Principles of Earth Science final exam vocabulary Cedarville
7 things learned from Mt. St. Helens
1) Finely laminated deposits don't always have to be made in quiet conditions 2) Erosion through solid rock can happen very quickly 3) Sometimes, canyons are made before rivers 4) The Yellowstone "fossil forests" were likely transported and buried 5) Coal can be formed by floating log mats 6) Recovery of completely decimated areas can occur in short periods of time 7) Catastrophic processes help us consider what Noah's Flood was like
three main forces on earth
1) compressional force 2) tensional force 3) shear force
contributing factors to Flood
1) geysers at ocean ridges 2) subduction at continental margins 3) formation of new ocean crust 4) thermal expansion of ocean water
4 thermal features
1) hot springs 2) mut pots 3) fumaroles 4) geysers
tetrahedra (5 groupings)
1) isolated 2) single chain 3) double chain 4) sheet 5) framework silicates
Factors in forming deserts
1) lack of rain due to dominant high pressure systems 2) distance from an ocean 3) rain shadow effect 4) cold ocean currents
mineral attributes
1) naturally occurring 2) crystalline 3) solid 4) (generally) inorganic 5) definite chemical formula
two factors of heating
1) the angle at which sunlight hits the surface 2) the length of day
three requirements to assign a date
1) the number of parent and daughter isotopes has only changed by radioactive decay 2) the amount of daughter isotopes at the beginning is either zero or some amount that can be accurately determined 3) the rate of decay has been constant over time
two windows through which radiation is transmitted
1) visible spectrum 2) microwave and radiowave spectrum
ways by which a rock can change
1) weathering 2) metamorphism 3) melting 4) recrystallization
three factors determining wave sizes
1) wind speed 2) wind duration 3) fetch
mineral properties (optical)
1. color 2. luster (metallic or non-metallic) 3. streak (the color of the mineral in powder form)
mineral properties (mechanical)
1. hardness 2. tenacity (behavior when broken) 3. cleavage plane 4. fracture (splintery, irregular, conchoidal)
mineral properties (other)
1. odor 2. taste 3. magnetic
dolomite
10% of all sedimentary rock
tilt of the earth
23.5 degrees
tropic of cancer
23.5 degrees N
continental crust
40% of the earth's surface; 30-70 km thick
oceanic crust
60% of earth's surface; made up of igneous rocks basalt and gabbro; <10 km thick; density is 2.9 g/cm3
article circle
66.5 degrees N; perpetual daylight during summer
antarctic circle
66.5 degrees S; perpetual nighttime during summer
non-silicate minerals
8% of earth's minerals (not a real group) (halites, oxides, sulfates, carbonates, native elements)
mantle
84% volume, 67% mass
Köppen climate classification
A- tropical B- arid C- temperate D- continental E- Polar H- highlands
ozone
O3, oxygen gas with three oxygen atoms instead of two
rainbow in scripture
Genesis 9:3 Ezekiel 1:28 Revelation 4:3 Revelation 10:1
Evaporaton
Water molecules are constantly leaving the surface of liquid water into vapor
kettle lakes
a block of ice surrounded by a moraine melts
mountain breeze
a breeze that comes from a mountain and blows down into a valley
valley breeze
a breeze that comes from a valley and blows up a mountain
land breeze
a breeze that comes from the land blows into the ocean
sea breeze
a breeze that comes from the ocean and blows into the land
refracts
a change in the direction of the light
fold
a change in the rock shape while it is still relatively soft
positive feedback
a change is enhanced
scarp
a cliff face left on the hillside
eye
a cloud free region in the storm
fog
a cloud on the ground
wall cloud
a column of air that extends below the cloud base
epicontinental seas
a covering continental interiors and margins with vast regions of shallow oceanic water
weather
a description of the atmosphere at a particular place and time
barometer
a device used to measure pressure
coastal wetland
a drained low tide area in which a variety of salt-tolerant grasses, trees, and/or shrub plants grow
ground moraine
a flatter deposit of till
sand injectites
a fluid mix of and water forced into other rock units
pressure
a force per area and is equal to the weight of the atmosphere above that point
delta
a formation from sediments dropped when a river can no longer carry its load
greenhouse gas
a gas that absorbs IR radiation emitted from earth's surface
Cambrian Explosion
a geologically sudden appearance of a wide variety of very different types of fossils than what is seen in the rocks below
kame
a gravel filled hole
archosaurs
a group of reptiles that survived the end-Permian extinction and includes crocodilians, dinosaurs, pterosaurs
sundog
a halo around the sun
breakwater
a hard stabilization structure build parallel to to the shoreline often to create an artificial harbor
groin
a hard stabilization structure build perpendicular to the shoreline and down current of the direction of longshore current
rift
a large depression in a ridge
Siberian High
a large high pressure system of Asia
yardang
a large rock or outcrop that might look like an overturned ship
tied island
a large rock or small island that is connected to shore by a tombolo
distributaries
a larger river that breaks up into smaller rivers
stratus
a layer of clouds with no distinct features
aquifer
a layer of rock, sand, or gravel through which water can easily flow
element
a material of characteristic physical and chemical properties that cannot be broken down; all atoms with the same number of protons
temperature
a measure of an objects average thermal energy (both potential and kinetic) at the microscopic scale
atmospheric pressure
a measure of the amount of atmosphere over a particular place
barchanoid dunes
a mix of barchan and transverse dunes
soil
a mixture of mineral and organic matter
A horizon
a mixture of organic material and mineral material; darker
air parcel
a moving packet of air that does not mix with its surroudings
kimberlite pipe
a narrow conduit that forms when magma reaches earth's surface from 150-500 km deep
mineral
a naturally occurring object that is a crystalline solid, generally inorganic, and has definite chemical formula
hot spot
a plume of magma originating in the lower mantle and rising upward into or through the crust
