Principles of Earth Science final exam vocabulary Cedarville

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7 things learned from Mt. St. Helens

1) Finely laminated deposits don't always have to be made in quiet conditions 2) Erosion through solid rock can happen very quickly 3) Sometimes, canyons are made before rivers 4) The Yellowstone "fossil forests" were likely transported and buried 5) Coal can be formed by floating log mats 6) Recovery of completely decimated areas can occur in short periods of time 7) Catastrophic processes help us consider what Noah's Flood was like

three main forces on earth

1) compressional force 2) tensional force 3) shear force

contributing factors to Flood

1) geysers at ocean ridges 2) subduction at continental margins 3) formation of new ocean crust 4) thermal expansion of ocean water

4 thermal features

1) hot springs 2) mut pots 3) fumaroles 4) geysers

tetrahedra (5 groupings)

1) isolated 2) single chain 3) double chain 4) sheet 5) framework silicates

Factors in forming deserts

1) lack of rain due to dominant high pressure systems 2) distance from an ocean 3) rain shadow effect 4) cold ocean currents

mineral attributes

1) naturally occurring 2) crystalline 3) solid 4) (generally) inorganic 5) definite chemical formula

two factors of heating

1) the angle at which sunlight hits the surface 2) the length of day

three requirements to assign a date

1) the number of parent and daughter isotopes has only changed by radioactive decay 2) the amount of daughter isotopes at the beginning is either zero or some amount that can be accurately determined 3) the rate of decay has been constant over time

two windows through which radiation is transmitted

1) visible spectrum 2) microwave and radiowave spectrum

ways by which a rock can change

1) weathering 2) metamorphism 3) melting 4) recrystallization

three factors determining wave sizes

1) wind speed 2) wind duration 3) fetch

mineral properties (optical)

1. color 2. luster (metallic or non-metallic) 3. streak (the color of the mineral in powder form)

mineral properties (mechanical)

1. hardness 2. tenacity (behavior when broken) 3. cleavage plane 4. fracture (splintery, irregular, conchoidal)

mineral properties (other)

1. odor 2. taste 3. magnetic

dolomite

10% of all sedimentary rock

tilt of the earth

23.5 degrees

tropic of cancer

23.5 degrees N

continental crust

40% of the earth's surface; 30-70 km thick

oceanic crust

60% of earth's surface; made up of igneous rocks basalt and gabbro; <10 km thick; density is 2.9 g/cm3

article circle

66.5 degrees N; perpetual daylight during summer

antarctic circle

66.5 degrees S; perpetual nighttime during summer

non-silicate minerals

8% of earth's minerals (not a real group) (halites, oxides, sulfates, carbonates, native elements)

mantle

84% volume, 67% mass

Köppen climate classification

A- tropical B- arid C- temperate D- continental E- Polar H- highlands

ozone

O3, oxygen gas with three oxygen atoms instead of two

rainbow in scripture

Genesis 9:3 Ezekiel 1:28 Revelation 4:3 Revelation 10:1

Evaporaton

Water molecules are constantly leaving the surface of liquid water into vapor

kettle lakes

a block of ice surrounded by a moraine melts

mountain breeze

a breeze that comes from a mountain and blows down into a valley

valley breeze

a breeze that comes from a valley and blows up a mountain

land breeze

a breeze that comes from the land blows into the ocean

sea breeze

a breeze that comes from the ocean and blows into the land

refracts

a change in the direction of the light

fold

a change in the rock shape while it is still relatively soft

positive feedback

a change is enhanced

scarp

a cliff face left on the hillside

eye

a cloud free region in the storm

fog

a cloud on the ground

wall cloud

a column of air that extends below the cloud base

epicontinental seas

a covering continental interiors and margins with vast regions of shallow oceanic water

weather

a description of the atmosphere at a particular place and time

barometer

a device used to measure pressure

coastal wetland

a drained low tide area in which a variety of salt-tolerant grasses, trees, and/or shrub plants grow

ground moraine

a flatter deposit of till

sand injectites

a fluid mix of and water forced into other rock units

pressure

a force per area and is equal to the weight of the atmosphere above that point

delta

a formation from sediments dropped when a river can no longer carry its load

greenhouse gas

a gas that absorbs IR radiation emitted from earth's surface

Cambrian Explosion

a geologically sudden appearance of a wide variety of very different types of fossils than what is seen in the rocks below

kame

a gravel filled hole

archosaurs

a group of reptiles that survived the end-Permian extinction and includes crocodilians, dinosaurs, pterosaurs

sundog

a halo around the sun

breakwater

a hard stabilization structure build parallel to to the shoreline often to create an artificial harbor

groin

a hard stabilization structure build perpendicular to the shoreline and down current of the direction of longshore current

rift

a large depression in a ridge

Siberian High

a large high pressure system of Asia

yardang

a large rock or outcrop that might look like an overturned ship

tied island

a large rock or small island that is connected to shore by a tombolo

distributaries

a larger river that breaks up into smaller rivers

stratus

a layer of clouds with no distinct features

aquifer

a layer of rock, sand, or gravel through which water can easily flow

element

a material of characteristic physical and chemical properties that cannot be broken down; all atoms with the same number of protons

temperature

a measure of an objects average thermal energy (both potential and kinetic) at the microscopic scale

