PSYC 140: Theoretical Perspectives in Lifespan Development

4.1 What is unique about Piaget's theory of cognitive

Cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as children grow. A child's cognitive development is about both acquiring knowledge and constructing a mental model of the world Sensorimotor stage - 18-24 months preoperational - 2-7 years concrete operational - 7-11 years formal operational - 12 and older All children go through the stages in the same order but not at the same rate.

A. Controversies in Lifespan Development

This introduction to theoretical perspectives is necessary to understand what directs knowledge in this field The two controversies in psychosocial development are 1. Nature vs. Nurture 2. Continuity vs Discontinuity

What is a conditioned reflex

a conditioned response is a learned response. An organism becomes responsive to a stimulus that previously was neutral. For example, Pavlov over time, Pavlov's dogs became conditioned to respond to the lab coats

6. Ethology Theories

Ethological theories are biological, focusing on animal behavior. Most famously, Konrad Lorenz and his geese illustrate the phenomenon of imprinting, which is briefly described here. Imprinting happens 12-17 hours after hatching and is known as the critical hour. Two batches of eggs hatched, one saw their mother, the other saw Lorenz, the latter became attached to Lorenz and followed him everywhere even when mixed with the other batch of geese

Critical Evaulation of Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages

"By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001)." Recognition for creating a stage across the whole lifespan. He reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant and now viewed as active and significant times of personal growth. Good face validity, many people relate to these stages However, stages are rather vague about the causes of development. What experiences must people go through in order to ensure success in one stage? A universal mechanism for crisis resolution is not applicable Erikson acknowledges his theory as a descriptive "what" but not a why or how these developments occur. He also states his work is a "tool to think with rather than a factual analysis" The purpose is to build a framework with it Strength = ties together the whole lifespan Critics suggest a lack of discrete stages Erikson's stages reflect a crisis, but moves beyond psychodynamic approach "Other differences that you may have noted between the two theories are the lack of sexual content in Erikson's stages, as well as his detailed emphasis far beyond adolescence."

2.8 Ego Integrity vs Despair

( 65 years - Death) During this time we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop a sense of integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Individuals who reflect, and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of bitterness and despair. Ego Integrity "as the acceptance of one's one and only life cycle as something that had to be" and later as "a sense of coherence and wholeness" as 65+ we slow down on productivity and explore life as retired people. Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. Success in this stage leads to wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear Wise people experience both ego integrity and despair. These two states have a need to be balanced

2.5 Identity vs Role Confusion

(12 - 18 years) adolescents are in search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. Adolescence is the transition from childhood and adulthood, it is the most important Individuals are becoming more independent, and thinking about their future, their career, family, house, etc. They want to fit in. "The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult." (Erikson 1963) Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: sexual and occupational. the individual will begin to learn the role they will occupy in society, and re-examine their identity to find exactly who they are and what they want to be. Bee states that at the end of this stage a "reintegrated send of self of what one wants to do or be, and of one's appropriate sex role" Our bodies begin to change during this stage Erikson claims we may feel uncomfortable with our bodies until we learn to adapt and "grow into" the changes. success = fidelity - being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences In this stage, individuals will begin to form their own identity based on the outcome of their exploration. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (I don't know what I want to be when I grow up) can lead to role confusion. Role confusion - not being sure about themselves or their places in society. role confusion or identity crisis will result in the experimentation of different lifestyles also pressuring a certain identity onto someone can result in rebellion in the form of negative identity, and in addition, feeling unhappy

2.6 Intimacy vs Isolation

(18 - 40 years) The major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. In this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We begin relationships with a long-term intention, with someone other than family. success= happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and car within a relationship Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness and depression. success = leads to love

2.2 Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

(18 Months - 3 years) Focus on developing a sense of self-control over physical skills and a sense of independence Success will lead to will. Encouraged and supported children will become confident in their own abilities If criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they will feel inadequate to survive, become overly dependent, lack self-esteem and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities What happens during this stage? children are choosing what to wear, tie shoes, picking which toys to play with; this displays a growing sense of independence and autonomy. (example - walking away from their mother) How can Parents encourage self-control? Allow children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure. Let children get dressed until they succeed or ask for help Balance independence and failure, encourage independence without experiencing too much failure, if failure occurs do not overly criticize especially toilet training. The aim is to be "self control without a loss of self-esteem"