coast
a relatively flat region that continues inland until there is significant change in terrestrial topography
proved resource
a reserve that is known to exist and can be recovered economically
reserve
a resource that has been determined to exist or has a good likelihood of existing in a specific area
thrust fault
a reverse fault at an angle of 10 degrees or less
tombolo
a ridge of sand that develops perpendicular to the beach
esker
a ridge of sinuous sand gravel deposits
contact (thermal) metamorphic rock
a rock formed mostly as a result of heat
aquiclude
a rock or substance that does not have good permiability
rock cycle
a schematic drawing that shows how these processes change rock
paleontologist
a scientist who studies fossils
feedback mechanism
a series of physical processes that either enhance or inhibit a change in a physical parameter
lightning rods
a series of pointed metal rods placed along the roof to provide a preferential location for lightning strikes
playa
a shallow lack between mountain ranges
arête
a sharp knife-edge ridge that develops between two cirques
thunder
a shock wave that travels at the speed of sound
tarn
a small lake at the bottom of a glacier
xenolith
a solid piece of rock that gets incorporated into lava as it moves to the surface
basin
a soup bowl shaped formation
bay mouth bar
a spit that extends are enough across the bay that it seals the bay off from ocean waves
wave-cut cliffs
a steep wall of rock exposing the headland
berm
a steepened ridge of sand followed by a sandy platform or terrace
sensible heating
a temperature change due to added energy
cirrostratus
a thin layer of cirrus clouds
supercell
a thunderstorm that is long lasting and has strong rotation in its updraft
road-cut (cliff face)
a two dimensional exposure
petroleum
a type of hydrocarbon composed of chains of carbon bonded to hydrogen atoms
Ediacaran Era
a variety of unusual organisms often believed to be or be relatives of animals
dip slip fault
a vertical fault causing the rocks on each side to move up and down
plateau
a very large flat landform that is bounded by cliffs
shelf cloud
a warm updraft overrides the cold surface air
perched water table
a water table that rests above the main water table
marine terrace
a wave-cut cliff lifted out of the reach of waves
convergence
air moving into a low pressure system causing air to rise
ice cap
an area that has snow coverage year round so no vegetation can grow
RATE
Radioisotopes and the Age of The Earth
Cloud Condensation Nuclei
Small particles in the air that make it easier for water vapor to condense
wind turbines
generate electricity when the wind turns the large blades
Principle of cross-cutting relations
geological structures such as dikes, faults, and erosion surfaces must be younger than the geological units that they effect
continental glaciers (ice sheets)
glaciers with surface areas of at least 50,000 km2
ice caps
glaciers with surface areas of less than 50,000 km2
nuée ardente
glowing avalanche
sota straws
hallow stalactites
geothermal energy
heat from the rocks from the planets
halo
hexagonal ice crystals with a 22 degree angle refract light; red on the outside, blue on the inside
latent heating
hidden heating
haze
high concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei that reduce visibility
anvil
high level winds pull cirrus clouds to the east of the thunderstorm
strike slip fault
horizontal
divergence
horizontal air flow results in more air leaving a high pressure region than is entering it
planar bedding
horizontal layering
barchan dunes
horseshoe shaped dunes with the tips facing downwind
hot springs
hot beds of water
pyro-clastic material (tephra)
hot pieces of solid rock
snow
ice crystals and clusters of ice crystals that reach the ground
glacial erratics
ice transported rocks
stalactites
icicle shaped rocks hanging from the ceiling
longshore transport
an overall direction for the erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments on and near the shore
dome
an overturned soup bowl shaped formation
meander scar
an oxbow lake that fills with debris
nonconformity
an unconformity located at the contact of a sedimentary or extrusive igneous rock and an intrusive igneous or metamorphic rock
disconformity
an unconformity located between two roughly parallel sedimentary or extrusive igneous rocks
nuclear fission
an unstable type of radioactive decay in which the parent isotope splits into two smaller daughter isotopes with the release of additional nuclear materials and energy
mineral resource
any material extracted from rocks such as sand limestone and iron ore
resource
any material that can be used by people
creation week rocks
any rock formed during the initial creation of the earth
aerosol
any solid or liquid that remains suspended in the air
plates
areas of the surface of the earth
tundra
areas that are frozen most of the year, but support small plant life during summer
deserts
areas that receive less than 10 inches (25 cm) of rain per year
emergent coastline
areas where land is rising up out of the ocean or where deposition of new material builds more land areas
submergent coastline
areas where sea level is rising and/or erosion removes material from the land
frontal fog
associated with warm fronts that have very moist air. forms when moist air comes into contact with cooler air
Fujita scale
associates wind speeds with the resultant damage
persistance
assumes that the weather does not change from day to day
sediment
broken up pieces of loose rock and minerals
lignite
brown coal with the lowest percentage of carbon and least energy per unit
active solar heating
captures insolation and then moves the thermal energy using pumps or fans
load casts
casts made when the layers below are relatively soft and the upper layer pushes into it
fault
change in rock shape after it hardened often resulting in breaks
anti-cyclone
clockwise air rotation around a high pressure system
cumulus
clouds with flat bases and rounded tops
frontal wedging
cold and warm fronts push warm air upward making it less stable
aggregation
colliding ice crystals stick together to form a larger flake
oblique slip fault
combination of dip slip and strike slip faults
air masses
common large-scale air parcels
