PR Research Quiz 2

Response Rate

% of participants that showed up divided by how many people you asked

Situation Analysis: What is it?

- A detailed explanation of the "playing field" - Represents what you know - More than a collection of "facts" - it includes your analysis/interpretation

Sampling Examples

- A survey is carried out at a university to estimate the percentage of undergraduates living at home during the current term 1. The university's registrar keeps an alphabetical list of all undergraduates with their current addresses. Someone proposes to choose a number at random between one and one hundred, count that far down the list, then take that name and every hundredth name after it for the sample - THIS IS PROBABILITY SAMPLING: SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING 2. Someone else proposes to go out and take the first hundred undergraduates she sees as the sample - THIS IS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING: CONVENIENT SAMPLING

Publics Analysis

- Ability to identify and analyze publics is critical to an effective campaign - Identify - pinpoint the right group of people - Analyze - carefully examine each public

STRENGTHS of Focus Group

- Allows for some probing - Allows for some storytelling - Collect data that might be difficult to observe - Group feedback, consensus, and conflict

STRENGTHS of Observation

- Allows you to see how people behave in natural environment - Better understanding of context

V. Thank you

- Always thank them again for their time - Give them the incentive (if promised) - See if they have any questions - Make sure they have your contact info, if they think of anything to add or have a question later

IV. PARTICIPANT ADDITION

- Ask the participant if they have anything to add about the issue? Any advice? Anything you should know that you didn't ask about?

ROOM SET UP

- Conducive to communication - Eye contact - Comfortable - Quiet - Name tags * Confidentiality - Consider your materials, visual aids

WHEN ASSEMBLING A FOCUS GROUP CONSIDER...

- Demand Characteristics - Groupthink - Mixing Opposing Subgroups - Sampling - Screeners

Drawing

- Drawing - Participants are asked to draw... - a product - the kind of people they think would buy the product - the setting in which the product would be found or used ....then asked to verbally describe their picture.

III. MAIN QUESTIONS

- Getting answers to your RQs - Group questions by topic (e.g., awareness of the org, attitudes about the org, reactions to message ideas) - Generally go from broad to specific** - Consider the influence of previous questions - Make sure questions are open-ended - Plan for some prompts

Situation Analysis: Why do it?

- Helps you to be familiar with your client, the issue, relevant publics, potential opportunities, challenges, etc. - Enables you to identify what you need to know

RECRUITMENT STEPS

- Identify your target public(s) - Brainstorm how to find contact information for your target publics (often the hardest part) - Choose the best contact method(s) - Create a script (phone, email, in-person)-screening - What would make you want to participate? - Secure a location (if necessary) - Contact potential participants - Remind participants the day before/of

INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUPS MODE: HOW WILL YOU COLLECT THIS DATA?

- In-person (face-to-face) - Video conferencing - Telephone - Chat rooms - And more...

THINGS TO CONSIDER W/ PUBLICS

- Internal vs. External - Primary (key) vs. Secondary - Proponents, Opponents, and the Uncommitted - High/low consequence (involvement)

DETAILS YOU NEED TO PLAN FOR

- Location(s) you will recruit from - Location(s) you will conduct research - How will you get contact information for participants (unless doing intercept recruitment) - Which day(s) and time(s) will you recruit, conduct - What incentives will you offer - How many participants needed—plan on recruiting more than you need - Location(s) should be convenient, comfortable, private, low noise - Do you need permission to be there? - How will you record responses? (audio, video, paper/pencil) - Do you need any other equipment? (e.g., video screen, table, chairs, pens)

Internal Factors

- Mission: Present-focused purpose - Vision: Future focused - Values: What matters to the org? What does it contribute? What qualities does it promote? (Ethics focused) - Organizational history - Organizational functioning - Position/reputation

INTRODUCTIONS OF PARTICIPANTS

- Name - Basic Demographic Information - Something Relevant to Discussion

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS: PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

- Presents people with an ambiguous or incomplete situation (stimulus) and lets people "project" their own interpretation onto it. - Encourages both verbal and non-verbal reactions - Activities are determined based on the subject matter the focus group is probing into - Drawing - Word Association - Sentence Completion - Product Transformation - Role Play - Product Obituary - Sorting Exercises

INTERVIEWING AND MODERATING TIPS

- Probe for answers using participant's own words - Allow for some silent moments!Don't finish their sentence/thought!There is no right/wrong answer - Caring and responsive but don't reinforce any particular idea (don't dis/agree) - Give cues that you are actively listening (leaning forward, eye contact, "I see") - Moderating: You MUST deal with participation issues: * Over contributors * Under contributors * Negative feedback

Public, Segment, and Audience

- Public(s) = a group of people who share a common interest in an organization, recognizes its significance, and sets out to do something about it - Homogeneous - Aware of the situation - Understand their relationship with the organization - Segment = publics you choose because they can help you achieve your PR goal - Audience = people who pay attention to a particular medium of communication and receive messages through it

Similarities between Qualitative and Quantitative

- Rely on empirical evidence - Provide useful information for describing, understanding, and explaining human communication behavior - Are needed in strategic communication campaign design, implementation, and evaluation

Sentence Completion

- Respondents are presented with various incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. - "If only this product was..."

