Psychoed Final

intentional teacher

"These teachers are those who are constantly thinking about the outcomes they want for their students and about how each decision they make moves children toward those outcomes."

goal of research in educ psych

"to test ideas about factors believed to contribute to learning."

William James

(at Harvard) in 1890, he founded the field of psychology and developed a lecture series for teachers

unintentional teachers

"...there are teachers with twenty years of experience and there are teachers with one year of experience 20 times."

Steps similar to ABAB that teachers can follow

1. Clearly specify the behavior to be changed and the goal 2. Carefully observe and note the current level of the behavior 3. Plan a specific intervention using antecedents, consequences, or both 4. Keep track of the results, and modify the plan if necessary

Jonathan Haidt's Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology

1. Intuition comes first, reasoning second 2. There is more to morality than fairness and harm 3. Morality binds and blinds

Respondents

responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli

Stages in reasoning about moral issues in children

1. a sense that justice means equal treatment for all 2. an appreciation of equity and special needs 3. a more abstract integration of equity and equality along with a sense of caring in social relations 4. as adults, a sense that morality involves both benevolence and fairness and that moral principles are independent of the norms of any particular group

B.F. Skinner

responsible for developing the concept of operant conditioning, began with the belief that the principles of classical conditioning account for only a small portion of learned behaviors. Said that we may think of a behavior as sandwiched between two sets of environmental influences: those that precede it (its antecedents) and those that follow it (its consequences) (antecedent-behavior-consequence)

Group consequences

rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct; relating to this, peer pressure in the form of support and encouragement can be a positive influence to students

Stage 2: Rewards/Exchange Orientation

right and wrong is determined by personal needs and wants

Generativity

sense of concern for future generations

Integrity

sense of self-acceptance and fulfillment

Academic caring

setting high but reasonable expectations and helping students reach those goals

Racial and ethnic pride

A positive self-concept about one's racial or ethnic heritage.

premack principle

A principle that states that making the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior contingent on the occurrence of a low-frequency behavior will function as reinforcement for the low-frequency behavior.

Moral dilemma

situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right

Morality of cooperation

stage of development wherein children realize that people make rules and people can change them

Moral realism

stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute

Principle of contiguity

states that whenever two or more sensations occur together often enough, they will become associated

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning

ABAB Design

A. Researchers take a baseline measurement of the behavior B. Rpply intervention A. Stop the intervention to see if the behavior goes back to the baseline level B. Reintroduce the intervention

Autonomy versus shame/doubt

AGE: 18 months to 3 years IMPORTANT EVENT: Toilet training DESCRIPTION: The child's energies are directed toward the development of physical skills, including walking, grasping, controlling the sphincter. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well

Initiative versus guilt

AGE: 3 to 6 years IMPORTANT EVENT: Independence DESCRIPTION: The child continues to become more assertive and take more initiative but may be too forceful, which can lead to guilt feelings

Industry versus inferiority

AGE: 6 to 12 years IMPORTANT EVENT: School DESCRIPTION: The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence

Identity versus role confusion

AGE: Adolescence IMPORTANT EVENT: Peer relationships DESCRIPTION: The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and religion

Basic trust versus mistrust

AGE: Birth to 12-18 months IMPORTANT EVENT: Feeding DESCRIPTION: The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver or develop a sense of mistrust

Ego integrity versus despair

AGE: Late adulthood IMPORTANT EVENT: Reflection on and acceptance of one's life DESCRIPTION: The culmination is a sense of acceptance of oneself and a sense of fulfillment

Generativity versus stagnation

AGE: Middle Adulthood IMPORTANT EVENT: Parenting/Mentoring DESCRIPTION: Each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation

Intimacy versus isolation

AGE: Young adulthood IMPORTANT EVENT: Love relationships DESCRIPTION: The young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation

Conventional domain

Belief that rules cannot be changed

Bioecological Model

Bronfenbrenner's theory describing the nested social and cultural contexts that shape development, recognizes that the physical and and social contexts in which we develop are "ecosystems" because they are constantly interacting with and influencing each other