2.7 Generativity vs Stagnation

(40 - 65 years) (Psychologically, generativity refers to making your mark on the world through creating and nurturing things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.) We give back to society by raising our kids, being productive at work, and becoming involved in our community or organizations. We develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. success leads to feeling usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. When we fail to find a way to contribute to the society we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These people may feel disconnected and uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

2.4 Industry vs Inferiority

(5 - 12 years) Teachers take on an important role, children learn to read, write, math, and do other things on their own. Children a developing a sense of becoming more responsible Peer groups will gain a greater significance and become major to their self-esteem. The child feels a need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. The encouraged and reinforced initiative will enable them to feel industrious (competent) and confident in their ability to achieve their goals If the initiative is not encouraged and instead restricted by teachers or parents, then the child will begin to feel inferior. doubting their abilities and may not reach their potential If a child cannot develop specific skills they feel society is demanding (being athletic) they may develop a sense of inferiority Some failure is necessary to develop modesty. success = competence

2.1 Trust and Mistrust

(Birth - 18 months) Uncertain about the world and look towards their caregiver as consistency of care stability If care is consistent, predictable and reliable they will develop a sense of trust and will be able to feel secure even when threatened inconsistency = mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety - lack on confidence of their world Success = hope certain of their support in new crisis Failure = fear - mistrust in relationships, anxiety, heightened insecurities and an over feeling of mistrust in their world Research by Bowlby and Ainsworth outline the quality of early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others later in life

1.5 Genital Stage

(Puberty - Adulthood) assuming a person has navigated successfully through the three stages, people when they hit the genital stage once puberty is reached. The area of focus is the genitals, the difference from the phallic stage is that mutual genital pleasure is the focus, rather than just the male sexual anatomy. This stage is about healthy relationships with others and with productive work. The genital stage focuses on our healthy adult work. Although the issues do involve sexuality the phases are more than just sexuality. Freud's psychodynamic approach demonstrates a broader theory about growth, starting with complete dependency in infancy and moving into mature functioning and productivity as we age

4.3d The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Over Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints. During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions). They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples. Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked 'What would happen if money were abolished in one hour's time? they could speculate about any possible consequences. They will gain the ability to think in abstracts concepts, and logically test hypothesis We see the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem.

4.3b The preoperational stage

Ages: 2 - 7 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself. A child's thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought. Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person's. Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric (centered on the child's own view of the world)

4.3c Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 - 11 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events. Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same. During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape). During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. The name concrete comes from the child being able to think logically successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) material or pictures of them. Piaget's believes this stage to be a major turning point because it marks the beginning of logical thinking or operational thought Children can conserve number (age 6) mass (age 7) and weight (age 9) Conservation - the understanding that something stays the same quantity even though its appearance changes Children can only do this to physical objects but struggle in abstract or hypothetical problems

4.3a The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around and exploring its environment). During the sensorimotor stage a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object permanence; self-recognition; deferred imitation; and representational play. They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent the world mentally At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still exist even if they can't see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear. Object permanence - knowing the object is still there even when it is hidden. it requires the abiliy to form a mental representation (a schema) of the object. General symbolic function begins to appear where children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language starts to appear as they learn that words can represent and symbolize objects and feelings The child begins to be able to store information, recall it and label it.

