physiology Psyc Exam 3

Locus coeruleus

A structure in the pons that is inactive at most times but emits impulses, releasing norepinephrine, in response to meaningful events. It is also important for storing information and is usually silent during sleep. - likely why one does not remember their dreams?

Reticular formation

A structure that extends from the medulla into the forebrain. Lesions through this structure decrease arousal. - contains pontomesencephalon

Hebbian synapse

A synapse that increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.

Night terrors

An abrupt, anxious awakening from NREM sleep; this disorder is more common in children than adults.

Sleep sex or "sexsomnia"

An analogous condition in which sleeping people engage in sexual behavior either with a partner or by masturbation.

Lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP)

An area essential for learning. Damage to this area of the cerebellum leads to permanent loss of a classically conditioned eyeblink response in rabbits. Temporary suppression of the area led to zero effectiveness of classical conditioning training.

Basal forebrain

An area just anterior and dorsal to the hypothalamus. Some of the axons from the basal forebrain release GABA and are essential for sleep. These neurons receive input from the anterior and preoptic areas of the hypothalamus. Another set of axons in the basal forebrain release acetylcholine.

Coma

An extended period of unconsciousness caused by head trauma, stroke, or disease. Characterized by low brain activity throughout the day and little or no response to stimuli, including pain.

Sensitization

An increase in response to a mild stimulus after an intense stimulus has been presented. Sensitization in Aplysia depends on the release of serotonin by a facilitating interneuron onto the synapses of many presynaptic sensory neurons; this process ultimately blocks potassium channels and thereby prolongs the release of transmitter from that neuron.

Endogenous circannual rhythm

An internal calendar that prepares a species for annual seasonal changes.

never fully alert during their wakeful periods and they sleep poorly during their rest periods. Most people are ill-rested and inefficient for days after the shift to daylight savings time.

Astronauts exposed to 45-minute intervals of light and dark are

Instrumental Conditioning

Behavior is followed by a reinforcer (which increases the future probability of a response) or punishment (which suppresses the frequency of a response).

Korsakoff's Syndrome or Wernicke-Korsakoff's syndrome

Brain damage caused by prolonged thiamine deficiency (this disorder is most commonly seen in chronic alcoholics).

PGO waves

- "wave-like" pattern from pons to lateral geniculate nucleus (visual area) to the thalamus and then occipital cortex - occur at the same time as REM (longer wave = longer REM period)

prefrontal cortex

Damage to the _______ impairs performance on working memory tasks, and the deficit can be amazingly precise. (Older people have impairments of working memory, probably because of changes there)

semantic dementia, in which semantic memories are impaired.

Damage to the anterior and inferior temporal lobes results in...

learn about rewards and punishments

Damage to the prefrontal cortex impairs the ability to....

verbal learning.

Depriving people of sleep early in the night (non-REM sleep) leads to impairment of ...

consolidation of learned motor skills.

Depriving people of sleep the latter half of the night (REM sleep deprivation) leads to impaired ...

sleep/wake cycle.

Destroying the medial hypothalamus disrupts eating, drinking, and activity daily rhythms, while destroying the SCN of the hypothalamus disrupts the ...

REM behavior disorder

Disorder where people move around vigorously during their REM periods apparently acting out their dreams. Likely due to the inability of the pons to inhibit spinal motor neurons.

primary visual cortex, the motor cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

During REM activity decreases in the ...

pons, the limbic system, and the parietal and temporal cortex of the brain

During REM sleep, activity increases in the ...

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

During sleep, many brain regions become activated, so the brain creates a story to make sense of all this activity.

alpha and beta

EEG waves associated with stage 1

theta (with sleep spindles of higher activity) and K-complexes

EEG waves associated with stage 2 (video says stage 1?)

slow with occasional large amplitude spikes

EEG waves associated with stage 3 and 4

Neurocognitive Hypothesis

Either internal or external stimulation activates parts of the parietal, occipital, and temporal cortex. No visual information overrides the stimulation and no criticism of the prefrontal cortex censors it, so it develops into hallucinatory perceptions.