core
composed of iron and nickel; 15% volume, 30% mass
primary waves
compressional waves causing the rock to expand and contract as they travel
stalagmite
cone shaped deposits growing from the ground
sea wall
constructed of large rocks of concrete located directly on land where the danger of erosion and collapse is high
Pleistocene
conventional name for the recent period of time that was characterized by extensive glacial ice
downdraft
cool air with snowflakes and water droplets organized into a descending region
cyclone
counter clockwise circulation
tidal bores
create walls of rushing water as it flows into a bay
igneous rock
crystallize from liquid rock
cumulus stage
cumulus clouds form as the rising air reaches condensation level
cumulonimbus
cumulus clouds with an anvil appearance
surface currents
currents near the ocean surface that flow at 2-5 km/hr (0.5-2 m/sec)
glacial striations
cuts in rock made by rocks imbedded in ice
scoria
dark colored pyroclastic material
cirques
deep bowl shaped amphitheaters
ocean trenches
deep stretches of ocean up to 11 km deep
thermohaline circulation
density driven changes
point bar
deposit on the shallow inside portion of a meander bed
channel deposits
deposits on the bottom of a stream
mineral properties
determinants used to identify a mineral
solution
dissolving rock
latitude
distance from the equator
estuaries
drowned river valley
wadis
dry river beds
Day-Age theory
each day of creation was actually long periods of time or "ages" of geology
Wadati-Benioff zones
earthquake regions extending from the trench surface downward at angles ranging from 30-70 degrees
entrainment
eddies mixing with small cloud droplets with surrounding dry air
concentrated solar power
employ mirrors to focus sunlight energy to a specific area to produce heat
downwelling
excess water along the coast is pushed down bringing warm water to the cooler, deeper parts of the ocean
cold fronts
exist where continental polar air displaces maritime polar or maritime tropical air
lower mantle
extends from 670 km to 2890 km deep; density is 5.0 g/cm3;
dry line
extends from Texas to Kansas which provides excellent conditions for the formation of thunderstorms and tornados
upper mantle
extends from the bottom of the crust to 670 km; made up mostly of peridotite
electron
extremely small, negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus
lahars (mudflows)
fast moving lava flow
cavitation
fast moving water flows over a small depression creating imploding vacuum bubbles
sedimentary structures
features made within the rocks while they are in the process of formation
autumnal equinox
first day of fall; 12 hours of daylight
vernal equinox
first day of spring; 12 hours of daylight
winter solstice
first day of winter
steady-state
forecasting that assumes there is a trend that continues into the future
lateral moraines
form along the edges of an alpine glacier where it comes into contact with a steep valley wall
medial moraines
form when two valleys come together
cross-beds
formation resulting from sediment avalanching down the faces of dunes
fumaroles
formations in which gasses in volcanic eruptions escape
ichnofossils
fossil trackways of animals
coprolites
fossilized feces of an animal
geyser
fountains of water and steam shoot up into the air
eddies
friction effect is transmitted higher in the atmosphere through swirling motion
porosity
the amount of empty space in an aquifer
longshore current
the current that causes beach drift
tides
the daily rhythmic rise and fall of the ocean's elevation
sounding
the data collected by the radiosonde
radioactive decay
the decay of isotopes into different isotopes through the nucleus in the atom
continental-oceanic convergence
the density of the ocean crust is greater than the continental plate
storm wave base
the depth of reach of the largest storms in the area
dew point depression
the difference between air temperature and the dew point
tidal range
the difference in elevation between the high and low tides at the shore
Pressure Gradient Force
the difference in pressure measured at two points divided by the distance between the two points
folitation
the display of groups in parallel layers
relief
the distance between the highest point and lowest point in landscape
wavelength
the distance between two wave crests
wave height
the distance in elevation between the trough and crest
fetch
the distance over which the wind blows
biogeography
the distribution of organisms across the planet
strip mining
the dominant form of mining (60%)
dissipation stage
the downdraft from the thunderstorm eventually cuts off the source of warm surface air
continental drift
the drifting of the continental plates across the ocean
Hadean
the earliest period of Earth history beginning at 4.6 billion years ago (supposedly) with the formation of Earth as a planetary body
continental margin
the edge of a continent
active margin
the edge of continent coincides with a plate boundary
terminal moraine
the end moraine that marks the furthest advance of a glacier
abyssal plain
the end of the continental shelf
Archean Eon
the era in which the oldest rocks formed (4 billion years ago), and the oceans formed (3.5 billion years ago)
euphotic zone
the first 200 meters of ocean; sunlight penetration
Richter Scale
the first accurate scale used to record earthquake magnitude
summer solstice
the first day of summer (ohio= 15 hours daylight)
flood plain
the flat area in which water will spill into when rivers or streams flood
vapor pressure
the force/area exerted by water molecules in the vapor phase
slides
the general term used to describe rock or soil sliding down a slope
actualism
the geological processes that worked in the past were much the same as those happening today
subsidence
the gradual sinking of coastal regions
raqiya
the hebrew word for expanse, firmament, or vault of heaven
linear dunes
the highest dunes in which the crests are parallel to to the wind
wave crest
the highest point of wave
tidal cycle
the interplay between the two sets of tidal bulges each day
sea stack
the isolated column from a collapsed sea arch
shield volcano
the largest (volume-wise) volcanoes
Permian Period
the largest extinction in Earth history in which 90% of marine species went extinct and 70% of terrestrial species