3.3 Define Social Learning

Albert Bandura, asocial cognitive theorist researcher because he connected behaviorism with cognition and the environment, Unlike B.F. Skinner, he accepted the importance of studying mental process, or cognition even though they couldn't be directly observed. He studied modeling, as is imitating behaviors that we see and observe. People learn by observing others, and this learning can occur without necessarily shaping behavior through reinforcement. This will later be observed in child behavior

3.2 Define Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner is one of the foremost researchers of on operant conditioning (coined the term) Video notes: Can pigeons read? Peck and turn signs have shaped the pigeons' environment to control their behavior Pigeons were kept at 3/4 weight to always be hungry. Pigeons were kept in a small box and measured the frequency of pecking a colored disc on a graph scheduled reinforcement - every 10th time or x times. Variable ratio schedule is similar to human gambling. People gamble for scheduled reinforcement. Free will is fictional, by discovering the external reinforcement we can discard the internal act of will and use external triggers to incite behavior Skinner's viewpoint is unacceptable to many Americans today, especially his view on free will. However, Skinner effectively shows behavior can be shaped by the environment. For example, being rewarded for something makes us respond to want to do the behavior more. On the other hand, being punished for our behavior makes us want to perform the behavior even less.

3. Behaviorism and Social Learning

Behaviorists scientifically study human and animal behavior and focus on what is observable and measurable. However, there are many forms and applications of behaviorism This class will discuss classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning.

2. Erik Erikson and the Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erik Erikson described 8 stages from infancy to late adulthood. Focuses on integrated social experiences extensively. Therefore they are most aptly described as psychosocial stages.

1.3A Describe the female path in the Phallic Stage

Focusing on their lack of penis and blaming their mother because they lack theirs as well begins the process of the Electra conflict In psychodynamic theory, girls move from an attachment towards their mother to a deep affection towards their father, leading to some of the same competition and fear towards their mother. This conflict is resolved by looking at their mothers as a model for how to be a woman. incorporating those external standards into their sense of what it means to be a girl. Girls do not go through the Oedipal conflict, Freud believed girls had a less firmly developed superego and consequently a weaker moral compass. For both boys and girls, successful navigation through the phallic stage will lead to the development of the superego that helps them repress their sexual desires.

Describe the Fixations in the phallic stage

For boys, an unsuccessful resolution of the oedipal conflict will result in being overly focused on masculinity. For girls, an unsuccessful resolution to their penis envy will lead them to be emasculating, they will attempt to cut men down emotionally and socially.

1. Sigmund Freud and the Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud created five stages of development, each involving a conflict and a fixation with an area of the body that is associated with sexual gratification. some words are now part of western culture - being "anal" and speaking "phallic symbols" both derived from Freud R.R. Rice - Freud believed our personalities were base on the interaction and conflict between the id, ego, and superego.

Describe the critique on Freud

Freud mixes adolescents and adults together as one stage. Freud grew up during a time when it was believed very few changes occur after adolescence Now known to be incorrect. Changes due occur after adolescence. Others said Freud's research methods clinical sample and biased analysis calls are questionable Since his patients all had mental conditions, people wonder whether the stages can be applied to normal people. nevertheless, the stages are still relevant with historical importance and current influence

5. Information Processing Theory

Information-processing theory is a cognitive theory that likens the human brain to a computer. For example, humans actively manipulate information. Research in this area uses computer terms to describe the processes of learning and memory. Although there is some similarity between this theory and Piaget's, information-processing theory is not connected to any stages. Rather, this theory holds that cognitive development is continuous rather than discontinuous.

Define Nature vs. Nurture

Is one of the most important considerations in the field. What causes people the be the way that they are? Are they born that way? Nature, or biology Are we naturally born to be a certain way? Or do people change due to their environment, such as parental influence, socioeconomic status, or level of education? Nurture Does our environment Nurture (shape) us into who we are?

3.1 Define Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov is credited for discovering it with his research on dogs' digestive system.

4. Jean Piaget and Cognitive Stages of Development

Jean Piaget fully embraced the cognitive perspective, meaning he focused on the changes in thinking that children from infancy through adolescence experience. As a trained biologist, he believed that development happened on its own via maturation. Meaning, as children get older they have an increased capacity to understand the world. 1. What is unique about Piaget's theory of cognitive development 2.basic components to the theory 3. Piagets Terminology

1.4 Latency Stage

Latency Stage (5 Years - Puberty) According to Freud, after the phallic stage, children enter a period of latency, no new psychological challenges or conflicts emerge. Instead, children focus on making same-sex friendships throughout elementary school and developing interests throughout these school years

7. Sociocultural Theories

Lev Vygotsky is an example of a sociocultural theorist. His ideas still influence the field of education today. Vygotsky focused on how culture and knowledge is transmitted to the next generation. He carefully considered how children are influenced by the people, particularly people in authority, around them. While he de-emphasized the role that the individual plays in their own development, today his work is admired for the emphasis on what students can accomplish in conjunction with a teacher's guidance.

