PSY 210 Exam 1
socialization
the process by which we learn and internalize the rules and patterns of behavior that are affected by culture this process, which occurs over a long time, involves learning and mastering societal cultural norms, attitudes, values, and belief systems
assimilation
the process of fitting new ideas into a preexisting understanding of the world
person perception
the process of forming impressions of others there are cultural similarities and differences of inferred personality traits there are only differences in judgment of trustworthiness
method bias: linguistic
the semantic equivalence between protocols used in a cross-cultural comparison study two procedures to establish linguistic equivalence: 1) back translation (original language is decentered in this process = no culture-specific meanings) 2) committee approach (collectively translate)
attachment
the special bond that develops between the infant and its primary caregiver provides the infant with emotional security the quality of attachment has lifelong effects on our relationships with loved ones
response bias: acquiescence
the tendency to agree rather than disagree with items on questionnaires
self-effacement
the tendency to downplay one's virtues
response bias
a systematic tendency to respond in certain ways to items or scales socially desirable responding acquiescence extreme response reference group effect
Baumrind's 3 general patterns of parenting
based on two key dimensions: warmth/responsiveness + control authoritarian parent permissive parents authoritative parent
emotions
basic emotions self-conscious emotions
evolution
basic human needs and motifs universal psychological tool kit
terror management theory
because humans have unique cognitive abilities, they are the only animals aware that we will die and we are afraid of death because it is scary, so we create psychological phenomena as a buffer against the fear of dying (ex. religion)
cultural worldviews
belief system ab one's self and culture cognitive generalizations ab how one's self and one's culture is or should be regardless of whether those generalized images are true or not (i.e. regardless if they are rooted in actual cultural practices/behaviors)
attributions
beliefs about the underlying causes of behavior cultural differences in attribution styles
attributions
beliefs about the underlying causes of behavior (a universal, psychological process) internal and external attributions note: everyone protects their self-image with attributions, but different cultures use attributions differently
infrahumanization
beliefs that others lack human qualities
developmental niche
how the macrosystem structures the microsystem 3 components: physical and social setting customs of child care and rearing psychology of care givers
goodness of fit
how well a child's temperament fits into the expectations and values of the parents, environment, and culture Mismatch: more negative child outcomes are expected Good match: better child outcomes are expected
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
human development is a process between people and various ecologies ranging from proximal to distal Bronfenbrenner suggests that we can only understand child development by looking at the child in relation to his or her contexts. Realize that children are not passive recipients in the enculturation/socialization process. They also impact their system (through their personality, abilities, interests, behaviors, etc.), influencing interactions with parents/peers/school. individual microsystem mesosystem exosystem macrosystem chronosystem
group life
humans are social animals (better for survival/division of labor) efficiency
response bias: reference group effect
idea people make implicit social comparisons with others when making ratings on scales; that is, people ratings will be influenced by the implicit comparisons they make between themselves and others, and these influences may make comparing responses across cultures difficult
tactical self enhancement
idea that people of different cultures all self enhance, but choose to do it in different ways
cultural frame switching
process by which bicultural (or multicultural individuals switch between one cultural meaning system, and another depending on context)
enculturation
process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways and manners of their specific culture
categorization
process by which objects are grouped or classified together based on their perceived similarities
acculturation
process by which people adopt a different cultural system, process of individual change and adaptation as a result of continuous contact with a new, distinct, or different culture
accommodation
process of changing ones understanding of the world to accommodate ideas that conflict with existing concepts
two fundamental differences in temperament and environmental response
produces fundamental differences in: 1)learning and social experience 2)their world view and culture as they grow older
contact hypothesis
proposition that contact between groups is especially effective in reducing prejudice group is especially effective n reducing prejudice when there is equal status, common goals, cooperation, & support from authority, laws, and/or customs
cultural fit hypothesis
proposition that immigrants and sojourners with characteristics that match their host cultures will adjust better than those with less match
