Philosophy of the Person Quiz No. 2

Meno's second definition of virtue

- the capacity to govern man --> Without hesitation, Socrates squashes this definition. He uses slaves as a counter example to prove that "the capacity to govern men" isn't an adequate definition. He says, "Should a slave be capable of governing his master, and if he does, is he still a slave?" (Ibid 113). Obviously, this definition—supposedly Gorgias'—is flawed. It is basically restricting virtue to men. Socrates sees right through this.

Why Crito thinks Socrates should escape

-Crito bids Socrates to escape from prison -he has prepared a way, it will be easy, and not even put anyone at risk (Crito and his friends will pay for Socrates' travel) -he would have plenty of places to go if he chooses exile -if he doesn't escape, people will think Crito didn't care enough to help (they know that Crito is wealthy, and could help Socrates) -Socrates would be abandoning his children if he lets himself be killed

The Counterpenalty

-Socrates says he deserves to be honored with a meal in the Prytaneum -imprisonment and exile are to him greater punishments than death -he ultimately settles on a fairly large fine (30 mina) that his friends help him pay off

Meletus' Contradiction

-he says Socrates acknowledges no Gods -he says Socrates corrupts the youth by teaching them things like virtue, wisdom, and piety, things "pertaining to divinities" -but in order to teach about things pertaining to the Gods, Socrates must acknowledge the Gods in some form -so Meletus must be lying

Socrates' Response to Crito

-says that he doesn't care what other people think of him; only person's opinion you should value are experts (athlete doesn't listen to haters, but listens to their trainer) -only consideration Socrates should make is whether or not it would be "right" to escape -Socrates' two premises: --> ends don't justify means (when something's wrong, it's wrong no matter what, no matter what the circumstances are) --> one should abide by one's agreement (this is when Socrates starts speaking as the Laws of Athens, as if they were speaking on behalf of Socrates leaving the city)

Argument of the Laws of Athens

-since Socrates has chosen to live in Athens (for some 70 years), he is bound to live under Athenian Law -Athenian Law states that Socrates must abide by the judgments of the State, and submit to his execution -the State is far more important than one man, and has done so much for him (like a parent); so he is obligated to obey --> a form of Social Contract

What is Socrates' mission to Athens?

-to rouse them from their complacency and make them think --> kind of like a gadfly waking a horse from a slumber; it's may annoy the horse, but it's good for it -those who would have most reason to accuse Socrates actually speak to defend him -Socrates refuses to appeal emotionally to the jury (just asks them to do what they think is right)

Socrates' impact on the youth

-when the youth of the city see him do this, they imitate him -this leads to unjust blame (he didn't asked to be imitated) being placed on Socrates himself

What are the key questions in Meno?

1. What is virtue? 2. What is the relationship between virtue and knowledge? 3. Can virtue be taught?

What is Socrates' response to these questions?

First, Socrates explains that, for the most part, Athens lacks wisdom. From Meno's question, he deduces that the scarcity could very well have spread to Meno's parts. Socrates says that the people of Athens would be incapable of answering this question. In fact, he notes that they'd even laugh at it. Socrates imitates how he thinks a citizen of Athens would answer the question: "'You must think I am singularly fortunate, to know whether virtue can be taught or how it is acquired. The fact is that far from knowing whether it can be taught, I have no idea what virtue itself is'" (Ibid 110). He then proceeds to admit that he'd likely say the same. Socrates proclaims that he has "no knowledge about virtue at all" (Ibid 110). Therefore, he determines that he isn't qualified to judge where virtue comes from. Shortly after that, Socrates says that he doesn't think he has ever met anyone that really knows what virtue is.

How does Socrates respond to the new accusers?

He refutes Meletus -no man wishes to be harmed, and Socrates knows harm will come to him if he corrupts the youth --> so if he does indeed corrupt them, it would have to be on accident (something that wouldn't warrant charges)

What is the "state of nature" according to Hobbes?

Hobbes says that the "state of nature" is a situation in which no social rules exist, and, even if there were such rules, there'd be no way of enforcing them. Rachels says that this would be like if there were no laws, no police, and no courts in today's society. Basically, people are free to do whatever they want. Hobbes hypothesizes that, if this ever happened, life would be devoid of purpose and without orientation. In Leviathan, he wrote that there would be "no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by seas;...and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death..." (Rachels 142). Hobbes contends that, if we lived in a "state of nature," no one would be productive. All of our time would be devoted to looking after our own safety. 1. equality of need--we all need the same basic things to survive 2. scarcity--we don't live in the Garden of Eden (not everything is supplied to us) 3. the essential equality of human power--no one is superior to everyone else 4. limited altruism--when people's vital interests are in conflict, they turn selfish

What do you think the following question from Socrates means? "Virtue, do you say, or a virtue?