atmospheric pressure

a measure of the amount of atmosphere over a particular place

barchanoid dunes

a mix of barchan and transverse dunes

soil

a mixture of mineral and organic matter

A horizon

a mixture of organic material and mineral material; darker

air parcel

a moving packet of air that does not mix with its surroudings

kimberlite pipe

a narrow conduit that forms when magma reaches earth's surface from 150-500 km deep

mineral

a naturally occurring object that is a crystalline solid, generally inorganic, and has definite chemical formula

hot spot

a plume of magma originating in the lower mantle and rising upward into or through the crust

coast

a relatively flat region that continues inland until there is significant change in terrestrial topography

proved resource

a reserve that is known to exist and can be recovered economically

reserve

a resource that has been determined to exist or has a good likelihood of existing in a specific area

thrust fault

a reverse fault at an angle of 10 degrees or less

tombolo

a ridge of sand that develops perpendicular to the beach

esker

a ridge of sinuous sand gravel deposits

contact (thermal) metamorphic rock

a rock formed mostly as a result of heat

aquiclude

a rock or substance that does not have good permiability

rock cycle

a schematic drawing that shows how these processes change rock

paleontologist

a scientist who studies fossils

feedback mechanism

a series of physical processes that either enhance or inhibit a change in a physical parameter

lightning rods

a series of pointed metal rods placed along the roof to provide a preferential location for lightning strikes

playa

a shallow lack between mountain ranges

arête

a sharp knife-edge ridge that develops between two cirques

thunder

a shock wave that travels at the speed of sound

tarn

a small lake at the bottom of a glacier

xenolith

a solid piece of rock that gets incorporated into lava as it moves to the surface

basin

a soup bowl shaped formation

bay mouth bar

a spit that extends are enough across the bay that it seals the bay off from ocean waves

wave-cut cliffs

a steep wall of rock exposing the headland

berm

a steepened ridge of sand followed by a sandy platform or terrace

sensible heating

a temperature change due to added energy

cirrostratus

a thin layer of cirrus clouds

supercell

a thunderstorm that is long lasting and has strong rotation in its updraft

road-cut (cliff face)

a two dimensional exposure

petroleum

a type of hydrocarbon composed of chains of carbon bonded to hydrogen atoms

Ediacaran Era

a variety of unusual organisms often believed to be or be relatives of animals

dip slip fault

a vertical fault causing the rocks on each side to move up and down

plateau

a very large flat landform that is bounded by cliffs

shelf cloud

a warm updraft overrides the cold surface air

perched water table

a water table that rests above the main water table

marine terrace

a wave-cut cliff lifted out of the reach of waves

convergence

air moving into a low pressure system causing air to rise

ice cap

an area that has snow coverage year round so no vegetation can grow

RATE

Radioisotopes and the Age of The Earth

Cloud Condensation Nuclei

Small particles in the air that make it easier for water vapor to condense

wind turbines

generate electricity when the wind turns the large blades

Principle of cross-cutting relations

geological structures such as dikes, faults, and erosion surfaces must be younger than the geological units that they effect

continental glaciers (ice sheets)

glaciers with surface areas of at least 50,000 km2

ice caps

glaciers with surface areas of less than 50,000 km2

nuée ardente

glowing avalanche

sota straws

hallow stalactites

geothermal energy

heat from the rocks from the planets

halo

hexagonal ice crystals with a 22 degree angle refract light; red on the outside, blue on the inside

latent heating

hidden heating

haze

high concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei that reduce visibility

anvil

high level winds pull cirrus clouds to the east of the thunderstorm

strike slip fault

horizontal

divergence

horizontal air flow results in more air leaving a high pressure region than is entering it

planar bedding

horizontal layering

barchan dunes

horseshoe shaped dunes with the tips facing downwind

hot springs

hot beds of water

pyro-clastic material (tephra)

hot pieces of solid rock

snow

ice crystals and clusters of ice crystals that reach the ground

glacial erratics

ice transported rocks

stalactites

icicle shaped rocks hanging from the ceiling

longshore transport

an overall direction for the erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments on and near the shore

dome

an overturned soup bowl shaped formation

meander scar

an oxbow lake that fills with debris

nonconformity

an unconformity located at the contact of a sedimentary or extrusive igneous rock and an intrusive igneous or metamorphic rock

disconformity

an unconformity located between two roughly parallel sedimentary or extrusive igneous rocks

nuclear fission

an unstable type of radioactive decay in which the parent isotope splits into two smaller daughter isotopes with the release of additional nuclear materials and energy

mineral resource

any material extracted from rocks such as sand limestone and iron ore

resource

any material that can be used by people

creation week rocks

any rock formed during the initial creation of the earth

aerosol

any solid or liquid that remains suspended in the air

plates

areas of the surface of the earth

tundra

areas that are frozen most of the year, but support small plant life during summer

deserts

areas that receive less than 10 inches (25 cm) of rain per year

emergent coastline

areas where land is rising up out of the ocean or where deposition of new material builds more land areas

submergent coastline

areas where sea level is rising and/or erosion removes material from the land

frontal fog

associated with warm fronts that have very moist air. forms when moist air comes into contact with cooler air