TIPS FOR GETTING BETTER RESPONSE RATES FROM INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUPS

- Short questionnaires - Personalized - Visually appealing recruitment materials - Reminder notice - Reference being a student and this is for a class - Mention how many people will be participating - Don't mention "survey" in the header/subject - Use plain language - Incentives - Drawing - Share results - Food

STRENGTHS of Interview

- Smaller sample* - Allows for probing - High level of control - Allows for storytelling - Collect data that might be difficult to observe - Good for sensitive issues - The presence of others will discourage honesty

Problem/Opportunity Statement

- Summarizes key elements of the problem or opportunity and how it relates to the organization's ability to fulfill its mission - Illustrates why action is necessary - Focus on specific issues that the PR/Communication function can help solve NOT THE PLACE FOR STRATEGIES AND TACTICS

WEAKNESSES of Focus Groups

- Tangents - Heavily influenced by group personalities - Conformity to majority or to you - Time intensive - Generalizability

WEAKNESSES of Interview

- Tangents - Non-responder - Time intensive - Generalizability - Social desirability

WEAKNESSES of Observation

- Time intensive - Subjectivity bias in interpretation - Only what you can see/hear

External Factors

- Trends or issues emerging in the "industry" - What's going on outside of the org? - What regional/national trends inform your current situation or campaign? (e.g., regional /national) - Competing forces - Who/what else is trying to win your target public or achieve the same goals as your org? - Case studies - Any relevant case studies that you can learn from?

OBSERVATION BASICS

- Within your setting: Distinguish between routine, special, and unexpected events - Observe over multiple days and times - Draw a map of the interaction setting - Take detailed notes describing what you see - Take detailed notes describing what you see - Take detailed notes describing what you see and hear - Read afterwards and make reflections - Ask questions, conduct interactions*

Advantages of Probability Sampling

1. Probability samples are typically more representative than other types of samples because biases are avoided. 2. Probability theory permits researchers to estimate the accuracy or representativeness of the sample, i.e. generalize 3. Avoid large sampling error 4. Greater potential to draw accurate connections

I. INTRODUCTION SCRIPT

A PARAGRAPH THAT INCLUDES: - Thank you for participating - Reminder of broad purpose of this research—how their responses will be used - Reminder of who you are - Assurances of confidentiality (or clear statement of who you will share their identity with) - Clear explanation of incentive (or lack of incentive) - Reminder that there are no right/wrong answers - Audio recording - Provide opportunity to ask questions - Provide opportunity for them to consent

non-probability sampling

Any method where a member of a population does not have an equal chance of being selected We don't know or can't access all members of the target population Typically is used in qualitative data, also used for experiments In most cases, these data cannot be generalized

WHAT SKILLS ARE INVOLVED? ADAPTING TO DIFFERENT PERSONALITIES/SITUATIONS

Being able to quickly adjust your style to suit each individual participant. Rationale: Helps each participant be comfortable enough to speak freely with you. Tips: * Be aware of each participant, quick analysis of style * Be ready to adapt your demeanor, tone, pace (e.g., be more somber if they are upset or upbeat to indicate interest)

3. You randomly dial numbers to survey people living within an area code.

Cluster Sampling

Example Problem Statement

Drake Center for Eating Disorders has found that after children leave in-patient treatment facilities, parents become overwhelmed when trying to administer their child's treatment plan at home. The Center has not prepared parents with the appropriate coping strategies to administer at-home treatment, which results in a greater likelihood of the child relapsing and returning to treatment facilities and diminishes the child's chances of long-term recovery.

Your challenge, should you choose to accept it

Gather as much background info as possible, as quickly as possible, to determine the scope of the problem, as well as the challenges and opportunities that will affect problem-solving.