Laurasia
the largest mountain-building event when the northern continents collided with Gondwana to form Pangaea
thermosphere
the layer of atmosphere beginning at 90 km and extending upward; experiences an increase in temperature with height
mesosphere
the layer of atmosphere from 50 km to 90 km with an atmospheric pressure of 1mb
stratosphere
the layer of atmosphere that contains the ozone layer
terminus
the leading edge of a glacier
chemical bonds
the linking of atoms by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons
eye wall
the location of the strongest winds and precipitation
polar wander
the looping that the magnetic north pole seems to take over time
wave trough
the lowest point between two crests
troposphere
the lowest portion of the atmosphere where most of our significant weather occurs; rate of cooling is 6.4 C/km
dipole
the magnetic field has two poles
pangaea
the massive super continent pre flood
base load power
the minimum level of electricity needed day or night
desert pavement
the mixture of sand and gavels that cover most desert floors
tidal bulge
the moon draws water from the earth's surface towards itself creating
groundwater (chapter 1)
the most important water source on the planet that allows the earth to be populated in certain areas
seismic waves
the motion caused by an earthquake
daughter isotope
the new atom
laurentia
the northern portion of the broken up super-continent
alpha decay
the nucleus emits a cluster of two protons and two neutrons
atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus
subduction
the ocean crust dipped downward at the deep-ocean trenches and travelled back into the mantle
Law of Superposition
the older units are found below the young units
biomass
the oldest energy source
antracite coal
the only coal considered a metamorphic rock rather than sedimentary
periodic table
the organization of the elements by number of protons in the nucleus
focus
the origin point of the earthquake
valence shell
the outer most portion of the election cloud
thunderstorm warning
if a severe thunderstorm is spotted
normal fault
if the hanging wall appears to have been moved downward
reverse fault
if the hanging wall appears to have been moved upward
track/traces
impressions left by organisms as they move
Walther's Law
in a vertical sequence of sedimentary rocks, the types of rocks found above and below each other are the same as those found adjacent sedimentary environments
enrichment
increasing the amount of U-235
microbursts
intense downbursts of air
typhoons
intense tropical storms in the western Pacific Ocean
system
interactive components working together to form a complex and interdependent unit
inselburg
island mountain
seismogram
the paper record of an earthquake
C horizon
the parent material
albedo
the percentage of solar radiation reflected or scattered from a surface
zone of wastage
the place where ice begins to melt
water table
the place where there is no more air space and the ground is completely full of water
mature stage
the point at which a cell is formed
surf zone
the point at which the wave breaks (1/20th depth wavelength)
wave base
the point at which water is no longer turbulent (1/2 wavelength)
isotonic rebound
land moving upward as a result of lost material
karst topography
landscapes that are characterized by caves, sinkholes, and disappearing streams
rock avalanches
large amount of rocks tumbling down a mountainside
glaciers
large bodies of ice that move under the influence of gravity
gyres
large circular systems of currents
playa cracks
large mud cracks
firn
large pellets of ice
mass wasting
large quantities of rock or soil move down hill under the influence of gravity
dunes
large sandy mountains
volcanic bomb
large volcanic rock from an eruption
coalescence
large water droplets fall at higher speed than smaller ones
composite cone volcano
larger volcanoes; eruptions often sudden and violent; most well known volcanoes
hottest part of the day
late afternoon (about 4:00)
liquid rock
lava flows
banded iron formations
layered and iron-rich sedimentary deposits
stromatolites
layers of microbes and sediment formed about 3.5 billion years ago
strata
layers of sedimentary rock
acid rain
leaches nutrients from soil, stresses plants, and changes the pH of streams and lakes
unstable air
lifted air with an environmental lapse rate greater than 10 degrees C per km
stable air
lifted air with an environmental lapse rate less than 6 degrees C per km
pumice
light colored pyroclastic material
Isobars
lines that represent locations of the same pressure on weather maps
outer core
liquid; density of 11 g/cm3; extends from mantle boundary to 5150 km deep
transverse dunes
long rows of parallel dune crests
fjords
long water-filled valleys with shallow entrances to the ocean
drumlins
long, cigar shaped hills parallel to ice flow
hydrogen bond
lose connections between weakly charged regions of overall neutral molecules
primary sedimentary structures
made during the initial deposition of sedimentary material
lava
magma that has erupted from a volcano
currents
masses of flowing water
magma
melted rock as a result of intense heat and pressure
ore
metal-rich minerals or rock
regional metamorphic rock
metamorphic rock created by heat and pressure
barrier island
narrow, long sand dominated island parallel to the mainland coast, and separated from it by a lagoon
natural levees
natural deposits to help prevent flooding
anion
negatively charged ion
seafloor spreading
new ocean crust formed from rising magma at the ocean ridges
two main components of the atmosphere
nitrogen: 78% oxygen: 21%
aphotic zone
no sunlight penetration
bentonites
numerous layers of ash from violent volcanic eruptions
selective absorbers
objects whose absorption properties change based on wavelength
valley glaciers
occupy the same places that rivers would if the temperatures were higher
upslope fog
occurs as warm moist air rises up over a mountain slope or canyon
radiation fog
occurs when heat is lost in the atmosphere through radiation during the night
hurricane
once wind speeds reach 119kph (74mph) in a tropical storm
tropical storm
once winds reach 65kph (40mph) in a tropical depression
ionic bond
one atom transfers one or more electrons to another atom
natural gas
