Pl100 WPR II
23-8 Define microaggression.
Microaggression is a term used for brief and commonplace daily verbal or behavioural indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward stigmatized or culturally marginalized groups.
21-9 Summarize the lessons learned from Milgram's study of obedience and the implications for society.
Milgram conducted many variations of this basic procedure to explore some of the factors that affect obedience. He found that obedience rates decreased when the learner was in the same room as the experimenter and declined even further when the teacher had to physically touch the learner to administer the punishment. Participants also were less willing to continue the procedure after seeing other teachers refuse to press the shock levers, and they were significantly less obedient when the instructions to continue came from a person they believed to be another participant rather than from the experimenter. Finally, Milgram found that women participants followed the experimenter's instructions at exactly the same rate the men had.
28-3 Explain how anger is associated with aggression.
Anger can sometimes be the drive towards aggression like hostile aggression.
27-4 Describe Gottman's destructive communication tactics (The Four Horseman).
Criticism - trying to explain someone why they are in the wrong Contempt - being resentful or disrespectful Defensiveness - feeling attacked and want to defend oneself from criticism Stonewalling - when the listener withdraws from the interaction, shuts down, and simply stops responding to their partner.
23-1 Differentiate between prejudice and discrimination.
Prejudice is a baseless and often negative preconception or attitude toward members of a group. Prejudice can have a strong influence on how people behave and interact with others, particularly with those who are different from them, even unconsciously or without the person realizing they are under the influence of their internalized prejudices. Prejudice is an attitude based on negative bias. Discrimination is the treatment that is driven by prejudicial attitudes. Discrimination is the negative treatment driven by prejudice.
21-7 Explain three compliance techniques. These techniques are located at: https://simplypsychology.org/compliance.html
The Foot in the Door Technique The foot in the door technique is a compliance tactic that assumes agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a second, larger request. The Door in the Face Technique The door-in-the-face technique is a compliance method whereby the persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down. The Low-Ball Technique The low-balling technique is a compliance method in which the persuader gets a person to commit to a low-ball offer they have no intention of keeping; then the price is suddenly increased. Since a person has already committed, it is hard to say no to the new higher price demand.
23-5 Explain the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility.
The bystander effect - is a phenomenon in which the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help. Diffusion of responsibility - sociopsychological phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present.
26-3 List and Describe Dr. John Gottman's 7 Principles (ingredients) in a long-lasting relationship.
1. Build Love Maps: Love Maps are your ongoing and ever-evolving understanding of your partner's world as they move through time. Use fresh Love Maps and update regularly. 2. Express Fondness and Admiration: Couples who function well are able to appreciate and enjoy most aspects of their partner's behavior and learn to live with differences. Notice the good things your partner is doing and call them out. Use generously. 3. Turn Toward One Another: Conversational patterns of interest and respect, even about mundane topics are crucial to happiness. Turning Toward can be as simple as a verbal acknowledgment to your partner's bids. Note: for best results Turn Towards, not Away or Against. This is one of the secrets for making this recipe last. 4. Accept Influence: Members of a couple who take the other partner's preferences into account and are willing to compromise and adapt are happiest. Don't be a hero, let your partner help with this step. 5. Solve Problems That Are Solvable: Couples who can find compromise on issues are using five tactics. They soften start-up (see Softened Start-Up Conflict Crostini!) so the beginning of the conversation leads to a satisfactory end. They offer and respond to repair attempts, or behaviors that maintain the emotional connection and emphasize "we/us" over individual needs. They effectively soothe themselves (see the Self-Soothie Smoothie!) and their partner. They use compromise and negotiation skills. They are tolerant of one another's vulnerabilities and ineffective conversational habits, keeping the focus on shared concern for the well-being of the relationship. For more detailed instructions on this step, read this. 6. Manage Conflict and Overcome Gridlock: The Gottman Method helps couples manage, not resolve, conflict. Conflict is viewed as inherent in relationships and doesn't go away. In fact, it is a key layer in this recipe! Happy couples report the majority of their conflicts, 69% are perpetual in nature, meaning they are present throughout the course of time and are dealt with only as needed. Though important, it is crucial not to dwell on this step of the recipe. 7.Create Shared Meaning: Connection in a relationship occurs as each person experiences the multitude of ways in which their partner enriches their life with a shared history and helps them find meaning and make sense of struggles. This dish is meant to be shared!