STM and WM

H.M had his hippocampus removed to treat epilepsy. He had retrograde and anterograde amnesia, but his _____________________ remained intact. He could not learn new words and sometimes stated he was only 10 years old.

low ; increase

How does the SCN regulate sleep/wake? There are 2 genes—the period (per) gene and the timeless gene (tim). When these genes are turned on, they code for the PER protein and the TIM protein. In the morning when you wake, PER and TIM are __________. In the evening when you being to wind down, PER and TIM _______. During the night, the genes stop making the proteins, and this decrease in the proteins produces wake

90min :30 min (about 25% per night)

How long does a sleep cycle last? How much time is spent in REM

total number of neurons.Total number of neurons may be a reasonable correlate of intelligence.Whales and elephants have larger brains than humans, their neurons are larger and more spread out. Marmosets have a greater brain-to-body ratio than humans, but their bodies are smaller, and therefore their brains and neuron number are smaller.

Humans do lead in one aspect, by a considerable margin

Women have more and deeper sulci on the cortex—surface area almost equal to men. Another hypothesis- Male and female brains organized differently possibly as an evolutionary mechanism to keep intelligence the same despite the relative size

Hypotheses of why men and females have equal intelligence despite unequal size of brains

GABA synapses.

In a few cases, LTP depends on changes at ______

better their performance on spatial memory tasks

In certain closely related species of birds, the larger the hippocampus, the ....

Wakefulness.

In fruit flies, when PER and TIM levels are low, the result is...

spatial questions and they have a larger than normal posterior hippocampus.

In rats, many hippocampal neurons are tuned to particular spatial locations. In human cab drivers, imaging data has shown that the hippocampus is activated when answering...

were not consistent and this research has since been abandoned.

In the 60s and 70s, researchers pursued the possibility of transferring memories from one individual to another via injection of proteins from one brain into another. The results ...

Sleep Apnea

Inability to breathe during sleep. Symptoms include sleepiness during the day, impaired attention, depression, and sometime heart problems.

Insomnia

Inadequate sleep characterized by how one feels the following day. - can result from a number of causes, including noise, uncomfortable temperatures, stress, pain, diet, and medications.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Increased responsiveness to axonal input as a result of a previous period of rapidly repeated stimulation. LTP has three properties that make it an attractive candidate for the cellular basis of learning and memory:

cerebral cortex in the frontal and parietal lobes as well as with the caudate nucleus

Intelligence correlates with surface area of the...

BOTH neurons and the connections among neurons are important

Intelligence correlates with white matter implying that ...

Endogenous circadian rhythm

Internal rhythms that last about a day (e.g., wakefulness and sleepiness).

Both anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

Korsakoff's patients show apathy, confusion, and have trouble reasoning about their memories. Patients with Korsakoff's syndrome also have...

retrograde neurotransmitter

LTP causes presynaptic changes through the release of a ______________________ from the postsynaptic cell. These changes include reduced threshold for producing action potentials, increased neurotransmitter release, expanded size of the presynaptic axonal membrane, and release of neurotransmitter from more sites on the axon.

Neither assumption was necessarily true. Years later, Richard F. Thompson located an engram of memory in the cerebellum.

Lashley's work was based on the assumption that the cerebral cortex was the best place to search for an engram and that all memories are physiologically the same. Researchers that followed found ...

Confabulation

Making up an answer to a question and accepting the invented answer as if it were true (a common symptom of Korsakoff's syndrome).

g

Many psychologists have therefore assumed that all the skills share a single underlying factor of general intelligence, known as ____

Radial Maze

Maze with eight or more arms used to test spatial memory in animals. Damage to the hippocampus impairs performance on this task.

Amnesia

Memory loss. Damage to the hippocampus produces a powerful kind of amnesia.

Long-term memory

Memory of events from previous times.

Short-term memory

Memory of events that have just occurred.

Delayed response task

Memory task in which a subject is given a signal to which it must give a learned response after a delay. A common test for working memory.

Equal intelligence

Moderate correlation between brain size and IQ. Limitations with the Human Data - Men have larger brains but equal IQs. Overall, males and females have:

intelligence, specific cognitive abilities, and brain volume. They resemble each other even when reared in separate homes

Monozygotic twins resemble more alike than dizygotic twins on tests of overall..

cellular repair

More deep sleep reflects the need for more...

glutamate receptors.

Most cases of LTP depend on changes at _______

Cooperativity

Nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP; stimulation by just one axon produces it weakly.

Brain Death

No sign of brain activity and no response to stimulation. In this case, physicians generally wait 24 hours before pronouncing death.