one carbon atom covalently bonded to four hydrogen atoms
friction
opposing motion
humus
organic material in soil
coal
organic sedimentary rock made up almost entirely of tree bark and other organic remains from plants
O horizon
organic zone
eurkaryotes
organisms with a cell nucleus
bajada
overlapping aluvial fans
jetties
paired shore-perpendicular structures build from the same kinds of materials as groins
neutron
particles within the nucleus of an atom without charge
Bowden's Reaction Series
patterns recognized for determining rocks discovered by N.L. Bowden
crude oil
petroleum
micrometeorology
phenomena lasting several minutes and extending to a km in size
meteorology
phenomena of the heavens
icebergs
pieces of glaciers that break and fall into the ocean
butte
pinnacle shaped landform
springs
places where water naturally flows out of the earth
rock creep
pliable rocks slowly bend over time
glacial till (glacial moraine)
poorly sorted deposits made by glaciers
cation
positively charged ion
proton
positively charged particles that are confined to the atom's central region
speleothems
precipitated cave formations
peaker plants
prevent blackouts and brownouts
biofuels
produced by organisms with the intention of including them in transportation fuels
passive solar heating
purposeful employment of sunlight to heat a building
sleet
rain falling through a layer of sub zero air refreezes to form spheres of ice
freezing rain
rain that hits the surface that is below freezing
density currents (turbidity currents)
rapid flows that happen on the bottoms of lakes and oceans
sequences
regular patterns of stacked geological formations
abrasion
removal of rock though rubbing (like sandpaper and wood)
renewable resource
resources that can be replenished at about the same rate in which they are used
non-renewable resource
resources that exist in fixed quanitities
updraft
rising air
adiabatic process
rising air experiences less pressure and expands in volume resulting in a decrease in air temperature
misfit stream
rivers that are in very large valleys compared to the relatively small amount of water
lithification
rock hardening
angular unconformity
rocks above and below the unconformity are oriented at some angle to each other
Physical correlation
rocks are matched according to shared composition and structures
temporal correlaton
rocks are matched according to their time of formation. This is often accomplished by using a) fossils or b) radioactive dating methods
dynamic metamorphic rock
rocks caused by mineral changes taking place due to extremely great pressures
shale
rocks composed entirely of clay sized particles (1/256-1/16mm)
extrusive (volcanic) igneous rock
rocks formed from cooled lava aboveground
intrusive igneous rock
rocks formed from cooled magma underground
chemical sedimentary rock
rocks formed out of sediments made by chemical processes within water
siltstone
rocks made entirely of silt-sized particles
clastic (detrital) sedimentary rock
rocks made from other pieces of other rock
sandstone
rocks made of particles 1/16-2 mm in size
metamorphic rock
rocks that become changed by heat and/or pressure
pyroclastic rocks
rocks that resulted from explosive volcanism
porphyritic rocks
rocks with both phaneritic and aphanitic textures
phaneritic rocks
rocks with crystals 1-30 mm
pegmatites
rocks with crystals greater than 30 mm
aphanitic rocks
rocks with crystals too small to be seen with the naked eye
organic sedimentary rock
rocks with living things as their origin
vesticular rocks
rocks with many tiny hole resulting from volcanic gasses leaking out of the rock
conglomerate (breccia)
rocks with smaller matrix grains filling the spaces between the larger clasts
root wedging
roots force their way into small fractures in the rock
aa
rough, jagged lava
relative dating
rules that help us determine geological history [without assigning a numerical date/age]
sand waves
sand dunes that form on the ocean floor
volcanic ash
sand-sized volcanic material from an eruption
firn limit
separates the zone of accumulation and zone of wastage
lithosphere
several large and many small slabs of rock called plates that move with respect to one another; 150-280 km thick
horn
sharp mountain peaks
mudrocks
siltstones, shale, mudstones, claystones
diurnal pattern
single high and single low tide each day
sedimentary rock
small particles or pieces of other rock
lapilli
small pea-sized volcanic material from an eruption
granular ice
small pellets of ice
scud
small tufts of ragged clouds below nimbostratus
tributaries
smaller rivers that come together to form a bigger river
mesa
smaller than a plateau and table like in nature
soil horizons
soil layers
soil creep
soil particles will slowly move down a landscape
loam
soil that contains an equal amount of clay, silt, and sand
Earth flows
soils and other unconsolidated materials become extremely water-saturated and begin to slowly flow downhill
solar photovoltaic panels
solar panels
inner core
solid; density of 3 g/cm3; extends from outer core boundary to 6371 km deep
synoptic meteorology
spans days and hundreds of miles
cirrus cloud
sparse and thin clouds
tufa
spring deposits full of small holes
Star dunes
star shaped dunes
derechos
straight lines winds
nimbostratus
stratus clouds with precipitation
braided streams
streams that cross each other multiple times forming a braided pattern
disappearing stream
streams that disappear for one reason or another
meandering stream
streams that snake back and forth across a generally flat valley bottom
secondary sedimentary structures
structures formed after depositions
unconformities
surfaces within rocks that represent a break in time
pahoehoe
taffy like lava
competence
the ability of a stream to carry a load
permiability
the ability of water to flow through an aquifer
lifting condensation level
the altitude at which relative humidity reaches 100%
shoreline
the point of intersection of the ocean and the land
mountain top removal
the preferred mining method in the Eastern US
uniformitarianism
the present is the key to the past
Southern Oscillation Index
the pressure difference between equatorial winds
paleomagnetism
the process by which a rock's position at the time of formation is determined by means of magnetite orientation
weathering
