only at the membrane (overall, the solutions inside and outside the cell are electrically neutral);

Chemoreceptors

The receptors for the chemical senses; Respond to chemicals dissolved in an aqueous solution; Taste receptors are stimulated by food chemicals dissolved in saliva; Smell receptors are stimulated by airborne chemicals dissolved in fluids coating the nasal membranes;

The class of a lever depends on what?

The relative position of the three elements (effort, fulcrum, load);

Regeneration

The replacement of destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue, which maintains its original function; Not all tissues have the same ability to regenerate

Positive Feedback Mechanisms

The result or response of the effector enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated | The change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range | Example: a cow stampede. One cow panics, and that causes other cows to panic, and so on until the panic spreads though the entire herd of animals and the panicked reactions of other animals increase feelings of panic in individuals until the herd runs out of control |

Extension

The reverse of flexion, but occurs at the same joint; Increases the angle between bones or body parts; Straightens a flexed limb or body part; Example: When the head is raised back from the chest to standard anatomical position;

Figure showing what happens within rods in the light (when they're stimulated by light)

The right side of the figure shows what happens in light transduction reactions: exposure of the photoreceptor to light causes bleaching of the visual pigment; This causes hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor; When the photoreceptor hyperpolarizes, it ultimately stops releasing an inhibitory neurotransmitter (glutamate); Once glutamate is no longer released, there are no longer IPSPs (inhibitory post synaptic potentials) in the bipolar cells and this leads to depolarization of the bipolar cell that the photoreceptor synapses with; Depolarization of the bipolar cells open Ca channels which triggers the release of excitatory neurotransmitter onto ganglion cells; This leads to EPSPs (excitatory post synaptic potentials) in the ganglion cell and these can summate to generate action potentials; If an action potential occurs, it is propagated along the ganglion cell axons (which travel in the optic nerve) to the brain;

Dehydration synthesis

The say that monomers are joined to create polymers | A hydrogen atom is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from the monomer it is to be joined with. As a covalent bond unites the monomers, a water molecule is released. The removal of a water molecule at the bond site occurs each time a monomer is added to the growing polymer chain | Opposite of hydrolysis |

Two main regions of the hair, lengthwise:

The shaft and the root

The diaphysis/diaphyses:

The shaft of the long bone, and makes up most of the length; Constructed of a relatively thick collar of compact bone that surrounds a central medullary cavity;

Ribosomes

The site of protein synthesis; Made of protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid); Some are free ribosomes within the cytoplasm, and help make proteins that function in the cytosol; Others are membrane bound and attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, they help make proteins that will be incorporated into membranes or exported from cell; They can switch back and forth between the two functions, attaching to and detaching from the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum (according to the type of protein they're making at a given time);

Figure highlighting the differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems:

The somatic nervous system controls voluntary (consciously controlled) functions, whereas the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions; The two systems have different *effectors* or effector organs: the somatic system stimulates skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) stimulates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands; They also have different *efferent pathways* and *differ in whether they have ganglia*; In the somatic system, there's just one motor neuron in each efferent pathway; The cell bodies of the neurons are in the CNS and their axons extend in cranial or spinal nerves to skeletal muscles; There are no ganglia (collections of neuron cell bodies within the PNS) in the somatic system, because all the neuron cell bodies are in the CNS; In the ANS, each efferent pathway includes a two-neuron chain to effectors: the cell body of the 1st neuron (called the *preganglionic neuron*) is in the brain or spinal cord (so not within a ganglion). The *preganglionic axon* (from the preganglionic neuron) synapses with the 2nd neuron (called the *ganglionic neuron*) (the ganglionic neuron's cell body is found in an *autonomic ganglion* outside the CNS); The axon of the ganglionic neuron (called the *postganglionic axon*) extends to the effector organ; Remember: autonomic ganglia are motor ganglia (i.e. they contain cell bodies of motor neurons). The somatic division lacks ganglia, since the cell bodies are in the CNS (and ganglia are only found in the PNS); The dorsal root ganglia are part of the sensory (not motor) division of the PNS; There are *neurotransmitter* differences between the two divisions; Somatic motor neurons only release Ach and the effects are *always* excitatory; Most sympathetic fibers release norepinephrine (NE) and parasympathetic fibers release Ach, and the response of either neurotransmitter may be excitation or inhibition depending on the receptors they bind to; There's some overlap of somatic and autonomic nervous system function: Most body responses to external and internal stimuli involve both skeletal muscle activity and visceral organ responses;