The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Nucleus located above the optic chiasm in the hYPOTHALAMUS. The SCN controls the rhythms for sleep and temperature. The neurons of the SCN generate impulses that follow a circadian rhythm.

True

On average, teenagers showed an increase in positive mood from waking until late afternoon, then a slight decline from then to bedtime. Most people report their most pleasant mood around 5 p.m. and their least pleasant mood around 5 a.m.: True or false - Circadian rhythms also affect mood.

Specificity

Only activated synapses become strengthened.

Associativity

Pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later responses to the weak input.

associate one type of information with another.

Parietal lobe damage affects the ability to...

consistent orderly process

Pavol, Watson, and Thorndike attempted to answer the question "Does learning occur in a consistent, orderly fashion or is it more a hodge-podge of effects?" the answer they found was...

normal working memory, severe anterograde amnesia for declarative memory, some retrograde amnesia, better implicit than explicit memory, and nearly intact procedural memory.

People with amnesia usually have ...

hypothalamic cells that produce and release orexin

People with narcolepsy lack the _____________________ and is currently treated with stimulant drugs such as methylphenidate (Ritalin).

Engram

Physical representation of learning.

Morris Water Maze

Procedure where an animal has to find a hidden platform, usually under murky water. This procedure is used to test spatial memory in animals and, like the radial maze, performance is negatively impacted by hippocampal damage.

Does not depend on rehearsal, can be recalled with hints and reconstructed

Properties of Long term memory

Can hold about 7 items, depends on rehearsal, once forget it is gone, can be consolidated into LTM

Properties of short term memory

increases : disrupts

REM depends on serotonin and ACh. - ACh _____________ - Serotonin _____________

REM sleep.

REM deprivation also leads to increased attempts at...

(photoreceptors > bipolar cells >) ganglion to the SCN/hypothalamus (just says there is light - no color or acuity involved)

RETINOHYPOTHALAMIC path

day 2: couldn't focus via sight next: lost ability to identify objects by touch day 3: uncoordinated and moody ..then hallucinated

Randy garner stayed awake for 11 days

not require the involvement of the hippocampus.

Recalling recent memories activates the hippocampus; recalling older memories may

cortisol, which can damage the hippocampus and cause memory loss.

Recent studies have indicated that repeated adjustments of the circadian rhythm can increase levels of ...

Glutamate

The AMPA receptor and the NMDA receptor are both usually excited by the neurotransmitter ______ , but can respond to drugs abbreviated AMPA and NMDA respectively.

fear

The amygdala is important for ___ learning.

implicit learning or habit learning, which is gradual

The basal ganglia is responsible for ...

Mass action

The cortex works as a whole, and the more cortex the better.

BDNF

The effects of CaMKII and CREB are magnified by _____ , a neurotrophin similar to nerve growth factor.

Delayed nonmatching-to-sample task

The procedure is the same except that the animal must choose the object that is different from the sample.

Non-REM (NREM) sleep

The stages of sleep other than REM.

Even newer words to the English language, like Jacuzzi and granola, were regarded as nonsense. When distracted, he would underestimate his own age by 10 years or more

The surgery severely impaired H. M.'s ability to form long-term memories. Some examples include...

a 20-hour rhythm

There is a genetic mutation in hamsters that causes the SCN to generate a 20-hour circadian rhythm. When the SCN of these hamsters with a 20-hour rhythm was transplanted into adult hamsters, the adults produced ...

Melanopsin

These special ganglion cells are located near the nose, not evenly throughout the retina. This way, blind people have enough input to the melanopsin-containing ganglion cells to entrain their waking and sleeping cycle to the local pattern of sunlight.

mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus and the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus, which projects to the prefrontal cortex.

Thiamine deficiency leads to brain cell loss in the ...

True, but individuals not sensitive enough to these secondary zeitgebers often experience insomnia at night and sleepiness during the day.

True or false - Blind people sometimes use other zeitgebers (noise, temperature, meals, etc.)

True

True or false - Species with the most total sleep also have the highest percentage of REM sleep. Human infants spend more time in REM sleep and get more total sleep than adults. Adults who get the most sleep have the most REM sleep and adults who get the least sleep get the least amount of REM.

Neither excitatory nor inhibitory

Usually glutamate produces ___________________________ effects at NMDA receptors because magnesium blocks ion channels located on this receptor.