beliefs
propositions that are regarded as true (different cultures have different beliefs) dynamic externality societal cynicism religions
3 cultural models of attachment
psychological autonomy hierarchical hybrid
subjective elements of culture
psychological processes: values beliefs norms attitudes world views
personal identity
qualities and attributes that distinguish one's self from others
temperament
qualities of responsiveness to the environment that exists from birth and evoke different reactions from people in the baby's world is generally considered to be a biologically based style of behavior that is positive and responsive
control
teaching a child to regulate their own behavior in the context of cultural expectations (discipline) acquiring societal expectations, avoiding threats to autonomy
sociotypes
"factual stereotyping"
interpretational bias: four methods of dealing with nonequivalent data
1) preclude comparison (prevent from happening) 2) reduce the nonequivalence in data (focus solely on equivalent parts) 3) interpret the nonequivalence (these can be important pieces of info. regarding cultural differences) 4) ignore the nonequivalence (some believe in scale invariance across cultures - inaccurate belief)
two things a researcher must consider
1) whether the measure will truly measure what it is intended to measure in the new culture 2) whether the construct being measured is even relevant in the new culture
6 temperament dimensions
1)activity level - gross motor activity (moving limbs) 2)smiling and laughter - being sociable 3)fear - showing distress in novel situations (a.k.a behavioral inhibition) 4)distress to limitations - levels of distress when infant's goal is blocked 5)soothability - how easy it is to soothe when distressed 6)duration of orientation - how long infant pays attention to an object when there are no other stimulations present
Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
1)sensorimotor stage (1-2yrs) - child understands the world through sensory perceptions and motor behaviors 2)preoperational stage (2-6/7yrs) - child uses symbols (like language) to understand the world around them 3)operational stage (6/7yrs) - child develops the ability to think logically about concrete objects 4)formal operational stage (11yrs) - individuals develop ability to think logically about abstract concepts
what does research show us about these assumptions of construal
Americans are not more independent than Japanese and Americans are more interdependent than Japanese no difference in Asian, African, and Americans self construal
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Although Piaget's cognitive development stages seem to occur in the same order across cultures, there is variation in the ages of stages and in the specific skills within stages. What's clear is that different societies value and reward different skills and behaviors. The environment matters. Both parental practices and cultural values implicit in our education systems impact what we know, how we know it, and what we value cognitively.
What are characteristics of WEIRDOS (Americans) that are present in psychology research?
Americans prize choice and individualism Americans do not fear charity Westerners define themselves by psychological traits; non-westerners define themselves by relationships Americans are the worst at overcoming optical illusions ab the length of lines but better at recalling objects when the background changes note: there is a greater population of underdeveloped countries, yet we only study developed countries to represent the world
model minority
Asian Americans as overachievers
values
individualism vs. collectivism power distance sacred values
equivalence
a state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures that allows comparisons to be meaningful a lack of bias ensuring that research methodology/instruments/terms actually hold same meaning across culture
marginalization
Do I value and want to maintain my home cultural identity and characteristics? No Do I value and want to maintain relationships with members of the host culture? No
assimilation
Do I value and want to maintain my home cultural identity and characteristics? No Do I value and want to maintain relationships with members of the host culture? Yes
separation
Do I value and want to maintain my home cultural identity and characteristics? Yes Do I value and want to maintain relationships with members of the host culture? No
integration
Do I value and want to maintain my home cultural identity and characteristics? Yes Do I value and want to maintain relationships with members of the host culture? Yes
hierarchical
Infants in this cultural environment have a sense of security not based on a specific caregiver or relationship, but security within a network of community members. ex. big families
Hays Addressing Model