Electron shells

The space around the nucleus of an atom where electrons forming the electron cloud occupy | The term energy level can be used interchangeably with this term because each of these represents a different energy level

Difference between special and general senses

The special sensory receptors (the receptors associated with the special senses) are distinct receptor cells (they are distinct/separate from sensory neurons) and are highly localized (i.e. confined to the head); For example: the photoreceptors in the retina of the eye are sensory receptor cells that are specialized to respond to light energy and are distinct from the sensory neurons that transmit visual messages toward the visual cortex.; Therefore, the special sensory receptors differ from the widely distributed receptors of the general sensors, most of which are modified nerve endings of sensory neurons (i.e. general sense receptors are usually NOT receptor cells that are distinct from sensory neurons;

During Sliding Filament Model of Contraction:

The thin filaments slide past the thick filaments (so that the actin and myosin overlap to a greater degree) and move toward the center of the sarcomere; Thin filaments on the left move toward the right and thin filaments on the right move toward the left; Overlap between thin and thick filaments increases and the sarcomere shortens; Z discs are pulled toward the M line; The I bands get narrower as the thin filaments move toward the center of the sarcomere, but the A bands stay the same width;

Effector

The third component of homeostatic control mechanisms | It provides the means for the control center's response (output) to the stimulus | The results of the response then feed back to influence the effect of the stimulus (reduce it so the whole control process is shut off or enhance it so the whole process continues at a faster rate) |

Differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions:

The two divisions have different *origin sites* (i.e. where the nerve fibers originate in the CNS); *Parasympathetic* fibers emerge from brain and sacral spinal cord (so it is also called the *craniosacral* division); *Sympathetic* fibers originate from the thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord, so it is also called the *thoracolumbar* division; The *length of fibers* differs between the two divisions (remember: fibers are long axons; these terms are used interchangeably); In the parasympathetic division: the preganglionic fibers are relatively long, and the postganglionic fibers are relatively short; In the sympathetic division, it's the opposite pattern (the preganglionic fibers are short and the postganglinonic fibers are long); The *location of ganglia* also differs (which makes sense given that the length of the preganglionic and postganglionic fibers differ between the two divisions--if you remember the length of fibers, you'll remember the location of ganglia and vice versa); In the parasympathetic division, most ganglia are located in (or very near to) visceral effector organs; In the sympathetic division, the ganglia are close to the spinal cord;

Symport System

The two transported substances move in the same direction

Simple diffusion & Examples:

The unassisted diffusion of lipid soluble or very small particles | Non polar and lipid-soluble substances diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer (like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and fat-soluble vitamins) Examples: Because oxygen concentration is always higher in the blood than in tissue cells, oxygen continuously diffuses from the blood into the cells. Carbon dioxide is in higher concentration within the cels so it diffuses from tissue cells into the blood.

Auricle (pinna)

The visible part of your ear that surrounds the opening; It consists of elastic cartilage covered with skin and some hair; The rim is called the *helix*, the earlobe is called the *lobule*, and it lacks cartilage; Outer ear (auricle) directs sound waves into the *external acoustic meatus*;

The key players involved in action potentials:

The voltage-gated Na+ channels (have two gates and alternate between three different states); And the voltage gated K+ channels (have one gate and two states);

Chemical properties

The way atoms interact with there atoms (bonding behavior) | Account for the way iron rusts, animals can digest their food, etc.

Amoeboid motion

The way that most phagocytes move | Their cytoplasm flows into temporary extensions that allow them to creep along |

*Sclera*

The white portion of the fibrous layer of the eyeball

How are muscles distinguished?

Their ability to transform chemical energy (ATP) into directed mechanical energy. In doing this they become capable of exerting force

Role of apocrine glands?

Their exact role is unknown; They don't play a role in temperature regulation; They release sweat in response to emotional stress;

Ribs

There are 12 pairs of ribs; Ribs 1-7 are called true or vertebrosternal ribs because they articulate directly with the sternum via their own individual costal cartilages; Ribs 8-12 are called false ribs because they attach indirectly to the sternum. Their costal cartilages (if they have them) attach to the costal cartilages of other ribs rather than directly to the sternum; Ribs 11-12 are called floating ribs because they do not attach directly or indirectly to the sternum; Ribs increase in length from pair 1 to 7, then decrease in length from pair 8 to pair 12;

How many apocrine sweat glands are there? And where are they found?