Sleepwalking

Usually occurs during stages 3 or 4 early in the night; more common in children than adults; usually runs in families; more common when people are sleep deprived or under unusual stress.

People do not lose all aspects of memory equally and People have several somewhat independent kinds of memory that depend on different brain areas.

What Patients with Amnesia Teach Us?

Phase-advance jet lag

What happens to our circadian rhythms when we travel east, as we tend to sleep and awaken earlier than usual.

Phase-delay jet lag

What happens to our circadian rhythms when we travel west, as we stay awake late and awaken the next day already partly adjusted to the new schedule.

retrotransmitters

When glutamate-sensitive postsynaptic receptors are activated, they also release ___________ into the synapse. These are taken up by the presynaptic neuron and they increase the release of neurotransmitter

cerebellum

When the _________ is damaged, any classical conditioning that requires a motor response was impaired (eye blink conditioning, startle response, etc.

migration and mating is stopped

When the pineal gland is destroyed in birds...

- fulfill our wishes - remembering - to forget - keep brains working (continual activation theory) - rehearse (primitive rehearsal theory) to practice fight or flight - to heal - solve problems

Why do we dream? according to the video? (7)

If DMTS is impaired but MTS is fine then memory is impaired not learning

Why test MTS and Delayed- MTS?

Improved

Young adults deprived of a night's sleep show deficits on memory tasks. In contrast, if someone learns something and then goes to sleep, even for a short time, memory after sleeping is ______.

fMRI

______ studies found that progressively older events produced more activity in the cerebral cortex and less in the hippocampus and amygdala. This demonstrates a shift to the cerebral cortex both over a period of one day and over a period of many years.

gamma

______ waves (above 38 Hz) seem to be difficult to reach and are associated with intense concentration (tibetan monks practice this)

delta

______ waves are long (0.5-3 cycles per sec) and are associated with deep meditation and deep sleep , NREM

Penfield

_______ believed that each neuron stored a specific memory, which could be elicited through stimulation, but further research found that the stimulation was causing dreamlike experiences that may or may not have been part of the patient's past.

Horridge

_______ seemed to demonstrate that headless cockroaches could learn via conditioning, but the results varied widely and occurred slowly over time.

theta

_______ waves (3-8 Hz) are associated with meditation and sleep (stages 2-3)

beta

____________ waves (12-38 Hz) are associated with normal waking activity and thinking

alpha

___________________ waves (8-12 Hz) are associated with relaxation and the beginning of sleep (1st)

The electroencephalograph (EEG)

____________________ is used to record gross (total) electrical potentials in an area of the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp.

Curcumin

a component of the turmeric spice, has been shown to inhibit amyloid- in animals. Research on human applications has just begun.

fatal familial insomnia

a fatal inherited disorder characterized by progressive insomnia

reticular formation

a group of pathways in the brain stem that are important for waking up - it is also involved in REM

lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP)

a nucleus of the cerebellum that is essential for learning

melanopsin

a photopigment/biochemical that is sensitive to ambient light and changes SLOWLY light sunrises

STM; LTM

according to "Aplasia Gill reflex" increased electrical/chemical between synapses in a neuron indicate __________, and physical changes such as increased number for synaptic connections = ____________

electrostatic repulsion

according toe "long term potentiation" video, what causes the Mg to become dislodged from NMDA and allows Ca to enter

SCN

activity of the pineal gland is regulated by...

high frequency and low amplititude

alpha description / stage 1

tau protein

also accumulates and produces tangles, structures formed from degeneration within neurons

Circadian rhythms

also present in eating, drinking, urination, secretion of hormone, sensitivity to drugs, and other variables. Body temperature also fluctuates (36.7°C at night and 37.2°C in the late afternoon).

cognitive requirements

an increased need for REM sleep reflects and increase need in...