Fujita scale

associates wind speeds with the resultant damage

persistance

assumes that the weather does not change from day to day

sediment

broken up pieces of loose rock and minerals

lignite

brown coal with the lowest percentage of carbon and least energy per unit

active solar heating

captures insolation and then moves the thermal energy using pumps or fans

load casts

casts made when the layers below are relatively soft and the upper layer pushes into it

fault

change in rock shape after it hardened often resulting in breaks

anti-cyclone

clockwise air rotation around a high pressure system

cumulus

clouds with flat bases and rounded tops

frontal wedging

cold and warm fronts push warm air upward making it less stable

aggregation

colliding ice crystals stick together to form a larger flake

oblique slip fault

combination of dip slip and strike slip faults

air masses

common large-scale air parcels

core

composed of iron and nickel; 15% volume, 30% mass

primary waves

compressional waves causing the rock to expand and contract as they travel

stalagmite

cone shaped deposits growing from the ground

sea wall

constructed of large rocks of concrete located directly on land where the danger of erosion and collapse is high

Pleistocene

conventional name for the recent period of time that was characterized by extensive glacial ice

downdraft

cool air with snowflakes and water droplets organized into a descending region

cyclone

counter clockwise circulation

tidal bores

create walls of rushing water as it flows into a bay

igneous rock

crystallize from liquid rock

cumulus stage

cumulus clouds form as the rising air reaches condensation level

cumulonimbus

cumulus clouds with an anvil appearance

surface currents

currents near the ocean surface that flow at 2-5 km/hr (0.5-2 m/sec)

glacial striations

cuts in rock made by rocks imbedded in ice

scoria

dark colored pyroclastic material

cirques

deep bowl shaped amphitheaters

ocean trenches

deep stretches of ocean up to 11 km deep

thermohaline circulation

density driven changes

point bar

deposit on the shallow inside portion of a meander bed

channel deposits

deposits on the bottom of a stream

mineral properties

determinants used to identify a mineral

solution

dissolving rock

latitude

distance from the equator

estuaries

drowned river valley

wadis

dry river beds

Day-Age theory

each day of creation was actually long periods of time or "ages" of geology

Wadati-Benioff zones

earthquake regions extending from the trench surface downward at angles ranging from 30-70 degrees

entrainment

eddies mixing with small cloud droplets with surrounding dry air

concentrated solar power

employ mirrors to focus sunlight energy to a specific area to produce heat

downwelling

excess water along the coast is pushed down bringing warm water to the cooler, deeper parts of the ocean

cold fronts

exist where continental polar air displaces maritime polar or maritime tropical air

lower mantle

extends from 670 km to 2890 km deep; density is 5.0 g/cm3;

dry line

extends from Texas to Kansas which provides excellent conditions for the formation of thunderstorms and tornados

upper mantle

extends from the bottom of the crust to 670 km; made up mostly of peridotite

electron

extremely small, negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus

lahars (mudflows)

fast moving lava flow

cavitation

fast moving water flows over a small depression creating imploding vacuum bubbles

sedimentary structures

features made within the rocks while they are in the process of formation

autumnal equinox

first day of fall; 12 hours of daylight

vernal equinox

first day of spring; 12 hours of daylight

winter solstice

first day of winter

steady-state

forecasting that assumes there is a trend that continues into the future

lateral moraines

form along the edges of an alpine glacier where it comes into contact with a steep valley wall

medial moraines

form when two valleys come together

cross-beds

formation resulting from sediment avalanching down the faces of dunes

fumaroles

formations in which gasses in volcanic eruptions escape

ichnofossils

fossil trackways of animals

coprolites

fossilized feces of an animal

geyser

fountains of water and steam shoot up into the air

eddies

friction effect is transmitted higher in the atmosphere through swirling motion

porosity

the amount of empty space in an aquifer

longshore current

the current that causes beach drift

tides

the daily rhythmic rise and fall of the ocean's elevation

sounding

the data collected by the radiosonde

radioactive decay

the decay of isotopes into different isotopes through the nucleus in the atom

continental-oceanic convergence

the density of the ocean crust is greater than the continental plate

storm wave base

the depth of reach of the largest storms in the area

dew point depression

the difference between air temperature and the dew point

tidal range

the difference in elevation between the high and low tides at the shore

Pressure Gradient Force

the difference in pressure measured at two points divided by the distance between the two points

folitation

the display of groups in parallel layers

relief

the distance between the highest point and lowest point in landscape

wavelength

the distance between two wave crests

wave height

the distance in elevation between the trough and crest

fetch

the distance over which the wind blows

biogeography

the distribution of organisms across the planet

strip mining

the dominant form of mining (60%)

dissipation stage

the downdraft from the thunderstorm eventually cuts off the source of warm surface air

continental drift

the drifting of the continental plates across the ocean

Hadean

the earliest period of Earth history beginning at 4.6 billion years ago (supposedly) with the formation of Earth as a planetary body

continental margin

the edge of a continent

active margin

the edge of continent coincides with a plate boundary

terminal moraine

the end moraine that marks the furthest advance of a glacier

abyssal plain

the end of the continental shelf

Archean Eon

the era in which the oldest rocks formed (4 billion years ago), and the oceans formed (3.5 billion years ago)

euphotic zone

the first 200 meters of ocean; sunlight penetration

Richter Scale

the first accurate scale used to record earthquake magnitude

summer solstice

the first day of summer (ohio= 15 hours daylight)

flood plain

the flat area in which water will spill into when rivers or streams flood

vapor pressure

the force/area exerted by water molecules in the vapor phase

slides

the general term used to describe rock or soil sliding down a slope

actualism

the geological processes that worked in the past were much the same as those happening today

subsidence

the gradual sinking of coastal regions

raqiya

the hebrew word for expanse, firmament, or vault of heaven

linear dunes

the highest dunes in which the crests are parallel to to the wind

wave crest

the highest point of wave

tidal cycle

the interplay between the two sets of tidal bulges each day

sea stack

the isolated column from a collapsed sea arch

shield volcano

the largest (volume-wise) volcanoes

Permian Period

the largest extinction in Earth history in which 90% of marine species went extinct and 70% of terrestrial species