20-1 a. Need to belong
Across individuals, societies, and even eras, humans consistently seek inclusion over exclusion, membership over isolation, and acceptance over rejection. As Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary conclude, humans have a need to belong: "a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and impactful interpersonal relationships" (1995, p. 497).
27-2 Explain how the four types of responses can affect potential relationship intimacy in different ways.
Active and constructive - authentic, enthusiastic, supportive Passive and constructive - understated support Active and Destructive - pointing out the negative Passive and destructive - ignoring the event
22-3 Differentiate between attributions and attitudes and describe the three components associated with an attitude. The three components of attitude - Affective, Behavioural & Cognitive
Affective Component - The emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, group, event or issue Behavioural Component - The way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions (or how we might behave should the opportunity arise) Cognitive Component - The beliefs we have about an object, person, group, event or issue
23-6 Explain three reasons why people engage in altruistic behavior.
Altruism - selfless attitudes and behavior towards others Kin selection - To help those that are kin reciprocal altruism - Help those that can help you social exchange theory - Helping others because the benefits will outweigh the costs.
28-1 Define aggression and differentiate between instrumental and hostile aggression.
Aggression is any behavior intended to harm another person who does not want to be harmed. Hostile aggression is when aggression stems from feelings of anger. Instrumental aggression is when it is a means to a goal.
28-4 Describe how alcohol consumption relates to aggressive behavior.
Alcohol consumption can sometimes intoxicate someone to be more aggressive or quick to anger.
24-3b. Describe the three solution strategies used to solve problems. (p.391)
Algorithm - step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems Eureka solutions - solutions that comes spontaneously to the mind in a flash Thinking outside the box - requires one to break free of some self-imposed conceptual constraints.
27-5 Describe Gottman's constructive communication tactics (The Four Horseman Antidotes).
Antidote to criticism - Gentle start up: talk about your feelings "I" statements and express a positive need. Antidote to contempt - build culture of appreciation: remind yourself of your partner's positive qualities and find gratitude for positive actions Antidote to defensiveness - take responsibility: accept your partner's perspective and offer an apology Antidote to stonewalling - physiological self-soothing: take a break and spend that time doing something soothing and distracting
21-4 Explain how normative influence played a role in Asch's experiment.
Asch's experiment was done in 1951, and it has had a lasting impact on the world of psychology. The study opened the door for other experiments on conformity and on related topics, such as obedience. The purpose was to study social conformity, which is a type of social influence that results in a change of behavior or belief in order to fit in with a group. Asch wanted to see how often people conform and why. In his experiment, the person at the end of the row was actually the only participant; Asch himself did many variations on the study to see how different factors affected conformity. He found that a larger group and a harder task increased conformity. Meanwhile, he found that when people were allowed to answer privately or when the group was not unanimous, conformity decreased. The Asch Conformity Experiments and Social Pressure The Asch Conformity Experiments demonstrated the power of conformity in groups and showed that even simple objective facts cannot withstand the distorting pressure of group influence.
28-5 Identify and describe effective and ineffective approaches to reducing aggression.
Catharsis (people should express their bottled-up anger) is one of the ways to appropriately deal with aggression because it make anger impossible to sustain. Punishment is defined as inflicting pain or removing pleasure for a misdeed. Because punishment is unpleasant, it can also trigger aggression just like other unpleasant events.
22-4 Summarize two theories of how one's behavior can influence their attitude (cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory). Please review the following website to answer this objective: http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/social-psychology-theories/self-perception-theory/
Cognitive dissonance theory postulates that an underlying psychological tension is created when an individual's behavior is inconsistent with his or her thoughts and beliefs. This underlying tension then motivates an individual to make an attitude change that would produce consistency between thoughts and behaviors. Self-Perception Theory in Social Psychology - iResearchNet According to self-perception theory, when people are unsure of their own attitudes, one way to infer them is by looking at their behaviors ... According to self-perception theory, when people are unsure of their own attitudes, one way to infer them is by looking at their behaviors ...