Habituation and sensitization

aplysia was used to study...

adenosine

assists in helping someone sleep along with melatonin

Obesity

because of the increasing prevalence of human ______, our brain-to-body ratio is declining

not as effective.

because stress and small amounts of cortisol and NE increase activity in amygdala/hippocampus and therefore consolidation, studying too early is _____________, but studying last minute produces too much cortisol and decreases consolidation

The dendrite may build more AMPA receptors or move them into a better position, Neurons make more NMDA receptors, The dendrite may make more branches, thus forming additional synapses with the same axon, The AMPA receptors become more responsive than before

calcium enhances the responsiveness to glutamate leading to the following effects... (4)

stroke by 4.5 times

consistently sleep less than 6 hours a night increases one's risk for ....

declarative; procedural

current thinking is that the hippocampus is most important for _________________ memories and the basal ganglia is more important for ______________ memories

locus coeruleus ; GABA

decrease activity in the _______________ and increased activity of ________ prevent long term memories of dreams from being formed

explicit memory or declarative memory

deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory

adolescents; adults

disruption of the pineal gland shows sleep/wake disruption in ______ but not in _______

spines

formations on the dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrites' capacity to form connections with other neurons seen in "synaptic plasticity - how synapses spark" video

delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD)

full sleep cycle but shifted. can't sleep until late and wake up late

improves cognitive abilities including learning new tasks

in monkeys that are sleep deprived, orexin...

decreased arousal

increased GABA from inhibitory cells from the basel forebrain =

increase in arousal, AND ach, NE, histamine

increased orexin from the hypothalamus =

implicit memory

influence of a recent experience on behavior, even if one does not realize that he or she is using memory at all

Aplysia

is a marine invertebrate related to the common slug, often used for physiological studies of learning. _______ have fewer neurons than any vertebrate, and many are large and easy to study. A commonly studied behavior in the ______ is the gill withdrawal response.

CaMKII

keeps pathway sensitive to incoming information for longer periods of time (such as for relearning in critical period) requires less time to relearn during this period

prefrontal cortex

korsakoff's syndrome affects many areas of the brain but especially...

drowsiness, inability to concentrate, an impaired memory

lack of REM produces...

coincident indicators

nmda

Charles Spearman

one of the first psychological research finders. Reported as a rule, all measures of cognitive performance correlate positively with one another

hippocampus (and olfactory system)

only cortical areas that seem to regenerate neurons - also there are lots of glutamate receptors (in the main one)

1. amygdala 2. thalamus 3. parietal lobe 4. temporal lobe

other important areas: 1. ______ is important for emotional memories 2. ______ is the sensory relay station for afferent neurons (gateway for all incoming sensory info) 3. ______ important in the association of ideas 4. ________ important in semantic memories ("where" pathway)

sensory > WM/STM > LTM

process of making memories according to "How we make memories: crash course"

neurocognitive theory

proposal that dreams represent thinking related to recent memories under conditions of reduced sensory input

positive and large - wants to cross barrier to get inside but is too big - blocks NMDA unless something dislodges it - becomes dislodged when the inside of the local postsynaptic neuron becomes positive (when AMPA depolarizes neuron)

qualities of Mg

NMDA

receptor that is usually blocked by magnesium and nothing happens with glutamte is released from the presynaptic receptor... if Mg is removed and glutamate binds, the result is twice the depolarizing effect = more likely to reach threshold

AMPA

receptors that are basic ionotropic receptors - glutamate binds, opens the sodium channel, and perhaps reaches threshold

NE

released by SCN

melatonin

released by pineal gland

K- complexes

sharp, high amplitude waves seen in stage 2

Phase advanced insomnia

shift in rhythm where someone falls asleep easily but awakens early.

Phase delayed insomnia

shift in rhythm where someone has trouble falling asleep at the usual time.

thalamus and frontal cortex

sleep spindles seem to be generated by activity in the...

basal ganglia

the _________ are important for implicit memory and habit learning. Destruction leads to lack of learning mazes in mice, but if it is already learned, destruction does not change it

True Even after years of a night shift schedule, workers continue to feel groggy on the job and sleep poorly during the day

the body of night shift workers temperature continues to peak when they are sleeping in the day instead of while they are working at night.

Procedural memory

the development of motor skills and habits; a special kind of implicit memory. H.M. acquired new skills without apparent difficulty.

Consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

- recall - recognition - relearning

three measures of retention from "How we make memories: crash course"

True

true or false - Almost all cortical and subcortical structures are involved in some aspect of memory.

True

true or false - Altering gene expression is being studied in mice. Improvements come with a cost: generally impair a different type of memory

True

true or false - Certain areas of the hypothalamus stimulate arousal by releasing the neurotransmitter histamine, which produces excitatory effects throughout the brain. Antihistamine drugs produce drowsiness if they cross the blood-brain barrier.