Pamela Hays developed the ADDRESSING model to help therapists consider identity and sociocultural influences on their clients. She notes that there are oppressed statuses within each identity category, which may influence in part how people are treated within different cultural contexts. These categories impact who we are, regardless of our privileged/oppressed status in the various categories. Relevant to this module on enculturation, people may interact differently with a child depending on that child's identity within each of these various categories. Age & Generation Developmental Disability Disability (Acquired) Religion Ethnicity & Race Socioeconomic Status Sexual Orientation Indigenous heritage National Origin & Language Gender Privilege in each category: Age and generational influences - privilege between 30-60yo Disabilities (developmental) - no disability Disabilities (acquired later in life) - no disability Religion (religious upbringing; current beliefs/practices) - grew up in secular or Christian home, current beliefs/practices secular or Christian Ethnic/racial identity (what is the meaning of one's ethnic/racial identity both from experiences growing up as well as in current location/situation) - European American heritage Socioeconomic status (as defined by occupation, income, education, marital status, gender, ethnicity, community, family name; how is it different from parents) - brought up in a middle/upper-class family or currently of middle/upper-class Sexual orientation - heterosexual Indigenous heritage - no indigenous heritage National origin (national identity and primary language) - live in the country in which you were born and grew up Gender (roles, expectations, relationships; especially given cultural heritage and identity as a whole) - male, cisgender
Kohls American Values (13)
Personal Control over the Environment Change Time and Its Control Equality/Egalitarianism Individualism and Privacy Self-help Concept Competition and Free Enterprises Future Orientation Action/Work Orientation Informality Directness, Openness, and Honesty Practicality and Efficiency Materialism
Ainsworth's attachment research
The meaning of separation may differ across cultures. Therefore, an assessment of whether the attachment behavior is adaptive or maladaptive to the specific context would likely be more relevant than a search for "ideal" attachment. universal phenomenon there are differences in notion of "ideal attachment" parenting practice may affect attachment
Whiting and Whitings 6 cultures study findings
The natural environment shaped how households were structured, which in turn shaped how parents raised their children. Children were less dependent in cultures in which women worked than in cultures in which women did not have major work responsibilities.
psychological autonomy
There are strong emotional bonds between infants and one or few caregivers. Infants are conceptualized as autonomous, unique individuals.
hybrid
This cultural model emphasizes unique attachment relationships with one or few caregivers and at the same time, view the social community as another integral part of the network of attachment. ex. babysitters
out groups
a category of individuals people of all cultures create members generally include all individuals who are not in one's ingroup generally lack a history of shared experiences and do not have an anticipated future
self-enhancement
a collection of psychological processes by which individuals maintain or enhance their self-esteem
peer influence on socialization of 3 types of cultures: post figurative culture
a culture in which change is slow and socialization occurs primarily by elders transferring their knowledge to their children elders hold the knowledge necessary for becoming a successful and competent adult
tight vs. loose
a dimension of cultural variability that refers to the variability within a culture of its members to norms tight cultures: less variability and are homogeneous loose cultures: more variability and more heterogeneous
norms
a generally accepted standard of behavior within a cultural or sub-cultural group etiquette and politeness expressive behavior tightness vs. looseness
independent construal of self
a sense of self that views the self as a bounded entity, clearly separated from relevant others
interdependent construal of self
a sense of self that views the self as unbounded, flexible, and contingent on contact this sense of self is based on a principle of the fundamental connectedness among people
cognitive development
a specialty in psychology that studies how thinking skills develop over time the major theory of cognitive development is that of Piaget
behavioral inhibition
an aspect of temperament where a child shows signs of wariness, discomfort, or distress when confronted with novel, challenging, or unfair situations (a.k.a shyness/fearfulness)
developmental contextualism
abstract: theory explaining cultural differences in infant/child temperament (biology, social-relational, psychological, sociocultural) a contemporary theoretical perspective that proposes the multiple levels of a developing child (ranging from the inner, biological, psychological, social relational and sociocultural) are inextricably intertwined and function as an integrated system stresses that it is the relation between these changing multiple levels that constitutes human development
cultural reaffirmation effect
amplified endorsement of home cultural values by bicultural individuals
method bias: sampling
are samples appropriate representatives of a culture? (need collection of data from multiple samples with same cultural group) are the samples equivalent on noncultural demographic variables like sex, age, gender etc.? (combated by experimentally controlling a constant type or statistically controlling them when analyzing data)
2 primary mechanisms responsible for movement between these stages of development
assimilation accommodation
individual
at the center - sex, age, health, etc.