Sampling

How you are selecting your study subjects

BASIC OUTLINE OF YOUR INTERVIEW OR FOCUS GROUP GUIDE

I. Introductory script II. Warm-up questions III. Main questions IV. Participant addition V. Thank you and give incentive (if promised)

2. Researchers go to the library and start asking students if they can participate.

Incidental or Convenience Sampling

Qualitative Research methods

Interview (IDI) - Individual interviews (directed conversations) seeking in-depth responses and relying primarily on open-ended questions. Focus Group - Moderated group conversation seeking in-depth responses and relying primarily on open-ended questions. A directed group discussion typically consisting of 6-12 people or 8-10 people. Observation - Taking a role in a context, observing and noting for analysis - Continuum of participant to observer. - Complete participant - Participant as observer - Observer as participant - Complete observer

BASIC OUTLINE OF YOUR INTERVIEW OR FOCUS GROUP GUIDE - General advice on number of questions

Interview: 15-20 questions (with probes ready) = about 30 minutes*** Focus group: 12-15 questions (with probes ready) = 45 minutes - 1 hour***

QUESTION TYPES TO AVOID

Leading Questions (AVOID) - Avoid: How sad were you when you heard about Paul Walker's death? - Okay: How did you feel when Paul Walker died? Multiple-choice/closed-ended Questions (AVOID) - Avoid: Do you prefer green or black tea? - Okay: What's your favorite kind of tea? (leading?) - Okay: What's your favorite drink? Status Hierarchy Questions (AVOID)

Two types of sampling errors: -Margin of error/confidence interval -Confidence level

Margin of error OR confidence interval - -statistical estimate of the amount your results will vary from the population -Typically represented as +/- 3% or +/- 5% Confidence level - -How certain you are that the population value falls within your result -Typically set at 95% or 99% -Higher is more certain

Type of probability sampling: Stratified Random Sampling

Obtain a list of all population members Divide population into "strata" Strata are variables that are important to you - things you want to make sure are appropriately represented in your sample Typically are demographic variables Randomly select subjects from each strata based on proportions in population

Type of probability sampling: Simple Random Sampling

Obtain a list of all population members Investigators use this sampling method to ensure the sample they produce is representative of the population to the greatest extent possible. The primary requirement for simple random sampling is for researchers to clearly and unambiguously identify each member of a population through the use of a comprehensive sample frame. Randomly select people (artifacts) until desired sample size is reached

Type of probability sampling: Systematic Random Sampling

Obtain a list of all population members Randomly select start position on the list (ex. the 142nd name) Select every Kth person from the list (ex. every 12 names) This sampling method allows researchers to generate a probability-based sample that normally is highly representative of the population it represents and is an uncomplicated system, without inconveniences of simple random sampling. Divide number of population members by desired sample size - that is the Kth element you will need to use (ex. 1200/100 = every 12th person)

Relevant Publics

Once you've identified your key relevant publics — Describe them: - Geographic: city, urban, rural, etc. - Demographics: age, gender, generation, income, education, ethnicity, religion, etc. - Psychographics (lifestyle): activities, interests, opinions, attitudes, values, etc. - Behavioral: relevant prior experience(s), expectations, actions, etc. - Technographics: media and technology use -ownership, use patterns and attitudes towards ICTs

Word Association

Participants are asked to give the first word that comes to mind immediately after being shown or told a word.

Product Transformation

Participants are asked to pretend as if a product has been transformed into something else (car, animal, movie, etc) and have them verbally describe it.

Role Play

Participants must assume a role and act the part "If you were the product manager, what would you do to improve the product?"

Population sample vs. census

Population: The entire group of people you are interested in learning about *Important to clearly define - for example: -all people over 18 living in the U.S. -all U.S. citizens over the age of 18 -all registered voters with telephones -all registered voters who are likely to vote Census: When the entire population is measured

Basic Components of a Situation Analysis

Problem Statement Internal factors - organization External factors - environment Relevant publics SWOT analysis

6. Researchers think males would be especially important to talk to and decide to only ask men to be in the study.

Purposive Sampling

Your client (an educational institution that wants to advertise) wants to find out how men laid off in the Detroit area describe their reentry experiences?

Qualitative

Your client is a well-known company that produces over the counter incontinency remedies. They want to learn more about consumers' brand loyalty towards these products

Qualitative

Key Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative

Qualitative • Uses detailed descriptions • Participants are selected purposely* • Deeply contextualized • Relies on interpretive frame Quantitative • Uses numbers • Participants are randomly selected* • Removes some level of contextuality • Relies on formal logic

Primary research

Qualitative and Quantitative

Your client saw a dip in sales after they switched to using a gorilla instead of a gecko. Now they want to find out if, controlling for other variables, the use of the gorilla in commercials is causing consumers to dislike their product.

Quantitative

Your client wants to see if people who like violent movies also like violent video games.

Quantitative

Your client wants to see if there is a relationship between the use of cute animals in an ad and attitude toward the brand.