the process by which larger rocks get broken down into smaller pieces
correlation
the process of linking or matching rock units over distances in which they are not seen
beach nourishment
the process of transporting sand to the beach
fossil fuel
the products of photosynthetic organisms that have been buried in sedimentary rock and altered into carbon-rich materials
mining
the recovery of solid metallic or non-metallic resources from rock or loose sediment
compaction
the reduction of the amount of open space between the grains of rock and the packing together of the grains
tropopause
the region where the temperature trend reverses
fossil
the remains of a formerly living organism that is preserved in the geological record
fossils
the remains of organisms in the rock record
erosion
the removal of the weathered products
spent nuclear fuel
the residual radioactive material after a fuel rod has been exhausted
recrystallization
the result of hot fluids interacting with the mineral ingredients of the rock to produce new minerals
storm surge
the rise in water level at the coast as the hurricane makes landfall
sea arch
the rock formation from the scene from the first Pirates of the Caribbean movie where the three pirate skeletons hang as a warning
bathymetry
the science of determining water depth
B horizon
the subsoil; the zone of accumulation
Rodinia
the super-continent directly before the Flood
lambda
the symbol for half-life
Dew Point Temperature
the temperature at which the water vapor in the air reaches saturation
meltdown
the temperature rises too high and damage the building or cause explosive chain reactions
end moriane
the terminus of a glacier in equilibrium
Precambrian
the three eons prior to the Phanerozoic Eon: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic
Mesozoic Era
the time of "middle animals" divided into three periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
hanging wall (hanging block)
the top part of a fault
atomic mass
the total number of protons and neutrons within an atom
underground mining
the traditional form of mining
radiation
the transfer of energy by electro-magnetic waves
conduction
the transfer of heat by the collision of molecules with its neighbors
heat
the transport of energy from a warm object to a cool object
silicate minerals
the vast majority of minerals in Earth's crust
convection
the vertical transfer of heat by the motion of fluids
tornado
the vortex of a mesocyclone that reaches the surface of the earth
hurricane watches
the warning given several days before the storm arrives
hurricane watch
the warning given within 24 hours of the storm making landfall
Tsunamis
the water column above a dip slip fault is pushed upward from the ocean floor
hydraulic cycle
the water cycle
beach drift
the zig-zag movement of sand caused by waves lapping up at the angle to the shore and pushing sediment back to the beach, followed by their return back to the ocean perpendicular to the shoreline
E horizon
the zone leaching below the A horizon
altostratus
thick clouds above cirrostratus clouds
Coriosis Effect
things will get deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
tidal currents
tides that flow horizontally to the coast
shear force
top and bottom pushed across each othe
Fronts
transition zones between air masses of different temperature and humidity
warm fronts
travel at slower speed than cold fronts and form a wedge shape
amber
tree sap, when hardened and fossilized
Hadley
two ends of the original circulation are the same
polar cell
two ends of the original circulation are the same
tensional force
two ends pulled apart
compression force
two ends pushed together
mixed tidal pattern
two high and low tides each day with different magnitude
covalent bond
two or more atoms sharing each others' electrons
divergent boundaries
two plates move in opposite directions from each other
convergent boundary
two plates move towards one another
semi-diurnal pattern
two similar magnitude high and low tides each day
syncline
u-shaped fold
sinkhole
underground cavities cause the earth to collapse into them
volcanic island arcs
underwater volcanoes of intermediate/andesitic composition which over time may grow large enough to become volcanic island
Law of original Horizontality
units start off flat and any tilting or folding of the unit occurs after the initial formation
ridge
unstable air that causes warm air to extend further north than usual
steering winds
upper level winds
anticline
upside down u-shaped fold
numerical forecasts
use physical principles to calculate the future behavior of the atmosphere using high speed computers
hydroelectric power
use water to generate electricity at up 90% efficiency
Saffir-Simpson scale
used to predict the damage to structures due to wind speed
climatology
uses 30 year averages of weather data
analogue
uses multiple pieces of data to recognize the recurrence of a significant weather event
ground-source heat pump
uses the constant temperature of the soil as a place to exchange thermal energy with the building interior
dissolved load
various chemicals, salts, and pollutants dissolved in water
catastrophic plate techtonics
very rapid movements of the plates occurred during Noah's flood and was the major physical mechanism that God used to destroy the world
inversion
very stable air in the morning
continental arc vocanoes
volcanic mountains formed by oceanic-continental convergence
vog
volcanic smog composed of sulfurous gasses that are released by large volcanoes
steam fog
warm moist air mixes with dry colder air
advection fog
warm moist air moves over a coast line (mostly on a coastline)
Surface heating
warm surface air rises because it is less dense than its surroundings
Carbonic acid
water and CO2
iridescence
water droplets and ice crystal provide colorful pastels around the edges of thin clouds
drizzle
water droplets below 0.5mm in diameter
riming
water droplets collide with ice crystals resulting in a larger piece of ice
rain
water droplets larger than 0.5mm in diameter
groundwater
water found below the surface of the earth
frost wedging
water gets into the cracks of rock and freezes
upwelling
water is pushed away from the coast creating a deficit replaced by rising cold water
surface waves
wave energy from an earthquake that travels along the surface of the earth