False

true or false - During sleep, body temperature and metabolic rate increase slightly.

True

true or false - During sleep, the brain also exhibits spindle activities of sleep spindles, which increase in number after new learning.

True

true or false - Hippocampal damage impairs performance on both delayed matching-to-sample and delayed nonmatching-to-sample tasks.

True

true or false - If a reminder is followed by a similar experience, the memory is reconsolidated. New experiences during the reconsolidation process can modify the memory.

True

true or false - LTP depends on production of several proteins, and enhancing production of these proteins enhances memory in rodents. Moderate doses of stimulant drugs enhance learning by increasing arousal. Caffeine and methylphenidate are both examples.

True

true or false - Mammals have three versions of PER and several versions of TIM.

True

true or false - Melatonin release usually starts 2 or 3 hours before bedtime. Melatonin stimulates receptors in the SCN to reset the biological clock.

True- Drugs that block NMDA prevent the establishment of LTP, but they do not interfere with the maintenance of LTP.

true or false - Once LTP has been established, it no longer depends on NMDA synapses.

True

true or false - People with Alzheimer's disease have better procedural than declarative memory and better implicit than explicit memory.

True

true or false - People with Down syndrome (a type of mental retardation caused by having three copies of chromosome 21) usually get Alzheimer's disease if they survive into middle age. This led researchers to discover a gene on chromosome 21 linked with early-onset Alzheimer's disease, but this form of the disease only accounts for 1% of total cases.

True - This suggests that the hippocampus is more important for declarative memory and the basal ganglia is more important for procedural memory. Psychologists no longer believe in a strict separation between the tasks of the two structures as nearly all tasks activate both areas.

true or false - People with amnesia from hippocampal damage perform randomly on the weather task (when asked what the weather will be like based on images). However, if they continue for long enough, they show gradual improvement based on habits supported by the basal ganglia.

True

true or false - People with sleep apnea have many brain areas that appear to have lost neurons. They consequently show deficiencies of learning, reasoning, attention, and impulse control. Research with mice suggests that sleep apnea leads to the aforementioned deficiencies (not the other way around) because of the deprivation of oxygen. Genetics, hormones, and obesity are all causes of this disorder.

True

true or false - REM sleep depends on both serotonin and acetylcholine activity for its onset and continuation. Stimulation of acetylcholine synapses quickly moves a sleeper into REM, and serotonin interrupts or shortens REM sleep. Norepinephrine from the locus coeruleus also blocks REM sleep.

True

true or false - REM sleep is associated with dreaming, but dreams can happen in non-REM sleep.

True

true or false - Research shows that the patterns that occur in the brain during sleep resembled those that occurred during learning, yet were more rapid during sleep. This suggests that the brain replays its daily experiences during sleep and reinforces the learning through repetition. Sleep strengthen memory selectively by reinforcing certain synaptic connections and weakening others to prevent over-activity of the brain.

True

true or false - Sleep depends on GABA-mediated inhibition. While spontaneously active neurons continue to fire at a normal rate, we are unconscious because GABA inhibits synaptic activity.

True

true or false - Small to moderate amount of cortisol activate the amygdala and hippocampus, where they enhance the storage and consolidation of recent experiences.

True

true or false - Some species that are efficient at all hours of the day and night have evolved to never sleep (e.g., some fish species, dolphins after giving birth, some bird species).

True

true or false - The hippocampus is important for remembering details and context. Recent memories have significant detail and depend on the hippocampus. Older memories have fewer details and are less reliant on the hippocampus.

True

true or false - The relationship between LTP and learning is unknown at this time, but studying the biochemistry of LTP has improved our understanding of what could impair or improve memory.

True

true or false - The time needed for consolidation varies enormously. Memorizing interesting facts will take less time than memorizing boring ones. Emotionally significant memories form quickly.

True

true or false - When comparing family (e.g. rodents) those with larger brains learn faster and retain their learning better than smaller species. This is not true if you compare species (human vs whale)

True

true or false - heritability of intellectual performance increases as people grow older and seek more educational opportunities while also makes sense that heritability decreases for those in impoverished conditions. - genetic advantage is wasted.

True

true or false - the use of tranquilizers, such as sleeping pills, can lead to insomnia.