There are 2000 apocrine sweat glands; They're found mostly in the axillary (armpit) and anogenital areas; They're larger than eccrine glands;

Spinal nerves

There are 31 *pairs* of spinal nerves, which originate from the spinal cord; They supply all parts of the body (except the head and the parts of neck that are innervated by cranial nerves); They are ALL mixed nerves (unlike cranial nerves which could be sensory, motor, or mixed); They're named according to the point at which they emerge from the spinal cord; *8 Cervical* (C1-C8): emerge in the cervical region of the vertebral column of the spinal cord; *12 thoracic* (T1-T12): emerge from the spinal cord in the thoracic region; *5 Lumbar* (L1-L5): emerge in the lumbar region of the vertebral column; *5 sacral* (S1-S5) emerge in the sacral region; *1 Coccygeal* (C01, or C0): emerges at the level of the coccyx;

Eccrine Sweat Glands (Merocrine Sweat Glands)

There are more of these than apocrine sweat glands; Abundant in the palms, soles of feet, and forehead; Help to cool body temperature by releasing sweat that evaporates on the surface of skin and thus draws heat away from the body; Each is a simple, coiled, tubular gland, the secretory part lies coiled in the dermis and the duct extends to open in a funnel-shaped pore at the skin surface; These release sweat;

Temporal summation

There are multiple EPSPs at a single synapse and they occur close enough in time that their effects add up (are summed) and together they change the membrane potential enough to cause an action potential (i.e. the threshold is reached when their effects are added together); When the second excitatory post synaptic potential occurs the membrane potential hasn't yet returned all the way down to the resting membrane potential, so when the second ESPS occurs, if you add that effect on to the effect of the first together they add up the the threshold level which causes an action potential; This looks at the frequency of post synaptic potentials occurring at a single synapse;

No summation occurring:

There are multiple EPSPs occurring at a single synapse, but they occur too far apart (in time) so because they're so far apart in time, the membrane keeps returning to the resting membrane potential so the effects of the excitatory post synaptic potentials are not adding up or summing up the change the membrane potential by the threshold necessary to generate an action potential; Too much time passes after the first excitatory synapse, so the membrane potential repolarizes to the resting membrane potential before the second excitatory post synaptic potential (because it returned to its resting state theres no summation so the membrane potential doesn't change by the threshold necessary for an action potential; The axon of the presynaptic cell is highlighted in green, but we're mostly looking at the post synaptic cell;

Figure showing the specific tracts located within the spinal cord white matter

There are several ascending tracts that deliver sensory information to the brain, and several descending tracts that bring motor impulses down from the brain; Everything that's labeled on the right and left sides of this picture is found on BOTH sides of the spinal cord (they just aren't labelled in the picture)

Multicellular exocrine glands:

These have a secretory unit (shown in red), and a duct (shown in yellow); The secretory unit has cells that produce the secretion, the duct carries the secretion to the surface; They're classified based on the shape and complexity of the secretory unit and the duct; Glands with simple ducts have a duct that does not branch, but the secretory unit can be branched or unbranched;

Cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord

There are two grooves that partially divide the spinal cord in half: the *ventral (anterior) median fissure* (deeper) and the *dorsal (posterior) median sulcus* (more shallow); Surrounding the central canal of the spinal cord, is a core of gray matter; The gray matter in the spinal cord is H-shaped (or shaped like a butterfly) and the two halves of the H/butterfly wings are connected by the *gray commissure*; The two posterior portions of gray matter are the *dorsal horns* (tops of the H); The dorsal horns are entirely interneurons that receive messages from afferent fibers from sensory receptors in the PNS; Afferent fibers from peripheral sensory receptors enter the cord as *dorsal roots*; The cell bodies of the associated sensory neurons are in *dorsal root ganglia* (*spinal ganglia*); The axons of the sensory neurons enter the white matter of the spinal cord and travel to synapse at higher levels of the cord or in the brain levels, or synapse with interneurons in dorsal horns right where they enter into the spinal cord; Two anterior portions of gray matter are *ventral horns* (bottoms of the H); Ventral horns mainly contain the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons. These motor neurons send their axons out to skeletal muscles via *ventral roots*; In the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, there are also paired *lateral horns* between the dorsal and ventral horns, as shown in the figure; The lateral horns contain the cell bodies of autonomic (sympathetic division) motor neurons that serve visceral organs. These neurons also send their axons out via ventral roots (just like the somatic motor neurons in the ventral horns); The dorsal and ventral roots fuse lateral to the spinal cord to form *spinal nerves*; The white matter surrounding the gray matter is myelinated nerve fibers and allows for communication between the spinal cord and brain and between different parts of the spinal cord; The white matter of the spinal cord is arranged in columns called white columns or *funiculi* (singular is *funiculus*): the *dorsal white column (or dorsal funiculus), ventral white column (or ventral funiculus), and lateral white column (or lateral funinculus)* (each of those three are found on each half of the spinal cord as seen on the figure);