24-3a a. Describe convergent and divergent thinking problems.
Convergent thinking problems have known solution and divergent thinking problems don't.
25-3 Explain different theories of how gender roles are formed.
Developmental intergroup theory postulates that adults' heavy focus on gender leads children to pay attention to gender as a key source of information about themselves and others, to seek out any possible gender differences, and to form rigid stereotypes based on gender that are subsequently difficult to change. Social learning theory argues that gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling. Gender schema theory argues that children are active learners who essentially socialize themselves. In this case, children actively organize others' behavior, activities, and attributes into gender categories, which are known as schemas.
25-2 Describe the areas where gender differences exist with respect to behavior and mental processes, as well as those areas where differences are often believed to exist but are not present.
Differences between males and females can be based on (a) actual gender differences (i.e., men and women are actually different in some abilities), (b) gender roles (i.e., differences in how men and women are supposed to act), or (c) gender stereotypes (i.e., differences in how we think men and women are). Sometimes gender stereotypes and gender roles reflect actual gender differences, but sometimes they do not. Like boys are believed to exhibit higher rates of unprovoked physical aggression in comparison to girls but not provoked.
25-3 Understand sexism and its impact on both genders.
Differential treatment on the basis of gender is also referred to gender discrimination and is an inevitable consequence of gender stereotypes. When it is based on unwanted treatment related to sexual behaviors or appearance, it is called sexual harassment. Sexism can have its way of allowing or condoning certain behavior that can place either gender in harm's way sexually.
28-6 Identify and explain the eight Bystander Intervention strategies
Disrupt the situation - Every situation is different, and there is no one way to respond. When you witness a person being harassed, threatened, or followed by someone, you can try to distract the harasser or insert yourself into their interaction to help the targeted person get out of the situation. Don't act alone. - Get support from people around you by calling on others to help. The more people who come together to interrupt a situation, the more you reinforce the idea that the behavior is not acceptable in your community. Confront the harasser. - Whether or not you know the harasser, you can intervene by telling them in a respectful, direct, and honest way that their words or actions are not okay. Set the expectation to speak up and step in. - Talking openly and responding directly to inappropriate behaviors will have a snowball effect and encourage others to respond. It shows you recognize the comment or behavior is unacceptable and shows others it will not be tolerated. Understand how your privilege positions you to speak up. - Your age, race, gender, etc. may make it safer for you to speak up and be vocal about harassment - especially when you are not the target or representative of the target group. Focus on the needs and experience of the target and ensure they receive the support the need. - Let them know that what has happened to them isn't their fault. Take action online. - Everyone can help address an online culture that tolerates rape and sexual violence. Be proactive. - Practice with friends and family what you would say and how you would say it if you're ever put in the situation where you need to confront a harasser.
24-6 Describe how emotional intelligence influences behavior in the workplace and in schools.
Emotional intelligence influences how teachers and supervisors will be able to determine the mental standing of students or subordinates.
24-4 Define emotional intelligence and describe how it relates to standard/general intelligence.
Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize one's emotions in oneself and others
23-7 Explain the empathy-altruism hypothesis and describe the two different motivations underlying selfless behavior according to the theory.
Empathy-altruism is the idea that people help others selflessly only when they feel empathy for them. Egoistic motivation reduces the teacher's stress. Empathetic stress reduces the student's or person in need stress.
20-1 Explain the significance of groups
Even though people are capable of living separate and apart from others, they join with others because groups meet their psychological and social needs.
23-3 Differentiate between implicit and explicit prejudice and describe how they are measured.
Explicit prejudice is plainly stated. Implicit prejudice is indirect, perhaps unconscious.
24-3c. Describe how fixation, mental set, and functional fixedness serve as obstacles to solutions.
Fixation is the inability to break out of a certain mindset in order to think about a problem with a fresh perspective. Mental set is the tendency to continue to use old problem solving strategies that have worked in the past, even if better solutions are available. Functional-fixedness is when someone is blind to different or unusual methods of doing something.
28-2 Explain the relationship between frustration and aggression.
Frustration is blocking goal-directed behavior and it serves as the cause of aggression.