Laurasia

the largest mountain-building event when the northern continents collided with Gondwana to form Pangaea

thermosphere

the layer of atmosphere beginning at 90 km and extending upward; experiences an increase in temperature with height

mesosphere

the layer of atmosphere from 50 km to 90 km with an atmospheric pressure of 1mb

stratosphere

the layer of atmosphere that contains the ozone layer

terminus

the leading edge of a glacier

chemical bonds

the linking of atoms by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons

eye wall

the location of the strongest winds and precipitation

polar wander

the looping that the magnetic north pole seems to take over time

wave trough

the lowest point between two crests

troposphere

the lowest portion of the atmosphere where most of our significant weather occurs; rate of cooling is 6.4 C/km

dipole

the magnetic field has two poles

pangaea

the massive super continent pre flood

base load power

the minimum level of electricity needed day or night

desert pavement

the mixture of sand and gavels that cover most desert floors

tidal bulge

the moon draws water from the earth's surface towards itself creating

groundwater (chapter 1)

the most important water source on the planet that allows the earth to be populated in certain areas

seismic waves

the motion caused by an earthquake

daughter isotope

the new atom

laurentia

the northern portion of the broken up super-continent

alpha decay

the nucleus emits a cluster of two protons and two neutrons

atomic number

the number of protons in the nucleus

subduction

the ocean crust dipped downward at the deep-ocean trenches and travelled back into the mantle

Law of Superposition

the older units are found below the young units

biomass

the oldest energy source

antracite coal

the only coal considered a metamorphic rock rather than sedimentary

periodic table

the organization of the elements by number of protons in the nucleus

focus

the origin point of the earthquake

valence shell

the outer most portion of the election cloud

thunderstorm warning

if a severe thunderstorm is spotted

normal fault

if the hanging wall appears to have been moved downward

reverse fault

if the hanging wall appears to have been moved upward

track/traces

impressions left by organisms as they move

Walther's Law

in a vertical sequence of sedimentary rocks, the types of rocks found above and below each other are the same as those found adjacent sedimentary environments

enrichment

increasing the amount of U-235

microbursts

intense downbursts of air

typhoons

intense tropical storms in the western Pacific Ocean

system

interactive components working together to form a complex and interdependent unit

inselburg

island mountain

seismogram

the paper record of an earthquake

C horizon

the parent material

albedo

the percentage of solar radiation reflected or scattered from a surface

zone of wastage

the place where ice begins to melt

water table

the place where there is no more air space and the ground is completely full of water

mature stage

the point at which a cell is formed

surf zone

the point at which the wave breaks (1/20th depth wavelength)

wave base

the point at which water is no longer turbulent (1/2 wavelength)

isotonic rebound

land moving upward as a result of lost material

karst topography

landscapes that are characterized by caves, sinkholes, and disappearing streams

rock avalanches

large amount of rocks tumbling down a mountainside

glaciers

large bodies of ice that move under the influence of gravity

gyres

large circular systems of currents

playa cracks

large mud cracks

firn

large pellets of ice

mass wasting

large quantities of rock or soil move down hill under the influence of gravity

dunes

large sandy mountains

volcanic bomb

large volcanic rock from an eruption

coalescence

large water droplets fall at higher speed than smaller ones

composite cone volcano

larger volcanoes; eruptions often sudden and violent; most well known volcanoes

hottest part of the day

late afternoon (about 4:00)

liquid rock

lava flows

banded iron formations

layered and iron-rich sedimentary deposits

stromatolites

layers of microbes and sediment formed about 3.5 billion years ago

strata

layers of sedimentary rock

acid rain

leaches nutrients from soil, stresses plants, and changes the pH of streams and lakes

unstable air

lifted air with an environmental lapse rate greater than 10 degrees C per km

stable air

lifted air with an environmental lapse rate less than 6 degrees C per km

pumice

light colored pyroclastic material

Isobars

lines that represent locations of the same pressure on weather maps

outer core

liquid; density of 11 g/cm3; extends from mantle boundary to 5150 km deep

transverse dunes

long rows of parallel dune crests

fjords

long water-filled valleys with shallow entrances to the ocean

drumlins

long, cigar shaped hills parallel to ice flow

hydrogen bond

lose connections between weakly charged regions of overall neutral molecules

primary sedimentary structures

made during the initial deposition of sedimentary material

lava

magma that has erupted from a volcano

currents

masses of flowing water

magma

melted rock as a result of intense heat and pressure

ore

metal-rich minerals or rock

regional metamorphic rock

metamorphic rock created by heat and pressure

barrier island

narrow, long sand dominated island parallel to the mainland coast, and separated from it by a lagoon

natural levees

natural deposits to help prevent flooding

anion

negatively charged ion

seafloor spreading

new ocean crust formed from rising magma at the ocean ridges

two main components of the atmosphere

nitrogen: 78% oxygen: 21%

aphotic zone

no sunlight penetration

bentonites

numerous layers of ash from violent volcanic eruptions

selective absorbers

objects whose absorption properties change based on wavelength

valley glaciers

occupy the same places that rivers would if the temperatures were higher

upslope fog

occurs as warm moist air rises up over a mountain slope or canyon

radiation fog

occurs when heat is lost in the atmosphere through radiation during the night

hurricane

once wind speeds reach 119kph (74mph) in a tropical storm

tropical storm

once winds reach 65kph (40mph) in a tropical depression

ionic bond

one atom transfers one or more electrons to another atom

natural gas

one carbon atom covalently bonded to four hydrogen atoms

friction

opposing motion

humus

organic material in soil

coal

organic sedimentary rock made up almost entirely of tree bark and other organic remains from plants