I think Socrates is searching for clarity in Meno's revised definition. Is Meno saying that whatever is just is virtuous, and, in turn, that justice is the only quality of virtue? Or is he is suggesting that justice is just one quality of virtue, as Socrates previously implied.

How does Socrates position in Plato's Crito relate to the discussion of social contract theory in the essay?

In Plato's "Crito," we see Socrates explaining why escaping the city of Athens would be unjust. He gives The Speech of the Laws of Athens—a dialogue that Socrates creates with himself, in which he personifies the city's laws—in attempt to showcase the importance of following the law. Socrates believes that by breaking one law, one effectively breaks all of them. He makes the comparison between laws and parental figures. As I stated in my last reading analysis, Socrates asks himself, "Was there such an equal balance toward your father, or your master if you happened to have one, so that you might return whatever was done to you—strike back when struck, speak ill when spoken ill to, things like that? Does such a possibility then exist toward your Country and its Laws, so that if we should undertake to destroy you, believing it just, you in return will undertake so far as you are able to destroy us, your Country and its Laws?" (Ibid 105-06). He believes that people are entitled to obey the law, just as they would their parents. Here, he is upholding the Social Contract. Escaping Athens would benefit himself. But, by breaking the law, he would be straying from the contract and potentially promoting the "state of nature". While it may not be the best decision for Socrates, he has to abide by the law for the sake of Athens and for the sake of society.

How does the Prisoner's Dilemma lead to an understanding of the social contract?

In the situation above, betraying Smith appears to be the best option. After all, it is a decision that benefits no one more than yourself. But the problem is that everyone has the same idea. Smith would most likely make an identical choice. And as a result, we would return to Hobbes' "state of nature". The only solution is to come up with an enforceable agreement to "obey the rules of mutually respectful social living" (Rachels 149). This agreement is better known as the Social Contract. This unwritten code ensures that "if we respect other people's interests, they must respect ours as well" (Rachels 149). The Prisoner's Dilemma shows us that the Social Contract is a paradoxical. Although cooperation doesn't yield the best possible outcome, it is significantly better than simply following our own independent interests. In order to live well, we need to sacrifice our personal interests.

What is morality based on according to Thomas Hobbes?

Instead of basing his argument around God, altruism, or "moral facts," British philosopher Thomas Hobbes focuses on the concept of the Social Contract. Hobbes believes that morality is a "solution to a practical problem that arises for self-interested human beings" (Rachels 141). He is proposing that the only reason why we make the right or moral decision is so that we, ourselves, have a better chance of succeeding in life.

Epilogue of Apology

Jury comes back with the decision that Socrates should be put to death -but Socrates believes that death is either nonexistence, or the next step in the journey -->Socrates looks forward to the afterlife, when he might examine the wisdom of the Gods themselves, and other noteworthy men from the past

What was Socrates accused with? (Apology)

Meletus accuses Socrates of: -corrupting the youth -refusing to acknowledge the Gods of the State

Who is Meno?

Meno is a student of the well-known sophist Gorgias. A native of Thessaly, Meno is on a visit to Athens. We see that he has adopted many of Gorgias' views, especially when it comes to virtue.

Why is Meno shocked by Socrates' response?

Meno is shocked that Socrates—one of the wisest men in Greece—can't trace the origin of virtue, let alone define it. But he's even more surprised to hear that Socrates doesn't think he's ever met anyone that could define virtue. He frantically exclaims, "What! Didn't you meet Gorgias when he was here?" (Ibid 111). Socrates responds by saying that he doesn't doubt that Gorgias knows the true meaning of virtue. Socrates just forgets how the philosopher defined it. Essentially, this prompts Meno to answer his own question.

Meno's first definition of virtue

Meno proposes that there are several different kinds of virtue. He says, "For every act and every time of life, with reference to each separate function, there is a virtue for each one of us, and similarly, I should say, a vice" (Ibid 111). Meno lists a couple of these subsets. He says that there is manly virtue, which involves managing the city's affairs capably and helping friends, among other things. Conversely, Meno posits that there is a woman's virtue, which consists of a handful of domestic duties. He doesn't restrict these distinctions to gender. Meno rattles off a few other subsets, such as those relating to children, the elderly—male and female, separately—the free, and the slaves

Who were the two sets of accusers?

Old Accusers and New Accusers

How does the social contract develop out of Hobbe's understanding of morality?