Quantitative

The RACE model

Research, Action Planning, Communication, Evaluation

RACE model: Step 1

Research: 1. Analyzing the Situation - Summary of key general challenges - Potential issues 2. Analyzing the Organization/industry - Organization - Industry / Operational Context / Trends 3. Analyzing Publics and then Identifying our targeted Publics

Sampling units

Sampling units can include: -Individuals -Groups (ex. schools, couples) -Artifacts (ex. TV shows, movies)

INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUPS: HOW DO YOU KNOW HOW MANY TO DO?

Saturation = You are no longer getting new information/ perspectives/insights

Type of Non-Probability Sampling: Quota Sampling

Selecting available subjects to meet population distribution Research samples with a certain number of subjects in various categories Setting a quota for reaching a certain type of demographic at a certain number goal Researchers tend to use this sampling method to learn more about subgroups that exist in a population. As a result, they draw their sample so it contains the same proportion of subgroups. For example: 100 males, 100 females 25% freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors

4. Researchers find two students who agree to participate and ask them to bring a friend and to tell their friend to bring a friend.

Snowball Sampling

SELECT & TRAIN

Staffing: - Moderator - Assistant

5. You randomly select female and male students at the university in numbers proportional to the total number of female and male students at the university.

Stratified Sampling

SWOT Analysis

Strengths: Internal. Pre-exisiting. Cataloging organization's communications resources, capabilities, and positive assets that can be used to give the campaign a competitive advantage Weaknesses: Internal. Pre-existing. Access the organization's shortcomings. If desirable strengths are absent or marginal, this is a weakness. Opportunities: External. Future-orientated. Articulate new opportunities that could assist in the effective delivery of campaign messages/increase likelihood of message acceptance (eg. untapped publics, new outreach outlets, and external conditions, people or events) . Threats (Challenges): External. Future-orientated. Identify the threats (both real and perceived) that can hinder the effective acceptance/delivery of campaign messages.

1. Among the 100 people listed in the college directory, you sample every ninth person beginning from No.17.

Systematic Random Sampling

II. WARM-UP QUESTIONS

TYPICALLY 1-2 "EASY" QUESTIONS - Should be of interest to the participant - Not sensitive or too personal - But still relevant to your research goals - Gives each participant a chance to talk - Focuses participants on topic

The Confidence Interval

The Confidence Interval = Margin of Error ± • The confidence interval is also called the margin of error. It is the plus-or-minus figure usually reported in newspaper or television opinion poll results. • Statistical estimate of the amount results will vary from population • A range or margin of error that researchers permit when making inferences from a sample to a population. • Normally, researchers describe the confidence interval as a positive-to-negative range, such as ± 3% error or ± 5% error. • For example, if you use a confidence interval of ± 5 and 47% percent of your sample picks an answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked the question of the entire relevant population between 42% (47-5) and 52% (47+5) would have picked that answer. • The confidence interval calculations assume you have a genuine random sample of the relevant population. The margin of error helps identify the range within which the true population statistics are likely to fall.

WHAT SKILLS ARE INVOLVED? RAPPORT-BUILDING

The ability to quickly create interviewer/participant dynamics that are positive, relaxed, and mutually respectful. Rationale: Participants will talk freely, openly, and honestly about the research topic only if they: * Feel comfortable * Trust you * Believe you are interested * Feel comfortable * Trust you * Feel secure about confidentiality * Believe you are interested * Don't feel judged Tips: (note: cultural variations) * Be friendly * Smile * Use a pleasant tone * Some humor * Be friendly * Smile * Use relaxed body language * Use a pleasant tone * Be humble * Some humor * Be patient * Use relaxed body language * Be humble * Don't patronize, scold, or coerce

The Confidence Level

The confidence level tells you how sure you can be that population falls within results. It is expressed as a percentage and represents how often the true percentage of the population who would pick an answer lies within the confidence interval. The degree of certainty researchers can have when they draw inferences about a population based on data from a sample. The level of probability researchers have that they can accurately generalize a characteristic they find in a sample to every member of a population. Answers the question: "How confident are we that our sample is representative of the population?" The 95% confidence level means you can be 95% certain; the 99% confidence level means you can be 99% certain. Most researchers use the 95% confidence level or higher.