25-1 Explain gender and distinguish among its related concepts.
Gender is the psychological aspect of being masculine or feminine. Sex is the biological concept.
25-2 Explain how gender roles are formed.
Gender roles are the behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture.
27-3 Describe how gratitude, forgiveness, spending meaningful time together, and accumulating positive deposits relate to relationship satisfaction.
Gratitude - Relationship researchers report that expressing gratitude on a regular basis is an important means by which positive deposits may be made into relationship bank accounts. In a recent study, participants were randomly assigned to write about daily events, express gratitude to a friend, discuss a positive memory with a friend, or think grateful thoughts about a friend twice a week for three weeks. Forgiveness is something else you can do regularly to aid relationship satisfaction and commitment. Unresolved conflict can put couples at risk of developing the negative cycle of interaction that causes further harm to relationships. Spending meaningful time together - Some suggest that the best way to spell love is T-I-M-E. In our fast-paced society, many relationships are time deprived. In the beginning phases of a relationship, this rarely seems to be an issue given the novelty and excitement of the relationship, however, discovering new things about one's partner declines and couples can slump into relationship boredom. The self-expansion model (Aron & Aron, 1996) suggests that people naturally seek to expand their capacity and that intimate relationships are an important way by which they accomplish self-expansion.
20-1 c. Identity and membership
Groups are not only founts of information during times of ambiguity, they also help us answer the existentially significant question, "Who am I?" Common sense tells us that our sense of self is our private definition of who we are, a kind of archival record of our experiences, qualities, and capabilities. Yet, the self also includes all those qualities that spring from memberships in groups. People are defined not only by their traits, preferences, interests, likes, and dislikes, but also by their friendships, social roles, family connections, and group memberships. The self is not just a "me," but also a "we."
20-1 d. Advantages of living in groups
Groups may be humans' most useful invention, for they provide us with the means to reach goals that would elude us if we remained alone. Individuals in groups can secure advantages and avoid disadvantages that would plague the lone individuals. In his theory of social integration, Moreland concludes that groups tend to form whenever "people become dependent on one another for the satisfaction of their needs" (1987, p. 104). The advantages of group life may be so great that humans are biologically prepared to seek membership and avoid isolation. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, because groups have increased humans' overall fitness for countless generations, individuals who carried genes that promoted solitude-seeking were less likely to survive and procreate compared to those with genes that prompted them to join groups (Darwin, 1859/1963).
20-1 b. Affiliation
Groups not only satisfy the need to belong, they also provide members with information, assistance, and social support. Leon Festinger's theory of social comparison (1950, 1954) suggested that in many cases people join with others to evaluate the accuracy of their personal beliefs and attitudes. Stanley Schachter (1959) explored this process by putting individuals in ambiguous, stressful situations and asking them if they wished to wait alone or with others. He found that people affiliate in such situations—they seek the company of others.
23-9 Explain the "NICE" Model:
Positive effects of intergroup contact N: Societal Norms support positive group interactions I: Interactions are personal and close C: Activities are interdependent and Cooperative E: Groups are given Equal status
27-1 Describe the concept of an emotional bank account and identify ways that people can make deposits to their relationship bank accounts.
If you have five or more positive interactions for every one negative interaction, then you're making regular deposits into your emotional bank account, which keeps your relationship in the green.
23-4 Define self-fulfilling prophecy (F&R p.58) and relate it to the concept of stereotyping and discrimination.
If you truly believe that "it's hopeless," then your behavioral response is likely to be inaction (failing to train for the run). These thoughts and consequences will have locked you in to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Because you believe "it's hopeless," there is no point in training for the run. Because you failed to train for the run, it becomes more likely that you will indeed fail.
26-4 Summarize the "12 Things all High-Performing Teams Have in Common" and compare the similarities with Gottman's 7 Principles (ingredients) of Long-Lasting Relationships.
If you work as part of a team, you know the importance of teamwork in producing top-notch results. Effective teams promote hard work and innovation and a great final product. Conversely, ineffective teams will have great difficulty in completing a project successfully. Based on their experience with cohesive, productive teams in the workplace, we asked 12 members of Forbes Human Resources Council what all great teams have in common. Here are the qualities they believe are essential to high performance, and how your company can strive to get there.