dispositional attributions
attributions about people's internal characteristics, traits, or personality
Note: research done in America and Europe may not be globally accurate
authoritative parenting predicts higher school achievement for European American, African American and Hispanic American adolescents but not for Asian American adolescents authoritative parenting associated w/ greater family connectedness and mental health in adolescents from Arab societies authoritative parenting positively impacts school/social adjustment for adolescents in Taiwan and China, while authoritarian parenting negatively impacts these outcomes Chinese parents are often described as authoritarian, but it may reflect an ideal for "training" (parental supervision to promote obedience, discipline, adherence to family obligation) - from an outside perspective it may look over-controlling from inside it may reflect love/concern.
microaggressions
brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults to target a person or group marginalized identity brief, commonplace, subtle problematic stereotypes and demeaning messages to target group may be seen as harmless in the moment, not worth confronting, "all in fun", well-meaning
development
changes that show greater complexity, organization, and competencies
peer influence on socialization of 3 types of cultures: prefigurative culture
changing so rapidly that young people may be the ones to teach adults cultural knowledge
ingroups
category of individuals people of all cultures create members usually have a history of shared experiences and an anticipated future that produces a sense of intimacy, familiarity, and trust
parts of person perception
characteristics of the individual being perceived: -physical cues (clothing, race, gender, height, etc.) context of situation -roles and social norms culture of perceiver
difficult temperament
characterized by an intense, irregular, withdrawing style that is generally marked by negative moods this child gets more attention because of their fussing this child may be praised for behavior (my baby knows what it wants)
ambivalent attachment
children are uncertain in their response to their mothers, going back and forth between seeking and shunning her attention mothers are intensive and less involved in these situations
avoidant attachment
children shun mothers mothers are intrusive and overstimualting
environments
climate population density arable land (able to grow food) diseases previous cultures contact with other cultures
universal psychological toolkit
cognitive abilities emotions personality traits
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
cognitive development is inseparable from culture cognitive development in social and cultural contexts a.k.a Piaget's studies are not accurate
what are the five areas of bias?
conceptual bias, method bias, measurement bias, response bias, and interpretational bias
5 characteristics of preoperational stage (stage 2)
conservation - An awareness that physical quantities remain the same even when they change shape or appearance. centration - The tendency to focus on a single aspect of a problem. irreversibility - The inability to imagine "undoing" a process. egocentrism - The inability to step into another's shoes and understand the other person's point of view. animism - The belief that all things, including inanimate objects, are alive.