body waves
wave energy from an earthquake that travels into the earth
Rayleigh wvew
waves that cause a rolling motion within the earth, causing the earth's rigid surface to move up and down much like ocean waves
love waves
waves that cause the surface rocks to move back and forth and to have lateral motion with respect to how the wave is propogating
secondary waves
waves that travel second fastest and are transverse wave types
metallic bond
weak covalent bonds between two or more metals
asthenosphere
weak layer; 370 km deep; plastic like
bed load
weathered and eroded materials transported along the bottom of the stream
load
weathered and eroded materials transported by streams
suspended load
weathered or eroded materials transported in the water column
La Niña
wetter conditions similar to El Niño in the western Pacific and cool and drier conditions in Peru
coal ash
what is left after coal combusts
saturation
when a balance has been achieved between incoming and outgoing molecules
trough
when a cold column of air is pulled further south
electron capture
when a high speed electron from outside the atom collides with a proton in the nucleus
entrenched meanders
when a meandering stream quickly cuts down into rock forming a canyon
Chemical weathering
when a rock disintegrates due to chemical reactions that happen within the environment
rule of inclusions
when a rock includes pieces of another rock inside it, the included pieces must be older than the rock containing them
column
when a stalagmite and stalactite grow together
impressions
when an organism dies and is buried, the body is pressed into the sediment
terminal velocity
when friction force is equal and opposite to the force of gravity
equilibrium
when glacial ice forms at the same rate it melts
advancing glacier
when glacial ice forms faster than it melts
retreating glacial
when glacial ice melts faster than it forms
furmaroles
when hot gasses escape from the ground
mut pot
when hot water mixes with clay and mud as it rises forming a thick, paste like substance
rainbow
when light travels though large droplets of water
spring deposits
when minerals such as calcium carbonate are deposited a s a spring leaks out of a rock
differentiation
when molten iron and nickel are pulled towards the Earth center to form its core
Differential weathering
when one rock type weathers faster than another
mud cracks
when playas and streams dry up causing the mud to shrink
super-saturation
when relative humidity levels exceed 100%
base level
when rivers can no longer flow downhill
spheroidal weathering
when rocks become weathered and rounded
saltation
when sand grains jump into the current and collide with each other
Law of Original Horizontality
when sedimentary rocks are deposited and laid down as flat horizontal layers
Law of lateral coninuity
when sediments or extrusive igneous rocks are deposited, they remain the same composition in all directions until they either a) contact an edge or wall to the despositional environment or b) thin out as energy levels decrease far from the source region
cone of ascention
when the are around a well is raised due to pumping
cone of depression
when the area around a well is lowered due to pumping
low tide
when the coastal area is perpendicular to the tidal bulge
high tide
when the coastal area passes into the peak of the tidal bulge
thunderstorm watch
when the conditions are right the formation of a severe thunderstorm
neap tide
when the moon, earth, and sun are perpendicular to one another
chaldera
when the summit of a volcano collapses into the chamber after an eruption if the chamber is close to the surface
artesian well
when water flows out of the ground under natural pressure
artesian spring
when water naturally flows out out the ground
rip current
when waters pools together and create a fast-moving return flow
pumped storage
where a hydroelectric plant acts like a giant battery
fuel rods
where fission occurs
principle of faunal succession
where fossil organisms follow one another in a definite and recognizable order within sedimentary rocks
spreading center
where two pieces of crust spread apart
continental-continental convergence
where two plates capped with continental crust collide
oceanic-oceanic convergence
where two plates capped with oceanic crust move toward one another
transform boundaries
where two plates move alongside and past each other
continental shelf
where water depth is less than 150 meters
jet stream
wind at the tropopause along the polar front
loess
windblown dunes
geostrophic winds
winds that blow parallel to the isobars
trade winds
winds that veer west from the east
wave-cut platform
a relatively flat foreshore area at the bottom of a wave-cut cliff
high pressure system
air flows away from the center of the circle
low pressure system
air flows counter clockwise
spit
a linear deposit of sand extending from the beach out into a bay of open water
vacuum
a location of zero air pressure
beta decay
a neutron in the nucleus emits a negative beta particle which is identical to an electron in size and charge
Great Upheaval
a period of creation where God raises the continents out of the water-covered world to separate out and establish the land and the seas
late heavy bombardment
a period of intense meteor showers that destroyed most of the early surface rocks
Snowball Earth
a period of time in which the earth was covered in ice and resembled a snowball
magnetic reversal
a period when the magnetic field flipped its orientation
dynamic metamorphism
a process that uses only pressure to form metamorphic rock
El Niño
a quasi-periodic shift of warm ocean water in the equatorial Pacific
parent isotope
a radioactive atom
relative humitity
a ratio of the actual vapor pressure compared to to the saturated vapor pressure at air temperature
control rods
absorb two of the three neutrons produced during fission
cut bank
actively eroded ares on the outside of meander beds
atmospheric effect
additional heating making the earth warmer as if it had no atmosphere
gradient winds
air flow is parallel to curved isobars
orographic forcing
air flow mountains causes it to move upward
westerlies
air flow that veers east from the west
biosphere
all living organisms on the planet; mostly in oceans