21-6 Define descriptive norm and explain how descriptive norms relate to informational social influence.
In these situations, we often rely on descriptive norms (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990). That is, we act the way most people—or most people like us—act. This is not an unreasonable strategy. Other people often have information that we do not, especially when we find ourselves in new situations. If you have ever been part of a conversation that went something like this, "Do you think we should?" "Sure. Everyone else is doing it.", you have experienced the power of informational influence.
24-1 Define intelligence.
Intelligence is a set of cognitive skills that include abstract thinking.
24-2 Explain Spearman's g factor.
Intelligence is a single, general capacity made of specific components.
22-1 Differentiate between internal (or dispositional) and external (situational) attributions.
Internal - ascribes other people's behavior to something within them, such as their personalities, motives, or attitudes. External - when they think someone outside the person, such as the nature of the situation, is the cause of his or her behavior.
25-1 Define gender and sex, as well as gender identity and sexual orientation.
It is common to think of gender roles in terms of gender stereotypes, or the beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behaviors of men and women. A person's gender identity refers to their psychological sense of being male or female. In contrast, a person's sexual orientation is the direction of their emotional and erotic attraction toward members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes.
21-3 Differentiate between informational and normative social influence.
Normative influence - When normative influence is operating, people go along with the crowd because they are concerned about what others think of them. We don't want to look out of step or become the target of criticism just because we like different kinds of music or dress differently than everyone else. Fitting in also brings rewards such as camaraderie and compliments. Informational influence - The other reason we sometimes go along with the crowd is that people are often a source of information. Psychologists refer to this process as informational influence. Most of us, most of the time, are motivated to do the right thing. If society deems that we put litter in a proper container, speak softly in libraries, and tip our waiter, then that's what most of us will do. But sometimes it's not clear what society expects of us.
26-2 Explain each of Chapman's Five Love Languages and why it is important to know your partner's love language.
Receiving gifts - being appreciative and open to receiving Words of affirmation - compliments Physical touch - tendency to show physical affection Quality time - wanting to spend time with your loved ones Acts of service - Being always there or ready to help your loved ones.
26-1 Discuss Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love and highlight how its components evolve with time.
Romantic love - intimacy + passion companionate - passion + commitment fatuous love - intimacy + commitment Intimacy, which involves feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness Passion, which involves feelings and desires that lead to physical attraction, romance, and sexual consummation Decision/commitment, which involves feelings that lead a person to remain with someone and move toward shared goals
22-2 Differentiate between self-serving bias and the fundamental attribution error.
Self-serving bias - is the tendency to make situational attributions for our failures but dispositional attributions for our successes. Fundamental attribution error - is the tendency to explain others' behavior in dispositional rather than situational terms.
21-2 Explain conformity.
Similarly, decisions about behaviors such as smoking and drinking are influenced by whether the people we spend time with engage in these activities. Psychologists refer to this widespread tendency to act and think like the people around us as conformity.
24-7 Define social intelligence and differentiate from emotional intelligence.
Social Intelligence comes with the notion that it is not enough to simply manage one's own emotional life. We also need to foster our connections with others. In short, social intelligence is about the ability to accurately "read" other people around us, as well as our social context - and act accordingly. Goleman shows that the way we engage with our social environment has profound consequences not just for our external success. It also improves physical and mental health.
22-5 Explain how stereotype threat and social comparison affect how we evaluate ourselves and others. Please review the following websites to answer this objective: https://www.simplypsychology.org/katz-braly.html (See Sub-heading: Stereotype Threat) https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-social-comparison-process-2795872
Social comparison theory was first proposed in 1954 by psychologist Leon Festinger and suggested that people have an innate drive to evaluate themselves, often in comparison to others.1 People make all kinds of judgments about themselves, and one of the key ways that we do this is through social comparison, or analyzing the self in relation to others. The use of stereotypes is a major way in which we simplify our social world; since they reduce the amount of processing (i.e. thinking) we have to do when we meet a new person.