1.1 Oral Stage

Oral Stage Birth - (18 Months) primary pleasure is derived from the mouth. Major Developmental task: to grow and to begin to understand the world. This is done by investigating with their mouths, putting everything in their mouth, and learning whether it is food. They are easily soothed by sucking, which explains why pacifiers provide a pleasurable experience for young children The central activity for this stage is nursing. Children in this stage are primarily functioning in response to their id impulses If they derive too much pleasure in this stage (breastfeed for too long and weened late) or too little pleasure (weened too early). They will become fixated and not progress to be healthy adults. As a result, their personality will be one of dependency on others and general neediness as they seek to recreate the initial comfort they found when all their needs were taken care of by their mother Behavioral Indicators of an adult fixated in the oral stage might be smoking, chewing gum, and biting fingernails. (seeking oral pleasure)

B. Major Theorists and Theories: Define and Describe the most influential theorists and theories in psychosocial lifespan development

Part B of this module will present the most influential classic theorists in psychosocial development lifespan

How did Pavlov become interested in studying reflexes?

Pavlov was very curious and noticed that dogs salivated anytime they saw a researcher with a lab coat. A normal trigger would be the smell or sight of food, but these research dogs associated food with the lab coats

Describe how Freud to name the developmental stages

Personality development progress through stages that are named after the bodily area from which a person of a particular age centers his/her pleasure and enjoyment The stages are derived from having either too much or too little pleasure in a particular stage can cause a person to become stuck (or fixated - Freud's language) as we seek to recreate the pleasure, or to address the fact that we were deprived during that stage's pleasure. Each stage has a primary developmental task as well as information of where a problem could develop

1.3 Phallic Stage

Phallic Stage (3 years - 5 years) The zone from which pleasure is derived is the genitalia, specifically the penis. boy anatomy becomes the focus. Once a girl discovers a boy has a penis and they don't they experience penis envy. Once boys realized girls don't have a penis they believe girls must have lost them and become overly focused on keeping theirs. Boys go through the Oedipal conflict, a series of steps where the boys turn their affection for their mother and desire them sexually. Boys fear their father will be angered by their competition and undergo castration anxiety fear of being emasculated by their father. Boys realize they cannot compete against their fathers, they begin to identify with their fathers in order to adopt the appropriate male role model. It is the internalization of their external standards of masculinity that helps boys to develop a superego.

4.2 basic components to the theory

Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children's intelligence. Children's intelligence differs from an adult's in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways. Children actively build up their knowledge about the world. They are not passive creatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge. The best way to understand children's reasoning was to see things from their point of view. Piaget was more interested in learning the way (how) fundamental concepts like the very idea of a number, time, quantity, casuality, justice, and so on emerged

education implications of Piaget

Piaget did not explicitly relate his theory to education, but was taught and applied to teaching and learning Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of 'readiness' is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development. According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered. o Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it. o Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths." o Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other). o Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child. o Evaluate the level of the child's development so suitable tasks can be set.

4.3f Schemas

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models and enable us to form a mental representation of the world. "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning." Units of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world. Schemata (plural schema) are like 'index cards' filed in the brain and tell you how to respond to incoming stimuli or information. When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. A person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us. For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema.'