microsystem
contexts that directly affect children (e.g., family, religious group, neighborhood play area, peers, school)
exosystem
contexts that indirectly affect children (e.g., parent's workplace, neighbors, friends of family, social welfare services, legal services)
fundamental attributions error
correspondence bias tendency to explain behaviors of others using internal attributions, but to explain one's own behaviors using external attributions
types of collective identities
cultural - people's psychological membership in a distinct culture ethnic - people's psychological membership in a distinct ethnic group racial - people's psychological membership in a distinct racial group
social axioms
cultural beliefs, general beliefs, and premises about oneself, the social and physical environment, and the spiritual world they are assertions about the relationship between two or more entities or concepts people use them to endorse or guide their behavior in daily life ex: belief in religion helps one understand the meaning of life
cultural world views
culturally-specific belief systems about the world people have worldviews because of evolved, complex cognition; thus, having a worldview is a universal psychological process the specific content of world views; however, is specific to and for each culture
peer influence on socialization of 3 types of cultures: configurative culture
culture in which change occurs rapidly both adults and peers socialize with young people young people may have to turn to one another for advice and information in this type of culture
macrosystem
culture, religion, society
memories
memories are solidified to reinforce stereotypes
easy temperament
defined by a very regular, adaptable, mildly intense style of behavior that is positive and responsive
cultural impacts of ingroups and outgroups
determination of ingroup vs. outgroup perception of people in outgroups strength of ingroup affiliation for favoritism
bias
differences that do not have exactly the same meaning within and across cultures a lack of equivalence having differences in what or how something is compared, lacking same meaning within and across cultures
institutional discrimination
discrimination that occurs on the level of a large group, society, organization, or institution
individualistic cultures
encourage development of independent senses of self that encourage a focus on personal concerns and the view that emotions signal internal subjective feelings
collectivistic cultures
encourage development of interdependent senses of self that encourage a focus on ones social worth and the worth of ones ingroup and the notion that emotions reflect something about interpersonal relationships
cross-cultural validation studies
examine whether scale, test, or measure originally developed in a culture is valid in another culture
objective elements of culture
explicit and physical ex: food, clothes, art
personality traits
extraversion neuroticism openness agreeableness conscientiousness
collective threat
fear that an ingroup member's behavior can reinforce negative stereotypes about ones group
authoritative parent
firm, fair, and reasonable; high degree of warmth and affection
resources
food/water money
biases of attributions
fundamental attributions error self-serving bias
four sources of the origins of culture
group life environment resources evolved human mind
protection
how do you respond to a child who is distressed (comfort and sensitivity) security, comfort, protection against harm
human development
how people change over time on many different levels: biologically, physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially
ratchet effect
improvement never goes backward concept that humans continually improve on improvements, that they don't go backward
multicultural identities
individuals who incorporate the values of two or more cultures because they identify with both their primary culture and another culture or cultures result of increased communication between cultures due to technology three parts: identity denial, cultural frame switching, and cultural reaffirmation
secure attachment
infants are described as warm and responsive to their caregiver
slow to warm up (temperament type)
infants need time to make transitions in activity and experiences though they may withdraw initially or respond negatively, given time and support they will adapt and react positively
chronosystem
influence of time and history on the other systems
Berry's 4 basic acculturation strategies
integration assimilation separation marginalization
where do humans develop their mental processes and behaviors
interaction between culture factors we're born with
interpretational bias: interpreting findings
interpretations can be affected by researchers own cultural filters some mistakes occur when specific reason why cultural differences occurred are suggested without measuring these reasons (cultural attribution fallacies)
interpretational bias
involves analyzing data (stats/chi squared) and dealing with nonequivalent data and interpreting findings
what is the third stage of cross-cultural research?
involves conceptual application of those meaningful dimensions in cross-cultural studies
what is the fourth stage of cross-cultural research?
involves empirically applying those dimensions and other possible cultural explanations of behavior experimentally (not just conceptionally) in order to scientifically document their effects
what is the first stage of cross-cultural research?
involves the initial tests of cultural differences and the discovery of cultural differences
what is the second stage of cross-cultural research?
involves the search for meaningful dimensions of cultural variability that can explain those differences (here immerged the individualism vs. collectivism dimension)
cognitive abilities
language complex social cognition memory hypothetical reasoning problem solving planning
reciprocity
learning how to cooperate reciprocating others behavior
guided learning - learning specific skills
learning specific skills mastery of specific skills
group participation
learning to participate in social groups and cultural practices being part of a social group
mesosystem
link between microsystems (e.g., interaction between school and family)
external attributions
locate cause of behavior outside a person (ex. other people, God, etc.) a.k.a. situational dispositions
what are the three main types of studies used by cultural psychologists?