O horizon

organic zone

eurkaryotes

organisms with a cell nucleus

bajada

overlapping aluvial fans

jetties

paired shore-perpendicular structures build from the same kinds of materials as groins

neutron

particles within the nucleus of an atom without charge

Bowden's Reaction Series

patterns recognized for determining rocks discovered by N.L. Bowden

crude oil

petroleum

micrometeorology

phenomena lasting several minutes and extending to a km in size

meteorology

phenomena of the heavens

icebergs

pieces of glaciers that break and fall into the ocean

butte

pinnacle shaped landform

springs

places where water naturally flows out of the earth

rock creep

pliable rocks slowly bend over time

glacial till (glacial moraine)

poorly sorted deposits made by glaciers

cation

positively charged ion

proton

positively charged particles that are confined to the atom's central region

speleothems

precipitated cave formations

peaker plants

prevent blackouts and brownouts

biofuels

produced by organisms with the intention of including them in transportation fuels

passive solar heating

purposeful employment of sunlight to heat a building

sleet

rain falling through a layer of sub zero air refreezes to form spheres of ice

freezing rain

rain that hits the surface that is below freezing

density currents (turbidity currents)

rapid flows that happen on the bottoms of lakes and oceans

sequences

regular patterns of stacked geological formations

abrasion

removal of rock though rubbing (like sandpaper and wood)

renewable resource

resources that can be replenished at about the same rate in which they are used

non-renewable resource

resources that exist in fixed quanitities

updraft

rising air

adiabatic process

rising air experiences less pressure and expands in volume resulting in a decrease in air temperature

misfit stream

rivers that are in very large valleys compared to the relatively small amount of water

lithification

rock hardening

angular unconformity

rocks above and below the unconformity are oriented at some angle to each other

Physical correlation

rocks are matched according to shared composition and structures

temporal correlaton

rocks are matched according to their time of formation. This is often accomplished by using a) fossils or b) radioactive dating methods

dynamic metamorphic rock

rocks caused by mineral changes taking place due to extremely great pressures

shale

rocks composed entirely of clay sized particles (1/256-1/16mm)

extrusive (volcanic) igneous rock

rocks formed from cooled lava aboveground

intrusive igneous rock

rocks formed from cooled magma underground

chemical sedimentary rock

rocks formed out of sediments made by chemical processes within water

siltstone

rocks made entirely of silt-sized particles

clastic (detrital) sedimentary rock

rocks made from other pieces of other rock

sandstone

rocks made of particles 1/16-2 mm in size

metamorphic rock

rocks that become changed by heat and/or pressure

pyroclastic rocks

rocks that resulted from explosive volcanism

porphyritic rocks

rocks with both phaneritic and aphanitic textures

phaneritic rocks

rocks with crystals 1-30 mm

pegmatites

rocks with crystals greater than 30 mm

aphanitic rocks

rocks with crystals too small to be seen with the naked eye

organic sedimentary rock

rocks with living things as their origin

vesticular rocks

rocks with many tiny hole resulting from volcanic gasses leaking out of the rock

conglomerate (breccia)

rocks with smaller matrix grains filling the spaces between the larger clasts

root wedging

roots force their way into small fractures in the rock

aa

rough, jagged lava

relative dating

rules that help us determine geological history [without assigning a numerical date/age]

sand waves

sand dunes that form on the ocean floor

volcanic ash

sand-sized volcanic material from an eruption

firn limit

separates the zone of accumulation and zone of wastage

lithosphere

several large and many small slabs of rock called plates that move with respect to one another; 150-280 km thick

horn

sharp mountain peaks

mudrocks

siltstones, shale, mudstones, claystones

diurnal pattern

single high and single low tide each day

sedimentary rock

small particles or pieces of other rock

lapilli

small pea-sized volcanic material from an eruption

granular ice

small pellets of ice

scud

small tufts of ragged clouds below nimbostratus

tributaries

smaller rivers that come together to form a bigger river

mesa

smaller than a plateau and table like in nature

soil horizons

soil layers

soil creep

soil particles will slowly move down a landscape

loam

soil that contains an equal amount of clay, silt, and sand

Earth flows

soils and other unconsolidated materials become extremely water-saturated and begin to slowly flow downhill