Lateral ventricles

There are two of them, one deep within each cerebral hemisphere; Large C-shaped chambers; They lie close together, separated only by the *septum pellucidum* (a thin median membrane); Each of these communicates (the cerebrospinal fluid flows into the third ventricle through the inter ventricular foramen) with the third ventricle via a channel called an *interventricular foramen*;

Other receptors the mouth contains

Thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and nociceptors; The temperature, texture, and pain of foods can enhance or detract from their taste;

Simple receptors of general senses

These are associated with the general senses (all of the senses except for the special senses which are vision, hearing, taste, balance) and which are *unencapsulated* and which are *encapsulated*;

Flexor (withdrawal) reflexes

These are initiated by painful stimuli and cause automatic withdrawal of a body part from the stimulus

Structure of a macula

These are involved in *static equilibrium*; The *maculae* are patches of epithelium in the walls of the saccule and utricle in the vestibule; They monitor the position of the head in space; The maculae contain hair cells, which have several sterocilia and one kinocilium; The stereocilia and kinocilium are embedded in an overlying *otolithic membrane*; The otolithic membrane contains *otoliths*, which are calcium carbonate crystals; The otoliths make the otolithic membrane heavy, so it moves at a different rate than the hair cells when the head moves; The *hair cells in the maculae synapse with fibers of the vestibular nerve*; In the *utricle*, the macula is horizontal and its hairs are vertical, so it responds to acceleration in the horizontal plane and tilting of the head (i.e. vertical movements don't displace the otolithic membrane in the utricle); In the *saccule*, the macula is vertical and its hairs are horizontal, so it responds best to vertical movements and tilting of the head; When the head moves in a linear direction (up/down, forward/back), the otolithic membrane slides backward/forward, or up/down more slowly than the hair cells are moving because it is heavy and it bends the stereocilia and kinocilia of the hair cells

Keratinocytes Function

These cells undergo almost continuous mitosis because epidermal growth factor (a peptide produced by most cells) prompts them to grow; As these cells keep producing, the old ones are pushed up by the new ones that keep forming beneath them; While they're being pushed they produce keratin; By the time they reach the skin surface they are dead, scaley, and basically just keratin filled plasma membranes;

Figure highlighting the *extrinsic eye muscles*

These muscles are outside (external to) the eyeball itself and they control movement of the eyeball; They're controlled by cranial nerves 3, 4, and 6; The extrinsic eye muscles are the *superior*, *inferior*, *lateral*, and *medial rectus* muscles; And the *superior* and *inferior oblique muscles*

Pathways that transmit for conscious sensation

These pathways transmit impulses from sensory receptors via the thalamus to the sensory cortex (for conscious sensation): The *dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathways* (the *fasciculus cuneatus, fasciculus gracilis, medial lemniscus*) and the *anterolateral pathways* (the *lateral and ventral spinothalamic tracts*);

What do all plasma membranes have in common?

They all consist of two parallel sheets of phospholipid molecules lying tail to tail, with their polar heads bathed in water on either side of the membrane or organelle

Design of short, irregular, and flat bones:

They all have thin layers of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside and endosteum-covered spongy bone on the inside; Bone marrow is located among trabeculae;

Peripheral Proteins

They attach loosely to integral proteins and are easily removed without disrupting the membrane because they are not embedded in the lipid bilayer like integral proteins | They include a network of filaments that help support the membrane from its cytoplasmic side | Some are enzymes, some link cells together, and some are motor proteins involved in mechanical functions (like changing cell shape during cell division and muscle cell contraction)

Hydrophillic substances in water

They dissolve in water

Where do the non polar "tails" in the phospholipids lie?

They line up in the center of the membrane and avoid water

What happens when acids and bases are mixed?