True

true or false -REM sleep has been implicated as a useful tool for memory storage. It is a way of consolidating different types of memories. Research suggests that REM sleep may also be a way of getting oxygen to the corneas.

true

true or false: We get long term memory from a bunch of neurons firing together even though we could replace individual neurons with replacement neurons without changing the memory

true

true or false: REM sleep looks like awake state pontine-geniculate-occipital spikes occur here Ach is main NT - irregular HR and respiration - erections - increase O2 consumption

true

true or false: melatonin has less effect on blind individuals

implicit memory

unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions

explicit memory

use this while trying to study the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

Polysomnograph

A combination of EEG and eye-movement records.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly and is accompanied by no change in other stimuli. Habituation in Aplysia reflects a change in the synapse between the sensory neuron and a motor neuron.

Alzheimer's disease

A dementia that becomes more prevalent with advancing age. Symptoms include short-term and long-term memory loss, confusion, restlessness, hallucinations, and disturbances of eating and sleeping.

Hypocretin

A different group of axons from the hypothalamus (primarily the lateral nucleus of the hypothalamus) releases the peptide neurotransmitter orexin (also called _________). Orexin is necessary for staying awake.

Narcolepsy

A disorder characterized by frequent unexpected periods of sleepiness during the day. Symptoms include gradual or sudden attacks of sleepiness, occasional cataplexy (attack of muscle weakness while awake), sleep paralysis (inability to move while asleep), and hypnagogic hallucination (dreamlike experiences occurring at the onset of sleep).

Jet lag

A disruption of our biological rhythms due to crossing time zones.

PGO (pons-geniculate-occipital) waves

A distinctive pattern of high-amplitude electrical potentials associated with REM sleep. The waves are detected first in the pons, shortly afterward in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, and then in the occipital cortex.

melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Pontomesencephalon

A part of the reticular formation that contributes to cortical arousal. Stimulation of this structure awakens a sleeping individual or increases alertness in someone already awake.

Vegetative State

A person alternates between periods of sleep and moderate arousal, although they show no awareness of their surroundings.

Minimally Conscious State

A person shows occasional, brief periods of purposeful actions and limited speech comprehension.

Long-term depression (LTD)

A prolonged decrease in responsiveness to synaptic input after repeated pairing with some previous input that is generally of low frequency. LTD occurs in the cerebellum and hippocampus.

Sleep

A state that the brain actively produces, characterized by decreased response to stimuli.

neuronal degeneration in the brain, and the dying axons and dendrites form plaques in many areas of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, as well as other brain areas

Abnormal genes located on several different chromosomes can lead to an accumulation of amyloid- deposits in the brain. Deposits of amyloid cause ...

repeatedly stimulate nearby AMPA glutamate receptors, thereby depolarizing the dendrite. Depolarization repels the magnesium ions and allows glutamate to open NMDA channels so that sodium and calcium ions can enter the cell

About the only way to activate NMDA receptors is first to...

Classical Conditioning

After repeated presentations (although a strong stimulus will work with only one pairing) of a conditioned stimulus (CS), which initially elicits no response, with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which automatically elicits an unconditioned response (UCR), the subject begins responding to the CS because they have come to associate it with the UCS. For example, Pavlov classically conditioned a dog to respond to have a salivating response to a bell after continuously pairing the bell with the dog's food.

Size

All mammalian brains have the same organization, but they differ greatly in ____

Equipotentiality

All parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behaviors like learning; any part of the cortex can substitute for any other.

- turn on/off genes - increase responsiveness to glutamate - activates production of CaMKII (opens pathway for "critical learning") - increases branching of dendrites (therefore AMPA receptors) - increases production of NMDA - increases "cognitive tree"

Ca's role in postsynaptic neurons (5-6)

activating a protein called CaMKII

Calcium enhances the responsiveness to glutamate by...

induce ; This increases the future responsiveness of these glutamate receptors.

Calcium ions _____ the expression of otherwise inactive genes, which produce proteins that alter the activities of more than a hundred other known chemicals within the dendrites. What are the results on glutamate receptors?

Periodic limb movement disorder

Repeated involuntary movements of the legs and arms that can cause insomnia. The limb movements occur mostly during NREM sleep. Often treated with tranquilizers. - not restless leg syndrome

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

Same as paradoxical sleep. Researchers discovered that repeated eye movements were associated with paradoxical sleep. Also characterized by fast low-voltage brain waves, plus breathing and heart rates similar to stage 1 sleep. Paradoxical sleep is synonymous with REM sleep, except that some animal species lack eye movements.