solar photovoltaic panels

solar panels

inner core

solid; density of 3 g/cm3; extends from outer core boundary to 6371 km deep

synoptic meteorology

spans days and hundreds of miles

cirrus cloud

sparse and thin clouds

tufa

spring deposits full of small holes

Star dunes

star shaped dunes

derechos

straight lines winds

nimbostratus

stratus clouds with precipitation

braided streams

streams that cross each other multiple times forming a braided pattern

disappearing stream

streams that disappear for one reason or another

meandering stream

streams that snake back and forth across a generally flat valley bottom

secondary sedimentary structures

structures formed after depositions

unconformities

surfaces within rocks that represent a break in time

pahoehoe

taffy like lava

competence

the ability of a stream to carry a load

permiability

the ability of water to flow through an aquifer

lifting condensation level

the altitude at which relative humidity reaches 100%

shoreline

the point of intersection of the ocean and the land

mountain top removal

the preferred mining method in the Eastern US

uniformitarianism

the present is the key to the past

Southern Oscillation Index

the pressure difference between equatorial winds

paleomagnetism

the process by which a rock's position at the time of formation is determined by means of magnetite orientation

weathering

the process by which larger rocks get broken down into smaller pieces

correlation

the process of linking or matching rock units over distances in which they are not seen

beach nourishment

the process of transporting sand to the beach

fossil fuel

the products of photosynthetic organisms that have been buried in sedimentary rock and altered into carbon-rich materials

mining

the recovery of solid metallic or non-metallic resources from rock or loose sediment

compaction

the reduction of the amount of open space between the grains of rock and the packing together of the grains

tropopause

the region where the temperature trend reverses

fossil

the remains of a formerly living organism that is preserved in the geological record

fossils

the remains of organisms in the rock record

erosion

the removal of the weathered products

spent nuclear fuel

the residual radioactive material after a fuel rod has been exhausted

recrystallization

the result of hot fluids interacting with the mineral ingredients of the rock to produce new minerals

storm surge

the rise in water level at the coast as the hurricane makes landfall

sea arch

the rock formation from the scene from the first Pirates of the Caribbean movie where the three pirate skeletons hang as a warning

bathymetry

the science of determining water depth

B horizon

the subsoil; the zone of accumulation

Rodinia

the super-continent directly before the Flood

lambda

the symbol for half-life

Dew Point Temperature

the temperature at which the water vapor in the air reaches saturation

meltdown

the temperature rises too high and damage the building or cause explosive chain reactions

end moriane

the terminus of a glacier in equilibrium

Precambrian

the three eons prior to the Phanerozoic Eon: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic

Mesozoic Era

the time of "middle animals" divided into three periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous

hanging wall (hanging block)

the top part of a fault

atomic mass

the total number of protons and neutrons within an atom

underground mining

the traditional form of mining

radiation

the transfer of energy by electro-magnetic waves

conduction

the transfer of heat by the collision of molecules with its neighbors

heat

the transport of energy from a warm object to a cool object

silicate minerals

the vast majority of minerals in Earth's crust

convection

the vertical transfer of heat by the motion of fluids

tornado

the vortex of a mesocyclone that reaches the surface of the earth

hurricane watches

the warning given several days before the storm arrives

hurricane watch

the warning given within 24 hours of the storm making landfall

Tsunamis

the water column above a dip slip fault is pushed upward from the ocean floor

hydraulic cycle

the water cycle

beach drift

the zig-zag movement of sand caused by waves lapping up at the angle to the shore and pushing sediment back to the beach, followed by their return back to the ocean perpendicular to the shoreline

E horizon

the zone leaching below the A horizon

altostratus

thick clouds above cirrostratus clouds

Coriosis Effect

things will get deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere

tidal currents

tides that flow horizontally to the coast

shear force

top and bottom pushed across each othe

Fronts

transition zones between air masses of different temperature and humidity

warm fronts

travel at slower speed than cold fronts and form a wedge shape

amber

tree sap, when hardened and fossilized

Hadley

two ends of the original circulation are the same

polar cell

two ends of the original circulation are the same

tensional force

two ends pulled apart

compression force

two ends pushed together

mixed tidal pattern

two high and low tides each day with different magnitude

covalent bond

two or more atoms sharing each others' electrons

divergent boundaries

two plates move in opposite directions from each other

convergent boundary

two plates move towards one another

semi-diurnal pattern

two similar magnitude high and low tides each day

syncline

u-shaped fold

sinkhole

underground cavities cause the earth to collapse into them

volcanic island arcs

underwater volcanoes of intermediate/andesitic composition which over time may grow large enough to become volcanic island

Law of original Horizontality

units start off flat and any tilting or folding of the unit occurs after the initial formation

ridge

unstable air that causes warm air to extend further north than usual

steering winds

upper level winds

anticline

upside down u-shaped fold

numerical forecasts

use physical principles to calculate the future behavior of the atmosphere using high speed computers

hydroelectric power

use water to generate electricity at up 90% efficiency

Saffir-Simpson scale

used to predict the damage to structures due to wind speed

climatology

uses 30 year averages of weather data

analogue

uses multiple pieces of data to recognize the recurrence of a significant weather event

ground-source heat pump

uses the constant temperature of the soil as a place to exchange thermal energy with the building interior

dissolved load

various chemicals, salts, and pollutants dissolved in water

catastrophic plate techtonics

very rapid movements of the plates occurred during Noah's flood and was the major physical mechanism that God used to destroy the world

inversion

very stable air in the morning

continental arc vocanoes

volcanic mountains formed by oceanic-continental convergence

vog

volcanic smog composed of sulfurous gasses that are released by large volcanoes

steam fog

warm moist air mixes with dry colder air

advection fog

warm moist air moves over a coast line (mostly on a coastline)