They react with each other in displacement reactions to form water and a salt | Example: HCl + NaOH→NaCl + H2O (where HCl is an acid, NaOH is a base, NaCl is a salt, and H2O is water)

When acids dissolve in water:

They release hydrogen ions (protons) and anions | The concentration of protons determines the acidity of the solution | The anions have little/no effect on acidity | Example: HCl (produced by stomach cells and aids digestion) dissociates into a proton and a chloride ion: HCl→H+ + Cl- (where the H+ is a proton and the Cl- is an anion)

Where do sebaceous glands release their products? What is the function of sebum?

They release their products into hair follicles or through a pore on the skin surface; Sebum lubricates and softens hair and skin, kills bacteria, and prevents water loss from the surface of the skin;

Hydrophobic substances in water

They repel/don't dissolve in water

Buffers

They resist abrupt and large swings in the pH of body fluids by releasing hydrogen ions (acting as acids) when the pH begins to rise and by binding hydrogen ions (acting as bases) when the pH drops | Homeostasis of acid-base balance is carefully regulated by the kidneys and lungs and chemical systems (proteins and other molecules) called this |

When do apocrine sweat glands start functioning?

They start working at puberty (under the influence of androgens) and they might have a role in attracting mates;

How do cells use ATP's energy?

They use enzymes to transfer the terminal phosphate groups from ATP to other compounds | The newly phosphorylated molecules are said to be "primed" and temporarily become more energetic and capable of performing some type of cellular work | In the process of doing their work they lose the phosphate group |

Integral Proteins

They're firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer | Most are transmembrane proteins (Span the entire membrane and protrude on both sides), but some protrude from one membrane face only | All of these proteins have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions (whether or not they're transmembrane proteins) |

Keratinocytes location

They're in the deepest part of the epidermis; Most epidermal cells are these;

Neutrons

They're neutral, so they have no charge but they do have a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu)

In lever systems that operate at a mechanical advantage (power levers) what happens?

They're slower, more stable, and used where strength is a priority

Two cerebellar hemispheres:

They're symmetrical to each other; Each have three lobes (so altogether there are 6 lobes in the cerebellum); The lobes are the *anterior and posterior lobes* and the *flocculonodular lobes*;

Radius

Thin at its proximal end, wide distally (opposite of the ulna); Major forearm bone contributing to the wrist joint; When this moves, the hand moves with it;

Endosteum:

Thin delicate layer of tissue that covers the inner surfaces of bones; Covers the trabeculae of spongy bone and lines medullary cavities of long bones (like the periosteum, it's osteogenic so it can differentiate into other bone cells);

Periosteum

Thin layer of connective tissue that coats all outer surfaces of bone that are not covered by cartilage (so covers the external surface except the joint surfaces); Tough, vascularized, innervated membrane; It's is an *osteogenic tissue* (contains bone forming and bone destroying cells); Provides anchoring points for tendons and ligaments (at these points the fibers are very dense); The outer fibrous layer of this is dense, irregular, connective tissue; The inner osteogenic layer, next to the bone surface, consists primarily of stem cells (osteogenic cells) that make all bone cells except bone-destroying cells;

Flat bones

Thin, flattened bones; Examples: shoulder blade (scapula), cranial vault, sternum, and ribs; They have parallel plates of compact bone with spongy bone in the center; Provide expanded surfaces for the protection of organs and attachment of muscles;

Papillary Layer

Thin, superficial layer; Made up of areolar connective tissue that is highly vascularized with small blood vessels; The connective tissue contains a woven mat of collagen and elastin fibers; Its superficial surface have bumps called papillae ("nipples") that contain capillaries or nerve endings;

Cerebellar Peduncles

Three paired fiber tracts (collections of myelinated axons); Communicate between the cerebellum and brain stem;

Figure summarizing the visual pathway to brain

This is the route that visual messages are sent to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the cerebrum: *Axons of retinal ganglion cells*: Merge in the back of eyeballs to become the optic nerve; At the *optic chiasma*, the medial fibers from each eye cross, and the combined fibers from the right and left eye continue as *optic tracts*; This crossing of fibers means that each visual cortex in each occipital lobe of the cerebrum receives visual information from each eye (so the visual cortex in the left side of the brain receives information from both the right and left eye, and the same is true for the visual cortex in the right side of the brain); The optic tracts send most of their axons to synapse with neurons in the *thalamus*; Axons of thalamic neurons form the *optic radiation of fibers* in cerebral white matter, which travel to the *primary visual cortex in occipital lobes*, where conscious perception of visual images occurs