Karl Lashley

Searched for the Engram. - worked on learning (using cortical lesions in varying locations within the brains of rats) led him to propose two principles about the nervous system (equipotentiality and mass action)

Paradoxical sleep

Sleep stage discovered in cats in which the brain is very active but muscles are completely relaxed. Named "paradoxical" because it is deep sleep in some ways and light in others.

Zeitgeber

Stimulus that is necessary for resetting the circadian rhythm. Light is the dominant zeitgeber for land animals.

Delayed matching-to-sample task

Task used to measure declarative memory in animals. In this procedure, animals see an object (the sample) and after a delay get to choose between two objects, one of which matches the sample.

Working memory

Temporary storage of memories about a task that one is attending to at the moment.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

bike messengers, truck drivers = better than average spatial memories

enlarged hippocampus can be seen in what professions? Why?

glutmate

essential for transfer of older memories to frontal cortex from the hippocampus

increases

f a cut is made right below the midbrain, separating the hindbrain from the rest of the brain, sleep ________. This seems logical in that the cut prevents information from reaching the thalamus, and thus there is no stimulation. This suggests that the midbrain is important in attention, arousal, and consciousness

endogenous cycles

generated from internal biological mechanisms

- cleaning up the byproducts of neural activity, - helping with solidifying connections between neurons, - even assisting with increasing the branching of dendrites

glial cells are active during sleep to... (3)

He showed no ability to form episodic memories (memories of a single event). He could describe facts that he learned before the operation but could not recount personal events. He did retain the ability to weakly retain semantic (factual) memories. Memory loss also affected his ability to describe the future

how did the surgery affect HM's episodic and semantic memory?

10 days

how long does it generally take to get back on schedule after something like jet lag

25 hours

how long is the day of the man who lived in a cave for 7 months

activation-synthesis theory

idea that a dream represents the brain's effort to make sense of distorted information

tau protein

important in maintained the structure of neurons

dentate gyrus, CA1, and CA3

important structures of the hippocampus according to "long term potentiation" video

anterograde amnesia

loss of long-term memories for events that happened after brain damage

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before brain damage)

NE

main NT of NREM sleep

Insomnia

may be due to shifts in circadian rhythms (e.g., trying to sleep while body temperature rises).

anademide

mechanism for forgetting: retrotransmitter (similar to marijuana) released by glutamate receptors that inhibit the presynaptic neuron from releasing the neurotransmitter.

narcoleptic

mice without orexin genes are...

Better Implicit than Explicit Memory

people with amnesia usually show...

low frequency and high amplitude

stage 3 / delta description

alertness/awakeness

stimulating the pontomesencephalon (part of RF) increases ______________ in cats

MTS

technique used to teach a child to read. show dog pic then the word. they have to match them.

When people fall asleep, they enter stage 1, followed by stages 2, 3, and 4, in that order. Then, they cycle back from stage 4 through stages 3, 2, and then enter rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. After entering REM sleep, the sleep cycle sequence repeats, with each complete cycle lasting 90 minutes.Early in the night, stages 3 and 4 predominate, but toward morning, stage 4 grows shorter and REM grows longer.

what is the order of a sleep cycle? How long does is last?

easily entrain the circadian rhythm, but when PER and TIM are high light has much less ability to entrain the cycle (so tired you can't hold your eyes open)

when PER and TIM are low, light can...

CA1 and CA3

where LTP is most studied according to "Long term potential" video

Stage 1

which stage of sleep is a stage of light sleep noted by the presence of irregular, jagged, and low-voltage waves.

Stage 2

which stage of sleep is characterized by sleep spindles (a burst of 12-14 Hz waves that last approximately 0.5 second) and K-complexes (sharp, high-amplitude waves followed by a smaller, positive wave).

Stages 3 and 4

which stages of sleep are known as slow-wave sleep (SWS), which comprises slow, large-amplitude waves. - also where you get sleep waking and talking

Sleep may have evolved to serve different purposes that it did in the distant past - For most animals, sleep conserves energy during times when the animal is inefficient. Animals also increase sleep during food shortages (i.e., hibernation) - Animal species vary in their sleep habits in accordance with how many hours per day they devote to finding food, how safe they are from predators while they sleep, and other aspects of their way of life

why sleep?