method validation studies: cross-cultural validation studies indigenous cultural studies cross-cultural comparisons
cross cultural research
not only tests whether people of different cultures are similar or different but also possible limitation in our knowledge by testing if psychology theories and principles are universal or culture-specific
attitudes
opinions stereotypes prejudice
relational identity
our qualities of ourselves in relation to others
collective identity
our recognition that we belong to social categories, such as occupation religion or culture
collectivistic cultures
people are in few groups and identify very strongly with these groups 1. People have fewer ingroups. 2. People are very attached to the ingroups to which they belong. 3. Survival of the individuals and the society is more dependent on the successful and effective functioning of the groups rather than individuals. 4. People make greater distinctions between ingroup and outgroup others.
individualistic cultures
people are in multiple groups less willing to make sacrifices 1. People have more ingroups. 2. People are not as attached to any single ingroup because there are numerous ingroups to which they can be attached. 3. Survival of the individuals and the society is more dependent on the successful and effective functioning of individuals rather than groups. 4. People make relatively fewer distinctions between ingroups and outgroups.
self-serving bias
people tend to attribute good deeds and successes to their own internal attributions but attribute bad deeds/failures to external factors
agents of enculturation
people, institutions, organizations that exist to help ensure that socialization and enculturation occurs
3 main types of identity
personal identity collective identity relational identity
implicit prejudice
prejudicial attitudes, values, or beliefs that are unspoken and perhaps outside conscious awareness
implicit association test
reflective of sociocultural influences and messages bias is normal The fewer contacts we have with people from a specific group, the more we will rely on stereotypes to assume things about people
basic human needs
relate to reproductive success physical: eat, sleep, drink, produce waste, reproduce safety: hygiene, shelter, warmth
indigenous cultural studies
rich descriptions of complex theoretical models within a single culture insight generated from these studies compared across studies and cultures (allows for cross-cultural comparison with different insights gathered from different cultures)
culture and face recognition
same race bias (recognize individuals of own race)
method bias (types)
sampling, linguistic, and procedural
mutual self enhancement
self enhancement that is achieved through the giving and receiving of compliments between partners in close relationships
worldviews
self-concepts cultural worldviews attributions
culture and education
socialization process begins in the home but continues with teachers and peers content taught in schools reflects what the culture believes is important to learn - by teaching certain content, the education system reinforces a particular view of cognition and intelligence the vehicle by which education occurs reinforces certain types of cultural values (ex. taught by teachers or elders, etc) the organization, planning, and implementation of the education are important structure of the classroom: teachers as the expert vs. as the guide OR individual learning vs. group learning learning focus: praise vs. attention to mistakes; which topics are emphasized
types of stereotypes
sociotypes autostereotypes heterostereotypes categorization collective threat model minority
internal attributions
specify the cause of behavior within a person a.k.a. dispositional attributions because they are attributions about people's dispositions
Piaget's Cultural Research (the important stuff to remember)
stages occur in same order across cultures variation in ages of stages variation in specific skills within stages common sense vs. scientific reasoning as the end point
heterostereotypes
stereotypes about other groups
autostereotypes
stereotypes about own group
cross-cultural comparisons
studies involving participants from two or more cultures who are measured on some psychological variable of interest the responses obtained from the different cultural samples are compared against each other
etic
study behavior from outside a system, comparing cultures, structure "created" by researcher in advance, criteria is universal research starts with imposed etic which adjusts as aspects of another culture refute assumptions universal psychological processes aspects of life that appear to be consistent across different cultures; universal or pancultural truths/principles assumes there are universal processes to study
response bias: socially desirable responding
tendencies to give answers on questionnaires that make oneself look good
better than average effect (false uniqueness effect)
tendency for people to underestimate the commonality of desirable traits and to overestimate their uniqueness
prejudice
tendency to prejudge others on the basis of their group membership cognitive component is based on stereotypes affective component is based on feelings explicit implicit KNOW VISUAL FROM NOTES: 9/23
response bias: extreme response
tendency to use the ends of a scale regardless of item content
ethnocentrism
tendency to view world through ones own cultural filters
self-esteem
the cognitive and affective evaluations we make ab ourselves
self-concept
the cognitive representations of who one is, that is, the ideas or images that one has ab one's self especially in relation to others and how + why one behaves the sum of one's ideas about oneself including physical, mental, historical, and relational aspects as well as capacities to learn and perform is ideally considered central to personal identity and change over time usually considered partially conscious and partially unconscious or inferred in a given situation dynamic (can change) multifaceted and context-dependent source: cultural practices and cultural worldviews
validity
the degree to which a finding, measurement, or statistic is accurate or represents what it is supposed to how accurately does a scale measure what it is supposed to? is the scale measuring what we think it is?