Type of Non-Probability Sampling: Purposive Sampling

The most common type of Non-Probability Sampling Select certain individuals for special reason Subjects selected for a good reason tied to purposes of research Researchers select sample members because they meet the special needs of the study based on the interviewer's judgment. A researcher's goal when using purposive sampling typically is to examine a specially selected population that is unusually diverse or particularly limited in some way, rather than to study a larger, more uniform population. For example: You can use Purposive Sampling to figure out to market "Family Guy" to people who don't like watching the show

Type of Non-Probability Sampling: Snowball Sampling

The researcher approaches one subject, asks that subject to suggest others, and it continues... Useful for hard to reach subjects, to understand social networks When researchers use this sampling method, they collect data from a limited number of population members and then ask these individuals to identify other members of the population who might be willing to participate in the study. The sample continues to grow as new research participants direct interviewers to additional sample prospects. Starts from a small number of people and grows larger as each new participant suggests other potential participants.

Less than perfect probability sample

The sample is NOT the same as the population Every member of the sample DOES NOT have an equal chance of being chosen

Perfect probability sample

The sample is the same as the population Every member of the sample has an equal chance of being chosen The distribution of the sample would exactly match the population

WHAT SKILLS ARE INVOLVED? EMPHASIZING PARTICIPANT'S PERSPECTIVE

Treating the participant as the expert. Keeping the participant from interviewing you. Rationale: This lowers the risk that participants will modify their responses to please the interviewer or adjust to what they think they "should" say (what you please the interviewer or adjust to what they think they "should" say (what you want to hear). Tips: * Remember the purpose is to elicit their perspective If they ask a factual question, write it down and answer after the interview If they ask your opinion, deflect, let them know it is their opinion that matters

Probability sampling

Used to generalize to a larger population Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen Often used for large-scale surveys Involves the use of a random-selection process so each member of a population has an equal chance or probability of being included in a sample. Allows researchers to make accurate inferences about a population based on info collected from a sample. A sample of individuals from a population must contain the same variations that exist in a population

Non-probability sampling

Used when you are looking for a specific characteristic and/or generalizability is not the goal of the study When researchers use non-probability sampling sampling methods, sample size has no scientifically verifiable effect on the representativeness of a sample.

Type of Non-Probability Sampling: Convenience Sampling

When subjects are selected based on availability to the researcher Selection is generally not tied to purpose of research, but by using whoever is convenient as a sample element. Incidental samples do not typically provide accurate estimates of the attributes of a target population because there is no way to determine if results from a convenience sample are representative of a population. Most appropriate to use when research is exploratory, precise statistics concerning a population are not required or the target population is impossible to accurately define or locate Ex. Survey takers at the mall

Another type of sampling error: problem of non- response

You can randomly select people, but you cannot make people participate Non-response affects the generalizability of the sample Try to show how the people who did respond may match with the population (ex. comparing known demographic characteristics)

Sampling error

Your sample will never be a perfect representation of the population because of chance Flip a coin ten times - not always going to get 5 heads, 5 tails Error decreases with sample size, but you tend to have diminishing returns

Probability of selection: representative

sample has the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Attempts to see through the lens of the target public • Can be good for understanding why and investigating processes • Especially important during formative research and creative process

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Cannot capture complexity of communication/human experience • Difficult to apply outside of controlled environments • Limited to answer choices • Reliance on numbers

Choosing the "Right" Method

• Choose the method that answers... "What do I want to know?" • Consider a mix-methods approach • Which method will maximize the amount of useful data generated to answer the question(s) posed? • Which research method is viable (in terms of money, time, resources)?

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Communication setting must be accessible • Meaning filtered through the researcher (subjective) • Time consuming • Difficult to generalize findings

Types of Qualitative methods

• Focus group discussions • In depth interview • Observations • Ethnographies etc

Use quant when you want to

• Generalize • Correlate/comparison* • Show cause and effect • Control variables

Use qual when you want to

• Get respondents' thoughts and ideas • Emotions and reasons • Personal experiences • Issue is personal, embarrassing etc.

Qualitative data

• May also be gathered from written documents and through case studies • Less emphasis on counting numbers of people who think or behave in certain ways and more emphasis on explaining why people think and behave in certain ways • Involves smaller numbers of respondents • Utilizes open-ended instruments/guides or protocols • Best used to answer how and why questions • Not well suited to what, when and who questions

Quantitative data

• Pieces of information that can be counted mathematically • Usually gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents selected randomly (and content analysis) • Secondary data such as census data, government statistics, etc. often included in quantitative evaluations • Analyzed using statistical methods • Best used to answer what, when and who questions • Not well suited to how and why questions

Types of Quantitative methods

• Survey • Experiment • Content analysis • Usability tests, etc

Factors to consider

•Purpose of study •Cost vs value •Time •Amount of acceptable error

Advantages of Quantitative Research

•Tradition implies rigor •Numbers and statistics allow precise and exact comparisons and reporting •Generalization of findings* •Especially important during process & evaluation stages