Meninges (meninx)

Three connective tissue membranes that cover and protect the CNS (brain and spinal cord) and protect blood vessels, enclose venous sinuses, contain cerebrospinal fluid, and partition the brain into different regions;

Atoms

Tiny building blocks of matter

Sol-gel transformations

To change reversibly from a fluid (sol) state to a more solid (gel) state | Example: Jello, cytosol

Greek meaning of Anatomy

To cut apart

The role of keratinocytes

To produce keratin; (They're the most abundant cells in the epidermis)

Intervertebral Discs

Tough pads between adjacent vertebrae; Act as shock absorbers; Allow for a little bit of bending; Each of these has an *annulus fibrosis* and the *nucleus pulposis*; At points of compression, the discs flatten and bulge out a bit between the vertebrae; Discs account for 25% of height of vertebral column; Flatten during the day so you're shorter at night than when you first wake up;

Superficial (External)

Toward or at the body surface | Example: The skin is _____________ to the skeletal muscles

Anterior (Ventral)

Toward or at the front of the body; in front of | Example: The breastbone is ___________ to the spine

Medial

Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of | Example: The heart is ____________ to the the arm

Figure of Translation

Translation occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes (in the figure it's the red structure) with help of transfer RNA (tRNA); tRNA molecules bring in the appropriate amino acid; Each tRNA binds to a specific amino acid, and one portion of tRNA is an anticodon, which consists of 3 bases that are complementary to a codon of mRNA; The ribosome, which is made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins, catalyzes the reaction that binds adjacent amino acids together to form a polypeptide chain; When the ribosome reaches the stop codon, protein synthesis stops and the polypeptide chain is complete; The initial chain of amino acids is the primary structure of the protein (i.e. the polypeptide chain) and this chain is usually further modified to create the final protein

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Shoulder*

Trapezius; Deltoid

Anterior view: Muscles associated with the *Arm*

Triceps brachii; Biceps brachii; Brachialis;

Posterior view: Muscles associated with the *Arm*

Triceps brachii; Brachialis;

Types of lipids:

Triglycerides (also called neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and other lipoid substances

Spatial summation

Two EPSPs occur simultaneously at two different synapses, and they're added up and change the membrane potential enough to cause an action potential; Looks at simultaneous post synaptic potentials occurring at different synapses (green and blue in the picture) on the single post synaptic cell;

Plasma membrane separates what?

Two of the body's major fluid compartments: Intracellular fluid (within cells) and extracellular fluid (outside cells) |

Leg

Two parallel bones form the skeleton of this: the tibia and fibula; Segment of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle; The joints between them do not allow movement;

Forearm

Two parallel long bones, radius and ulna, form the skeleton of the forearm or *antebrachium*; Proximal ends articulate with humerus, distal ends form joints with bones of the wrist; Radius lies laterally (on thumb side) and ulna medially;

Hinge joints

Type of synovial joint that consists of a cylindrical projection that fits into a trough-shaped structure on another bone; These joints allow for movement along a single plane; Uniaxial movement; Example: the elbow joint;

Pivot joints

Type of synovial joint that consists of a rounded structure that protrudes into a ring or a sleeve; Allows for rotation of a bone around its long axis; Uniaxial movement; Example: Proximal end of the radius fits into a ligament that allows it to rotate and produce pronation and supination;

Ball and socket joints

Type of synovial joint that has a spherical or hemispherical structure that articulates with a cup like structure; The most freely movable joints; Multiaxial movement; Example: Shoulder and hip joints;

Saddle joints

Type of synovial joint where each articular surface has both complementary concave and convex areas; These allow for more freedom of movement than condyloid joints; Biaxial movement; Example: Joint between the carpal and metacarpal in the thumbs;

Loose connective tissue

Typically has a gelatinous matrix and a loose arrangement of fibers (i.e. they are not tightly packed); The types of this are *areolar, adipose, and reticular connective tissues*;

Polar molecule

Unequal electron pair sharing | The electrons spend more time around one atoms than the other, giving that atom a partial negative charge, while the other has a partial positive charge | Happens because when covalent bonds are formed it results in a specific 3-D shape, with the bonds formed at definite angles. Non symmetrical molecules containing atoms with different electron-attracting abilities |

Degree of myelination

Unmyelinated axons have slower conduction velocities; Myelinated axons have faster conduction velocities; The myelin sheath acts as an insulator and prevents almost all charge from leaking from the axon and allows the membrane voltage to change more rapidly;