Regardless of who you are, you wish to live well. But in order to do that, there must be order in society. And it's impossible to have order without some structure or rules. So, Hobbes posits that "The moral rules, then, are simply the rules that are necessary if we are to gain the benefits of social living" (Rachels 141). Essentially, every person is abiding by this Social Contract. It's not a physical document, but, rather, a preconceived agreement among all humans. The contract establishes a set of rules, mainly our legal system, that maintains peace and order. Without it, there'd be chaos.

How does Socrates respond to the old accusers?

Socrates denies these claims -he only knows that he knows nothing -he lacks the ability to instruct others

What were the old accusers accusing Socrates of?

Socrates has a reputation of infamy among some in Athens -they say he makes outrageous claims -teaches the youth to argue

Socrates' Unique Wisdom

Socrates possesses a unique wisdom -he knows that he knows nothing, and in that is wiser than those who think they know something, but really know nothing Socrates tests the wisdom of those he meets (poets, craftsmen), in order to -see if they know anything of value -to show them that they don't

What is the Prisoner's Dilemma?

The Prisoner's Dilemma is a hypothetical puzzle that serves as another approach to the Social Contract. In this scenario, you live in a totalitarian society. Randomly, you are jailed for treason and accused of conspiring against the government with another man—in Rachel's example, his name is Smith. The interrogators offer you a deal, which consists three choices: confess, don't confess, and/or testify against Smith. The catch is that Smith is offered the same deal. But you and Smith cannot negotiate or even speak to each other during this time. Both prisoners have the opportunity to either reward or punish the other, depending on which choice is made. At first glance, it looks as if confessing and testifying against the other would be the best option, as it could potentially result in you going free. But, because this is the most desirable choice, it is likely that the other prisoner also decides to do the same thing. If this is the case, both prisoners have to serve five years in jail. Rachels writes, "By rationally pursuing your own interests, you both end up worse off than if you had acted differently" (Rachels 147). But if neither betrays each other, there won't be enough evidence to convict, and both will be released after just a year.

According to the essay, why is civil disobedience particularly troublesome for social contract theory?

The Social Contract Theory is built upon the idea of obeying the rules of society, or in other words, following the law. But sometimes the law is broken with good reason. The question remains: is this justified? Many groups facing discrimination have resorted to civil disobedience. A few modern examples include Mohandas K. Gandhi's Indian independence movement and Martin Luther King Jr.'s civil rights movement. Rachels focuses on King's movement. Unlike Gandhi and his followers, King and Co. were not questioning the legitimacy of government. Instead, they were lobbying against particular laws and social policies that they regarded as unjust. Racial segregation was a law that disadvantaged black people. Many were denied a voice, including the right to vote. So in their eyes, objecting these laws and policies would instigate change. But not everyone thought that was a legitimate reason to break the Social Contract Theory. Rachels quotes Louis Waldman, a famous New York lawyer: "Those who assert rights under the Constitution and the laws made thereunder must abide by that Constitution and the law, if that Constitution is to survive. They cannot pick and choose; they cannot say they will abide by those laws which they think are just and refuse to abide by those laws which they think are unjust" (Rachels 154). Waldman thought that King's civil disobedience threw a wrench in democracy and the Social Contract. But later in the reading, we learn that this isn't actually true. Rachels writes, "For when they are denied a fair share of the benefits of social living, the disenfranchised are in effect release from the contract that otherwise would require them to support the arrangements that make those benefits possible" (Rachels 155). Groups facing discrimination, in this case black people, are accepting the burdens of the law, but are not receiving the benefits. Therefore, they are exempt from the Social Contract, and are free to disobey civilly.

Why does Socrates use the concept of shape?

This third attempt by Meno to define virtue contains, of course, the same mistake as his first attempt. Socrates notes that they have again "found many virtues while looking for one." Meno again professes confusion, and Socrates again resorts to the example of "a shape" versus "shape" in general --> round/straight --> figure (there may be oppositions, BUT there is always a higher genus

What is Socrates aware of?

he is aware of his own ignorance--he owns that he has no knowledge of virtue --> but this is why Socrates is wise--he is conscious of his ignorance --> meanwhile, Meno is NOT aware of his ignorance (not even aware of his own beauty, wealth)

Meno's third definition of virtue

justice is virtue

Effluence

something that flows out of something else --> Meno says that color is an effluence

Background on Crito

takes place a few days after the trial -Socrates is in jail, awaiting his execution -one of his wealthier friends Crito bribes the guards, and visits Socrates--he tries to convince him to escape prison

How is the text of Meno different than the Apology or Crito?

this text is different in the sense that Socrates doesn't control the dialogue as much as he does in the other Plato texts