Surface heating

warm surface air rises because it is less dense than its surroundings

Carbonic acid

water and CO2

iridescence

water droplets and ice crystal provide colorful pastels around the edges of thin clouds

drizzle

water droplets below 0.5mm in diameter

riming

water droplets collide with ice crystals resulting in a larger piece of ice

rain

water droplets larger than 0.5mm in diameter

groundwater

water found below the surface of the earth

frost wedging

water gets into the cracks of rock and freezes

upwelling

water is pushed away from the coast creating a deficit replaced by rising cold water

surface waves

wave energy from an earthquake that travels along the surface of the earth

body waves

wave energy from an earthquake that travels into the earth

Rayleigh wvew

waves that cause a rolling motion within the earth, causing the earth's rigid surface to move up and down much like ocean waves

love waves

waves that cause the surface rocks to move back and forth and to have lateral motion with respect to how the wave is propogating

secondary waves

waves that travel second fastest and are transverse wave types

metallic bond

weak covalent bonds between two or more metals

asthenosphere

weak layer; 370 km deep; plastic like

bed load

weathered and eroded materials transported along the bottom of the stream

load

weathered and eroded materials transported by streams

suspended load

weathered or eroded materials transported in the water column

La Niña

wetter conditions similar to El Niño in the western Pacific and cool and drier conditions in Peru

coal ash

what is left after coal combusts

saturation

when a balance has been achieved between incoming and outgoing molecules

trough

when a cold column of air is pulled further south

electron capture

when a high speed electron from outside the atom collides with a proton in the nucleus

entrenched meanders

when a meandering stream quickly cuts down into rock forming a canyon

Chemical weathering

when a rock disintegrates due to chemical reactions that happen within the environment

rule of inclusions

when a rock includes pieces of another rock inside it, the included pieces must be older than the rock containing them

column

when a stalagmite and stalactite grow together

impressions

when an organism dies and is buried, the body is pressed into the sediment

terminal velocity

when friction force is equal and opposite to the force of gravity

equilibrium

when glacial ice forms at the same rate it melts

advancing glacier

when glacial ice forms faster than it melts

retreating glacial

when glacial ice melts faster than it forms

furmaroles

when hot gasses escape from the ground

mut pot

when hot water mixes with clay and mud as it rises forming a thick, paste like substance

rainbow

when light travels though large droplets of water

spring deposits

when minerals such as calcium carbonate are deposited a s a spring leaks out of a rock

differentiation

when molten iron and nickel are pulled towards the Earth center to form its core

Differential weathering

when one rock type weathers faster than another

mud cracks

when playas and streams dry up causing the mud to shrink

super-saturation

when relative humidity levels exceed 100%

base level

when rivers can no longer flow downhill

spheroidal weathering

when rocks become weathered and rounded

saltation

when sand grains jump into the current and collide with each other

Law of Original Horizontality

when sedimentary rocks are deposited and laid down as flat horizontal layers

Law of lateral coninuity

when sediments or extrusive igneous rocks are deposited, they remain the same composition in all directions until they either a) contact an edge or wall to the despositional environment or b) thin out as energy levels decrease far from the source region

cone of ascention

when the are around a well is raised due to pumping

cone of depression

when the area around a well is lowered due to pumping

low tide

when the coastal area is perpendicular to the tidal bulge

high tide

when the coastal area passes into the peak of the tidal bulge

thunderstorm watch

when the conditions are right the formation of a severe thunderstorm

neap tide

when the moon, earth, and sun are perpendicular to one another

chaldera

when the summit of a volcano collapses into the chamber after an eruption if the chamber is close to the surface

artesian well

when water flows out of the ground under natural pressure

artesian spring

when water naturally flows out out the ground

rip current

when waters pools together and create a fast-moving return flow

pumped storage

where a hydroelectric plant acts like a giant battery

fuel rods

where fission occurs

principle of faunal succession

where fossil organisms follow one another in a definite and recognizable order within sedimentary rocks

spreading center

where two pieces of crust spread apart

continental-continental convergence

where two plates capped with continental crust collide

oceanic-oceanic convergence

where two plates capped with oceanic crust move toward one another

transform boundaries

where two plates move alongside and past each other

continental shelf

where water depth is less than 150 meters

jet stream

wind at the tropopause along the polar front

loess

windblown dunes

geostrophic winds

winds that blow parallel to the isobars

trade winds

winds that veer west from the east

wave-cut platform

a relatively flat foreshore area at the bottom of a wave-cut cliff

high pressure system

air flows away from the center of the circle

low pressure system

air flows counter clockwise

spit

a linear deposit of sand extending from the beach out into a bay of open water

vacuum

a location of zero air pressure

beta decay

a neutron in the nucleus emits a negative beta particle which is identical to an electron in size and charge

Great Upheaval

a period of creation where God raises the continents out of the water-covered world to separate out and establish the land and the seas

late heavy bombardment

a period of intense meteor showers that destroyed most of the early surface rocks