Voltmeter;

Used to measure the potential difference in electrical charge between two points that the electrodes are located;

Cellular respiration

Using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP

Regenerative capacity of tissues:

Varies widely among tissue types; Example: epithelial and bone tissue regenerate very well, but cardiac muscle and nervous tissue in the brain and spinal cord have almost no capacity for functional regeneration;

Vertebral Column

Vertebrae: Cervical, 7 located in the neck; Thoracic, 12 located in the thorax (chest) and all have rib articulations; Lumbar, 5 located in the lower back and are very big and heavy; Sacrum, ~5 fused makes up the rear third of the pelvis or pelvic girdle; Coccyx, ~4 fused what people refer to as the tailbone;

Rods

Very sensitive to light (i.e. it takes less light to stimulate them) so they respond to dim light; They contain just one kind of visual pigment, so they're best for night vision

Elastic cartilage

Very strong and flexible and has more elastic fibers than hyaline cartilage does; Makes up part of the external ear and the epiglottis

Exocytosis

Vesicular transport processes that eject substances from the cell interior into the extracellular fluid | Stimulated by a cell-surface signal (like binding of a hormone to a membrane receptor) | Accounts for hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release, mucus secretion, ejection of wastes | The substance to be removed is encoded in a protein-coated membraneous sac (secretory vesicle) and the vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane, fuses with it, and then ruptures, spilling the sac contents out of the cell |

Visceral reflex arcs

Visceral reflex arcs have the same essential components as somatic reflex arcs; Components are: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, and effector; One major difference between the visceral and somatic reflex arcs is that the visceral reflex arcs have two neurons in the motor component rather than just one (as in the somatic reflex arc); Another major difference between the visceral and somatic reflex arcs is the visceral effectors are cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands (whereas the effectors in somatic reflex arcs are skeletal muscles); Visceral sensory neurons send information regarding such things as chemical changes, stretch, and irritation of the viscera;

General structure of a synovial joint: Synovial fluid

Viscous, slippery fluid that fills all available space within the joint cavity; Derived by filtration from blood flowing in the capillaries in synovial membrane; Reduces friction in the joint; When the joint is compressed, the synovial fluid is forced from joint cartilages and then it absorbs back into the cartilages when pressure lets up (called weeping lubrication);

Cushioning of water:

Water forms a cushion around certain body organs to help protect the body from physical trauma | (Cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain)

Reactivity of water:

Water is an important reactant in many chemical reactions | Example: foods are broken down to their building blocks by adding a water molecules to each bond to be be broken |

Aquaporins (AQPs)

Water-specific channels constructed by transmembrane proteins that water can move freely and reversibly through (in single file) | These channels are abundant in red blood cells and in cells involved in water balance like kidney tubule cells |

What are the polar "heads" in the phospholipids attracted to? Where do they lie?

Water; the main ingredient of both the intracellular and extracellular fluids | They lie on both the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane |

Building a plasma membrane from scratch (Step 3)

We've added a Na-K pump to our membrane with Na and K leakage channels; The Na-K pump is powered by ATP, and it pumps 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions it pumps into the cell (moving both sodium and potassium against their concentration gradient); This helps to maintain the concentration gradients of K+ and Na+ (which without the Na-K pump would tend to be lost through diffusion of both sodium and potassium across the plasma membrane through the leakage channels);

How does a motor neuron stimulate a skeletal muscle fiber?

When a nerve impulses reaches the end of an axon, the axon terminal releases Acetylcholine (ACh) into the synaptic cleft; ACh binds to receptors on the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber; Triggers electrical events that cause the generation of an action potential across the sarcolemma; After ACh binds to the ACh receptors its effects are quickly terminated by acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme located in the synaptic cleft. It breaks down ACh to prevent continued muscle fiber contraction in the absence of additional nervous system stimulation;

Ammonia to ammonium

When ammonia accepts a proton, it becomes an ammonium ion: NH3 + H+→NH4+ (where NH4+ is an ammonium ion)

Denaturing

When hydrogen bonds of globular proteins break due to pH dropping or temperature rising above normal levels and the hydrogen bonds breaking leads to proteins to unfold and lose their specific 3-D shape | Happens because hydrogen bonds are important in maintaining the specific 3-D structure of the protein, but hydrogen bonds are also fragile and easily broken by chemical and physical factors | It's reversible in most cases, the protein regains its native structure when desirable conditions are restored