20-4 Explain how to reduce Social Loafing
Social loafing can have a serious impact on group performance and efficiency. However, there are some things that can be done to minimize the effects of social loafing.1 Assigning individual tasks and responsibilities Creating small groups and establishing individual accountability can help. Establishing clear standards and rules Evaluating individual and group performance Highlighting the achievements of individual members
21-1 Explain social roles and social norms.
Social roles are specific roles that one adopts within a certain social group. Often the role that one is assigned/given/chooses within a group influences their behavior. Social norms are rules about acceptable behavior imposed by the cultural context in which one lives.
20-3 Explain social loafing.
Sometimes, people just don't exert as much effort when working on a collective endeavor, nor do they expend as much cognitive effort trying to solve problems, as they do when working alone. They display social loafing (Latané, 1981).
20-6 Explain the group development stages and characteristics.
Stage 1 - "Forming". Members expose information about themselves in polite but tentative interactions. They explore the purposes of the group and gather information about each other's interests, skills, and personal tendencies. Stage 2 - "Storming". Disagreements about procedures and purposes surface, so criticism and conflict increase. Much of the conflict stems from challenges between members who are seeking to increase their status and control in the group. Stage 3 - "Norming". Once the group agrees on its goals, procedures, and leadership, norms, roles, and social relationships develop that increase the group's stability and cohesiveness. Stage 4 - "Performing". The group focuses its energies and attention on its goals, displaying higher rates of task-orientation, decision-making, and problem-solving. Stage 5 - "Adjourning". The group prepares to disband by completing its tasks, reduces levels of dependency among members, and dealing with any unresolved issues.
25-8 Explain sexism and the different types
The concept of ambivalent sexism recognizes the complex nature of gender attitudes, in which women are often associated with positive and negative qualities (Glick & Fiske, 2001). It has two components: First, hostile sexism refers to the negative attitudes of women as inferior and incompetent relative to men. Second, benevolent sexism refers to the perception that women need to be protected, supported, and adored by men.
23-2 Explain the consequences of exclusion and inclusion and relate them to in-group/out-group bias and out-group homogeneity.
The consequences of exclusion can be described as: We sometimes evaluate and treat people differently because of the group they belong to. Exclusion can lead to other people's feelings being demeaned and left out. Inclusion can allow people to feel part of the team. IN-group/out-group bias is when those part of a group show positive feelings towards themselves and not towards others outside the group. Out-group homogeneity is when a group treats everybody outside the group the same.
22-7 Identify and describe the two pathways of persuasion that are part of the elaboration likelihood model.
The elaboration likelihood model determines if a message will be more or less persuasive through two different routes: the central route and the peripheral route. Low motivation leads to the peripheral route, while high motivation leads to the central route. The peripheral route, on the other hand, relies on superficial cues that have little to do with logic. The central route emphasizes objective communication of information.
22-6 Explain the Triad of Trustworthiness and relate it to effective persuasion.
The triad of trustworthiness is authority, likability, and honesty. Effective persuasion requires trusting the source of the communication. Studies have identified three characteristics that lead to trust: perceived authority, honesty, and likability.
24-5 Describe Mayer & Salovey's Four-Branch model of emotional intelligence.
This model proposes that four fundamental emotion-related abilities comprise EI: (1) perception/expression of emotion, (2) use of emotion to facilitate thinking, (3) understanding of emotion, and (4) management of emotion in oneself and others.
21-8 Describe Milgram's study on obedience.
To understand this obedience, Milgram conducted a series of laboratory investigations. In all but one variation of the basic procedure, participants were men recruited from the community surrounding Yale University, where the research was carried out. These citizens signed up for what they believed to be an experiment on learning and memory. In particular, they were told the research concerned the effects of punishment on learning. Three people were involved in each session. One was the participant. Another was the experimenter. The third was a confederate who pretended to be another participant.
20-2 Explain social facilitation.
Triplett succeeded in sparking interest in a phenomenon now known as social facilitation: the enhancement of an individual's performance when that person works in the presence of other people. However, it remained for Robert Zajonc (1965) to specify when social facilitation does and does not occur. After reviewing prior research, Zajonc noted that the facilitating effects of an audience usually only occur when the task requires the person to perform dominant responses, i.e., ones that are well-learned or based on instinctive behaviors. If the task requires nondominant responses, i.e., novel, complicated, or untried behaviors that the organism has never performed before or has performed only infrequently, then the presence of others inhibits performance.