Snowball Earth

a period of time in which the earth was covered in ice and resembled a snowball

magnetic reversal

a period when the magnetic field flipped its orientation

dynamic metamorphism

a process that uses only pressure to form metamorphic rock

El Niño

a quasi-periodic shift of warm ocean water in the equatorial Pacific

parent isotope

a radioactive atom

relative humitity

a ratio of the actual vapor pressure compared to to the saturated vapor pressure at air temperature

control rods

absorb two of the three neutrons produced during fission

cut bank

actively eroded ares on the outside of meander beds

atmospheric effect

additional heating making the earth warmer as if it had no atmosphere

gradient winds

air flow is parallel to curved isobars

orographic forcing

air flow mountains causes it to move upward

westerlies

air flow that veers east from the west

biosphere

all living organisms on the planet; mostly in oceans

hydrosphere

all the water on the planet's surface

moment magnitude scale

almost identical to the Richter Scale but provides more accurate readings for large-scale earthquakes

catastrophism

an Earth history concept that held a) the wold was ancient, rather than young; b) the world's geography was formed by major destructive events (catastrophes) over time; c) following each catastrophe, God would replenish the world with new plants and animals; d) Noah's Flood was only the most recent catastrophe and may or may not have been global

rock

an aggregate (collection) of one or more minerals

silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

an anion made of a central silicon atom covalently bonded to to 4 oxygen atoms

alluvial fans

an apron of gravel deposited at the mouth of a canyon

ion

an atom with a positive or negative charge

lightning

an electrical discharge resulting from an accumulation of charge within a cloud

fjord

an elongated, narrow, salt-filled valley flanked by vertical rock cliffs

pediment

an erosional ramp approaching mountains

the Great Unconformity

an erosional unconformity between deep Proterozoic and either uppermost Proterozoic or the lowest Phanerozoic (Cambrian) rocks

wave

an expression of energy passing through the water

geological column

an idealized image representing the vertical (stratigraphic) relationships of rock units around the world

ocean ridge

an immense linear mountain chain underwater

rain gauge

an instrument that measures the amount of standing water after a precipitation event

radiosonde

an instrument that provides information about air pressure, air temperature, humidity, altitude, wind speed and direction

hygrometer

an instrument used measure relative humidity

seismographs

an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes

seisometer

an instrument used to detect earthquakes

psychrometer

an instrument used to measure humidity

Mercalli Scale

an intensity scale based on actual damage reports and human sensitivity to the earthquake using roman numeral I to XII

Earth Science Systems

an interdisciplinary approach to trace and understand the systems and subsystems of the planet

oxbow lake

an old meander that still holds water

octet rule

atoms are the most stable when their valence shell is filled with eight electrons

isotopes

atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons

negative feedback

attempts to keep earth's temperature locked into its current value

parabolic dunes

barchan dunes with the crest pointing upwind instead of down wind

Proterozoic Era

began 2.5 billion years ago and lasted until 541 million years ago

bituminous coal

black coal that burns with higher heat energy and less smoke than lignite coal

Ferrel cell

middle circulation pattern driving surface air northward and air aloft softward

petrification

mineral-rich water deposit microcrystalline silica in the open spaces between the tissues of an organism

tropical rain forests

most diverse life on land

Gap Theory

most of geological history takes place in a "gap" of time between Genesis 1:1 and Genesis 1:2

slumps

move along curved or scoop-like surfaces

density

the amount of mass in a volume

half-life

the amount of time it takes for one half of a group of parent isotopes to decay into their final stable daughter isotopes

angle of repose

the angle at which sand grains become unstable

slope

the angle of the land surface

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

the area around the equator with low surface pressure causing air to converge from both north and south

backshore

the area behind the foreshore

foreshore (intertidal zone)

the area in between the high tide and low tide shorelines

unsaturated zone (zone of aeration)

the area in which the water seeps through cavities full of air

capillary fridge

the area just above the water table

nearshore

the area of the water that is permanently submerged and whose bottom sediments are affected by wave activity

offshore region

the area past the nearshore extending to the end of the continental shelf

climate

the average state of the atmosphere over a region or interval of time

aureole

the baked zone of a contact metamorphic rock

tropical depressions

the beginning of hurricanes

wave refraction

the bending of the oceans to become parallel with the shoreline

dominion mandate

the biblical mandate that gives humans the right to subdue all of the planet.

foot wall (foot block)

the bottom part of a fault

mechanical weathering

the breakdown of rocks by physical or mechanical processes

hydraulic action

the breaking apart of rock by sheer force of moving water

cementation

the cementing of the grains together with minerals such as quartz, calcite, or hematite

nucleus

the central region of an atom

polar front

the clash between warm air from the south and cold air from the north

atmosphere

the collection of gasses that surround the Earth and are held in by gravity

cell

the combination of both an updraft and downdraft

shore

the combined areas of shoreline, foreshore, backshore, and berm

spring tide

the combined lunar and solar tides at each new and full moon

plate tectonics

the components and mechanisms that move lithosphere plates around earth's surface

passive margin

the continental and oceanic crusts are part of the same plate, and their contact is not characterized by earthquakes and volcanic activity

sublimation

the conversion of a solid to vapor

depostion

the conversion of a vapor to a solid

condensation

the conversion of water vapor into liquid

chain reaction

the creation of more fission events from a single event

monsoons

the seasonal shift resulting in air drawn from the Indian Ocean causing a rainy season over South East Asia

hydrologic cycle

the set of processes that move water around the earth

atom

the smallest particle of matter that cannot be split into similar substances by chemical processes

cinder cone volcano

the smallest type of volcano (less than 1,000 m tall); consist of mostly loose pyroclastic debris

environmental lapse rate

the solid black line on the plot marking actual air temperature at different levels

geosphere

the solid, rocky components,

Gondwana

the southern portion of the broken up super-continent

fission

the splitting of large atomic nucleus into smaller nuclei

de-watering

the squeezing of water out of a rock


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