4.3 Piagets Terminology

Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning The age of which a stage will be reached is an estimate on absolute

Critical Evaluation of Piaget

Support The influence of Piaget's ideas in developmental psychology has been enormous. He changed how people viewed the child's world and their methods of studying children. He was an inspiration to many who came after and took up his ideas. Piaget's ideas have generated a huge amount of research which has increased our understanding of cognitive development. Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating with children, particularly in the field of education (re: Discovery Learning). Criticisms Are the stages real? Vygotsky and Bruner would rather not talk about stages at all, preferring to see development as a continuous process. Others have queried the age ranges of the stages. Some studies have shown that progress to the formal operational stage is not guaranteed

1.2 Anal Stage

The Anal Stage (18 - 3 years) The pleasure derives from the anus and the primary task of toilet training. Children derive pleasure from learning how to control their bodies. They can choose to eliminate their bowels or not, and so gain control of themselves and the environment. A child that can pronounce their need to have to go to the toilet has demonstrated control over their body and environment Difficulties training, whether training too late or traumatically too early can lead to an anal fixation that involves behaviors and a personality having control. An anal-retentive personality might have a high need for orderliness and cleanliness in his environment, whereas an anal expulsive personality might exert control over her surroundings by leaving her belongings scattered and messy. In both cases these are issues of control of the environment

Define the Ego

The ego balances the desire for immediate fulfillment, which operate according to the reality principle this function of personality is not inborn but develops as children learn that not all desires can be fulfilled, or at least not without a delay. The ego operates in the conscious, then, and addresses how the real-world impacts the desires of the id

Define Continuity and Discontinuity

This controversy questions the process of change. Continuity - is change a smooth blended transition that can seem seamless from one stage to another? Discontinuity - is change distinct, does each stage begin individually, no overlap, and is finished before moving to the next stage? being in an absolute stage solely one stage at a time?

8. Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory focuses on an environment of development (rather than the natural environment). He originated five environmental systems that influence development. They range from the very small (your neighborhood) to the very large (the period of history in which you exist). According to Bronfenbrenner, it is extremely important to consider the contexts in which individuals exist. We will discuss some of these theories extensively throughout the course, while others only appear in this module. As you study, be sure to consider the role of each theory in explaining human development.

2.3 Initiative vs Guilt

children will begin to assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction "Times of vigor action and behaviors, parents may see as aggressive." -Bee The primary feature is to interact with other children. Central to this stage is playtime, which allows children to explore interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Engaging in activities with other children allows them to develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions If their assertion is blocked through criticism or control, children will develop a sense of guilt. This occurs by children overstepping their assertion with the control placed on by the parents and be punished for it, ultimately creating a sense of guilt. The initiative is being punished instead of encouraged This stage is when children will begin to ask questions and become very curious. If parents treat their curiosity as trivial or a nuisance then the child will feel guilt for "being a nuisance" Too much guilt will inhibit creativity, HOWEVER, some guilt is necessary in order to teach the child how to exercise self-control or have a conscience. Success = purpose failure = sense of guilt

How does treatment for phobias apply classical conditioning principles

classical conditioning can be used very intentionally to help people. System desensitization operates on principles similar to classical conditioning and helps phobic individuals to, over time, associate a feared stimulus with feeling relaxed. Since relaxation and high anxiety are incompatible, the high anxiety will eventually decrease or go away

Define Schemas, Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibrium

schemas - "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning." Assimilation - fitting new information into existing schemas accommodation - when the knowledge of an existing schema does not match the new information, we must alter or adjust information in order to create a new schema or alter the existing schema Equilibration - When we are able to deal with the new information and place it onto a schema Disequilibrium is quite unpleasant and we use accommodation to reach equilibrium Assimilation > equilibration > New Situation > Disequilibrium > accommodation

Define the id

the id is the most basic and first part of the personality. It consists of the unconscious. impulses that demand immediate fulfillment. It operates on the pleasure principle. Anything desired by the id must be for immediate pleasure Freud - this is the personality we are born with

Define the Superego

the superego is the final function of the personality, developing by the time a child is school-aged. The superego is the child's internalization of social norms and standards. It must attempt to balance out the other two functions, as well as the conflict between the internal life and the realities of the external world. In a well-functioning adult, this balance works. However, that balance between competing impulses is not always easy to achieve.

4.3e Piaget's Theory Differs from others in several ways

▪ It is concerned with children, rather than all learners. ▪ It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors. ▪ It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc. The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.