hydrosphere
all the water on the planet's surface
moment magnitude scale
almost identical to the Richter Scale but provides more accurate readings for large-scale earthquakes
catastrophism
an Earth history concept that held a) the wold was ancient, rather than young; b) the world's geography was formed by major destructive events (catastrophes) over time; c) following each catastrophe, God would replenish the world with new plants and animals; d) Noah's Flood was only the most recent catastrophe and may or may not have been global
rock
an aggregate (collection) of one or more minerals
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
an anion made of a central silicon atom covalently bonded to to 4 oxygen atoms
alluvial fans
an apron of gravel deposited at the mouth of a canyon
ion
an atom with a positive or negative charge
lightning
an electrical discharge resulting from an accumulation of charge within a cloud
fjord
an elongated, narrow, salt-filled valley flanked by vertical rock cliffs
pediment
an erosional ramp approaching mountains
the Great Unconformity
an erosional unconformity between deep Proterozoic and either uppermost Proterozoic or the lowest Phanerozoic (Cambrian) rocks
wave
an expression of energy passing through the water
geological column
an idealized image representing the vertical (stratigraphic) relationships of rock units around the world
ocean ridge
an immense linear mountain chain underwater
rain gauge
an instrument that measures the amount of standing water after a precipitation event
radiosonde
an instrument that provides information about air pressure, air temperature, humidity, altitude, wind speed and direction
hygrometer
an instrument used measure relative humidity
seismographs
an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes
seisometer
an instrument used to detect earthquakes
psychrometer
an instrument used to measure humidity
Mercalli Scale
an intensity scale based on actual damage reports and human sensitivity to the earthquake using roman numeral I to XII
Earth Science Systems
an interdisciplinary approach to trace and understand the systems and subsystems of the planet
oxbow lake
an old meander that still holds water
octet rule
atoms are the most stable when their valence shell is filled with eight electrons
isotopes
atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
negative feedback
attempts to keep earth's temperature locked into its current value
parabolic dunes
barchan dunes with the crest pointing upwind instead of down wind
Proterozoic Era
began 2.5 billion years ago and lasted until 541 million years ago
bituminous coal
black coal that burns with higher heat energy and less smoke than lignite coal
Ferrel cell
middle circulation pattern driving surface air northward and air aloft softward
petrification
mineral-rich water deposit microcrystalline silica in the open spaces between the tissues of an organism
tropical rain forests
most diverse life on land
Gap Theory
most of geological history takes place in a "gap" of time between Genesis 1:1 and Genesis 1:2
slumps
move along curved or scoop-like surfaces
density
the amount of mass in a volume
half-life
the amount of time it takes for one half of a group of parent isotopes to decay into their final stable daughter isotopes
angle of repose
the angle at which sand grains become unstable
slope
the angle of the land surface
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
the area around the equator with low surface pressure causing air to converge from both north and south
backshore
the area behind the foreshore
foreshore (intertidal zone)
the area in between the high tide and low tide shorelines
unsaturated zone (zone of aeration)
the area in which the water seeps through cavities full of air
capillary fridge
the area just above the water table
nearshore
the area of the water that is permanently submerged and whose bottom sediments are affected by wave activity
offshore region
the area past the nearshore extending to the end of the continental shelf
climate
the average state of the atmosphere over a region or interval of time
aureole
the baked zone of a contact metamorphic rock
tropical depressions
the beginning of hurricanes
wave refraction
the bending of the oceans to become parallel with the shoreline
dominion mandate
the biblical mandate that gives humans the right to subdue all of the planet.
foot wall (foot block)
the bottom part of a fault
mechanical weathering
the breakdown of rocks by physical or mechanical processes
hydraulic action
the breaking apart of rock by sheer force of moving water
cementation
the cementing of the grains together with minerals such as quartz, calcite, or hematite
nucleus
the central region of an atom
polar front
the clash between warm air from the south and cold air from the north
atmosphere
the collection of gasses that surround the Earth and are held in by gravity
cell
the combination of both an updraft and downdraft
shore
the combined areas of shoreline, foreshore, backshore, and berm
spring tide
the combined lunar and solar tides at each new and full moon
plate tectonics
the components and mechanisms that move lithosphere plates around earth's surface
passive margin
the continental and oceanic crusts are part of the same plate, and their contact is not characterized by earthquakes and volcanic activity
sublimation
the conversion of a solid to vapor
depostion
the conversion of a vapor to a solid
condensation
the conversion of water vapor into liquid
chain reaction
the creation of more fission events from a single event
monsoons
the seasonal shift resulting in air drawn from the Indian Ocean causing a rainy season over South East Asia
hydrologic cycle
the set of processes that move water around the earth
atom
the smallest particle of matter that cannot be split into similar substances by chemical processes
cinder cone volcano
the smallest type of volcano (less than 1,000 m tall); consist of mostly loose pyroclastic debris
environmental lapse rate
the solid black line on the plot marking actual air temperature at different levels
geosphere
the solid, rocky components,
Gondwana
the southern portion of the broken up super-continent
fission
the splitting of large atomic nucleus into smaller nuclei
de-watering
the squeezing of water out of a rock