Figure of an axon of a somatic motor neuron approaching a skeletal muscle fiber

When it gets close to the muscle fiber it divides into several axon terminals; Each axon terminal forms a neuromuscular junction with the muscle fiber;

Figure showing what happens in focusing for close vision

When objects are close to the eye, the rays of light bouncing off the close objects diverge as they approach the eye (they're not parallel as they would be if it was a far away thing); These divergent light rays need to be *focused by the lens* (so the lens has to do some work);

Electrical gradient

When something's moving along electrical gradient something's moving to an area of opposite charge; When Na+ moves into a cell, it's following its electrical gradient because it's a positively charged ion and moving into a negatively charged area;

Figure showing when the stereocilia bend toward the kinocilium the hair cells depolarizing and this leads to speeding up of neurotransmitter release and a faster stream of impulses to the brain

When stereocilia bend away from the kinocilium, the hair cells hyperpolarize and this can result in a slower stream of impulses toward the brain; The brain interprets the direction of movement based on how fast the impulses are traveling towards it;

*Period of relaxation* of a muscle twitch

When tension reduces; This is when reentry of Ca2+ into the SR occurs

When is the attraction between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons the greatest?

When the electrons are closest to the nucleus | The more distance, the lesser the charge

Cross bridges

When the myosin heads connect the thick and thin filaments; Happen during muscle contraction

Depolarization

When the plasma membrane becomes less negative (relative to the resting membrane potential)

When is equilibrium reached with osmosis?

When the water (and solute) concentrations on both sides of the membrane is the same

Quaternary structure

When two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a complex protein |

High heat of vaporization of water:

When water vaporizes (evaporates) it changes from a liquid to a gas | The transformation requires large amounts of heat to be absorbed and break hydrogen bonds that hold the water molecules together | Beneficial when humans sweat because as the perspiration evaporates from our skin, large amounts of heat are removed from the body which cools it |

Example of mechanical advantage:

When you use a car jack you're able to move a *heavy load* with relatively *small effort*; The car jack moves the car a tiny bit at a time, but very little effort is required;

Example of mechanical disadvantage:

When you use a shovel, you move a *load* much farther and faster than you could without the shovel

When does osmosis occur?

Whenever the water concentration differs on the two sides of a membrane | If the solute concentration on the two sides of the membrane differs, water concentration differs as well (as solute concentration increases, water concentration decreases) |

Oligodendrocytes

Wrap around the nerve fibers (long axons) producing insulating coverings called *myelin sheaths*; They have fewer processes than astrocytes, but they also branch out like the astrocytes; Sends out extensions that surround the nerve fibers (long axons) of several different neurons, which is forming the muslin sheath of the nerve fibers (long axons)

Carotene

Yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products (carrots); Accumulates in the stratum corneum and in fatty tissue in the hypodermis; Most obviously seen in the palms and soles, where the stratum corneum is the thickest;

Are bones organs? Why/why not?

Yes, because they contain different types of tissue; Bone (osseous) tissue makes up the most of bones, but they also contain nervous tissue in their nerves, cartilage in their articular cartilages, dense connective tissue covering their external surfaces, and muscle and epithelial tissues in their blood vessels;

Can energy be converted from one form to another?

Yes, with few exceptions it is easily converted from one form to another. But the conversions are very inefficient. Some of the initial energy supply is always lost to the environment as heat. The energy lost to heat is unusable.

Is bone living?

Yes. Despite being such a hard tissue, it is a living tissue and can repair and remodel (reshape) itself

Autonomic nerve endings release:

either Acetylcholine or norepinephrine; This results in excitation of certain groups of smooth muscle cells and inhibition of others; In contrast, somatic motor neurons only release ACh onto skeletal muscle fibers, and it always results in excitation;

Innervation of skeletal muscles

the motor endings of somatic motor fibers form neuromuscular junctions with effector cells (skeletal muscle fibers). When nerve impulse (action potential) reaches an axon terminal, acetylcholine (Ach) is released by exocytosis into a synaptic cleft (between axon terminal and skeletal muscle fiber). Ach binds to ion channels, and Na enters the cell causing depolarization. This local depolarization that occurs at the location of those ion channels is a type of graded potential called an *end plate potential*. The end plate potential spreads to adjacent areas of the cell membrane and opens voltage-gated channels which initiates the propagation of an action potential;