reliability
the degree to which a finding, measurement, or statistic is consistent how consistent is the measurement? if we measure more than once, will we get some result?
conceptual bias
the degree to which a theory or set of hypotheses being compared across cultures are equivalent; that is, whether they have the same meaning and relevance in all the cultures being compared
measurement bias
the degree to which measures used to collect data in different cultures are equally valid and reliable ex. linguistic translations may be the same words but not mean the same thing or cannot be measured the same
zone of proximal development
the gap between the actual developmental level of a child vs. the potential developmental level that the child is capable of with some assistance by more knowledgeable others (parents, teacher, experienced peers)
method bias: procedural
the procedures, environment, and settings are different across the cultures being compared
enculturation
the process by which individuals learn and adopt the wats and manners of their specific culture
5 Holfstede values
there are five value dimensions that differentiate cultures: individualism vs. collectivism power distance uncertainty avoidance masculinity vs. femininity long-term vs. short-term orientation
Schwarts Values
there are seven universal cultural values: embeddedness hierarchy mastery intellectual autonomy affective autonomy egalitarianism harmony
why are tests of attachment not globally accurate
they are not performed considering cultural features
emic
to study behavior from within a system, examine one culture, structure discovered by researcher (not based on findings in a different culture), criteria are relative to culture helps identify concepts that are culturally specific different psychological processes across cultures aspects of life that appear to differ across cultures; truths/principles that are culture-sepcifc assumes cultural-specific processes may reflect relativism
discrimination
unfair treatment of others based on their group membership
Maccoby and Martin's 4th type of parenting
uninvolved: do not respond to children appropriately, seem indifferent, meet minimum needs
stereotypes
universal phenomenon but with cultural differences generalized images we have about groups of people, particularly about their underlying psychological characteristics or personality traits selective attention: what do we pay attention to?
universal vs. culture-specific
universal: true for all people of all cultures culture-specific: true for some people of some cultures
authoritarian parent
unquestioned obedience, child needs to be controlled; low warmth and responsiveness toward children
cultural aspects that impact parenting
variation in the degree to which a given domain of interaction is frequently engaged in or emphasized in cultures culture influences the nature of successful rearing in a given domain of interaction
Domain Specific Approach to Parenting
vary parenting depending on situation and child temperament; does the parent need to provide more control, direction, guidance, advice, comfort, etc. for a particular child in a particular situation each domain requires a different response, parenting practices must be appropriate for the domain in which the child is functioning cultural variations emerge in what parents do, how often they do them, and what specific behaviors mean protection control reciprocity guided learning group participation
explicit prejudice
verbalized and thus made public
permissive parents
warm and nurturing, children regulate own lives, few firm guidelines
culture and attractiveness
we universally agree on what is attractive do not universally agree on meanings of attractiveness
assumptions about construal of self based on theory
western or individualistic cultures view self as independent/separated non-westerners or collectivistic cultures view self as interdependent and inseparable from social context
WEIRD
western, educated, and from industrialized, rich and democratic countries most research to date is based on WEIRDOS and is thus not accurate for everyone/reflects little of the actual diversity of humankind WEIRDO research is justified by the efficiency of Americans gathering WEIRDO data 68% of participants are from the US 96% are from western industrialized nations 67% of the US participants were undergrad psychology students
what can an infant's cultural differences concerning temperament indicate?
what personalities/behaviors they will value in a culture as an adult
identity denial
when an individual is not recognized as a member of a group to which he or she identifies