21-5 Describe how group size, age, public vs private responses, and culture influenced conformity in variations of Asch's study.
We now know that the findings are easily replicated, that there is an increase in conformity with more confederates (up to about five), that teenagers are more prone to conforming than are adults, and that people conform significantly less often when they believe the confederates will not hear their responses (Berndt, 1979; Bond, 2005; Crutchfield, 1955; Deutsch & Gerard, 1955). This last finding is consistent with the notion that participants change their answers because they are concerned about what others think of them. Finally, although we see the effect in virtually every culture that has been studied, more conformity is found in collectivist countries such as Japan and China than in individualistic countries such as the United States (Bond & Smith, 1996). Compared with individualistic cultures, people who live in collectivist cultures place a higher value on the goals of the group than on individual preferences. They also are more motivated to maintain harmony in their interpersonal relations.
25-4 Analyze how gender norms and stereotypes impact sexual behavior.
When gender norms work together, sexual risk taking is increased because it allows them to both making decision that complement each other into doing something not very safe. Essential gender norms romanticizes all terrible stereotype that motivates negative sexual behavior.
20-7 Explain how the following factors (group polarization, common knowledge effect, group think) affect decision-making in groups:
a. Group polarization - Discussion, it turns out, doesn't moderate people's judgments after all. Instead, it leads to group polarization: judgments made after group discussion will be more extreme in the same direction as the average of individual judgments made prior to discussion (Myers & Lamm, 1976). If a majority of members feel that taking risks is more acceptable than exercising caution, then the group will become riskier after a discussion. b. Common knowledge effect - But all too often groups spend much of their discussion time examining common knowledge—information that two or more group members know in common—rather than unshared information. This common knowledge effect will result in a bad outcome if something known by only one or two group members is very important. c. Groupthink - Irving Janis (1982), intrigued by these kinds of blundering groups, carried out a number of case studies of such groups: the military experts that planned the defense of Pearl Harbor; Kennedy's Bay of Pigs planning group; the presidential team that escalated the war in Vietnam. Each group, he concluded, fell prey to a distorted style of thinking that rendered the group members incapable of making a rational decision. Janis labeled this syndrome groupthink: "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action" (p. 9).
24-8 Explain the two aspects of Protoconversations: social awareness and social facility
a. Social Awareness. Social Awareness: How you respond to others • Primal Empathy: Sensing other people's feelings • Attunement: Listening with full receptivity • Empathic Accuracy: Understanding others' thoughts and intentions • Social Cognition: Understanding the social world and the working of a web of relationships b. Social Faculty. Social Facility: Knowing how to have smooth, effective interactions • Synchrony: Interacting smoothly • Self-presentation: Knowing how you come across • Influence: Shaping the outcome of social interactions •Concern: Caring about others' needs
20-5 Explain how the following factors (teamwork, shared mental model, and group cohesion) affect group motivation and performance:
a. Teamwork - Groups can, however, overcome this impediment to performance through teamwork. A group may include many talented individuals, but they must learn how to pool their individual abilities and energies to maximize the team's performance. Team goals must be set, work patterns structured, and a sense of group identity developed. Individual members must learn how to coordinate their actions, and any strains and stresses in interpersonal relations need to be identified and resolved (Salas, Rosen, Burke, & Goodwin, 2009). b. Shared mental model - Teams improve their performance over time as they develop a shared understanding of the team and the tasks they are attempting. Some semblance of this shared mental model is present nearly from its inception, but as the team practices, differences among the members in terms of their understanding of their situation and their team diminish as a consensus becomes implicitly accepted (Tindale, Stawiski, & Jacobs, 2008). c. Group cohesion - Group cohesion is the integrity, solidarity, social integration, or unity of a group. In most cases, members of cohesive groups like each other and the group and they also are united in their pursuit of collective, group-level goals. Members tend to enjoy their groups more when they are cohesive, and cohesive groups usually outperform ones that lack cohesion.