Experimental Study

Can study cause and effect, uses subjects and assigns them to group randomly

Positive reinforcement

strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior, occurs when the behavior or response leads to the appearance or presentation of a new stimulus

Negative reinforcement

strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs, occurs when the consequence that strengthens a behavior is the removal/subtraction of a stimulus

Divorce

stressful event for all participants, even under the best circumstances

Instrumental aggression

strong actions aimed at claiming an object, place, or privilege - not intended to harm, but may lead to harm

Popular prosocial children

subgroup of children that are both academically and socially competent

Rejected withdrawn children

subgroup of children that are timid, withdrawn, often the targets of bullies, often socially awkward and withdraw from social interactions to avoid being scorned or attacked

Rejected aggressive children

subgroup of children that have high rates of conflict and hyperactivity/impulsivity, they have poor perspective-taking skills and self-control

Popular antisocial children

subgroup of children that often include boys who are aggressive

Token reinforcement system

system in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward; the tokens should be given out on a fairly continuous schedule, then once the system is working well they tokens should be distributed on an intermittent schedule and saved for longer periods of time before they are exchanged for rewards

reflective

teachers must be _______________ These teachers are thoughtful and inventive. They think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.

Time out

technically, the removal of all reinforcement. In practice, isolation of a student from the rest of the class for a brief time.

Late maturation in males

tend to be more creative, tolerant, and perceptive in adulthood as shown in some studies

Cueing

the act of providing an antecedent stimulus just before a specific behavior is supposed to take place, "sets up" behavior, it is particularly useful in setting the stage for behaviors that must occur at a given time but are easily forgotten

Applied behavior analysis

the application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior; it requires clear specification of the behavior to be changed, careful measurement of the behavior, analysis of antecedents and consequences that might be maintaining inappropriate/undesirable behavior, interventions based on behavioral principles to changer the behavior, and careful measurement of changes

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Extinction

the disappearance of a learned response, a removal of reinforcement altogether leads to this

Menarche

the first menstrual period in girls, happens at age 12-13 on average but the range is 10-16.5

Spermache

the first sperm ejaculation for boys, happens between the ages of 12-14

Positive practice overcorrection

the learner is required to practice the correct form of the behavior or a behavior that is incompatible as a result of the problem behavior; the correct behavior is practiced until it becomes almost automatic; practice makes permanent, not perfect

Puberty

the physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce; marks the beginning of the sexual maturity, not a single event, but a series of changes involving almost every part of the body

Accomodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Nigrescence

the process of developing a Black identity

Functional behavioral assessment (FBA)

the process of understanding the "why" of a problem behavior, procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior. In one study, students seemed to benefit from talking to a concerned adult who was trying to understand their situation, not just reprimand them. Keep in mind that same behaviors may serve different functions for different students

educational psychology

the study of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment in and out of schools

Moral reasoning

the thinking process involved in judgements about questions of right and wrong

Parenting styles

the ways of interacting with and disciplining children

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

there are universal principles of human dignity and social justice that individuals should uphold, regardless of the law and no matter what other people say

Controversial children

these children have both positive and negative social qualities and, as a result, their social status can change over time. They can be hostile and disruptive in some situations and then engage in positive prosocial behaviors in others. They are generally happy with their peer relationships

preoperational stage

think logically in one direction- symbols represent objects

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

this US legislation requires positive behavior supports for students with disabilities and those at risk for special education placement

qualitative research

this type of research uses words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data. ex: case studies and ethnographies

Identity diffusion

uncenteredness; confusion about who one is and what one wants, occurs when individuals do not explore any options or commit to any actions

Binge eating

uncontrolled eating of large quantities of food

Perspective-taking ability

understanding that others have different feelings and experiences

Goal-setting phase

very important self-management as higher standards tend to lead to higher performance

Operants

voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal

Initiative

willingness to begin new activities and explore new directions

Descriptive Study

Describes a situation or event, uses surveys and reports results of perceptions

Extended families

Different family members - grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc. - living in the same household or at least in daily contact with the children in the family.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Famous for his theory of moral development in children; made use of moral dilemmas in assessment, based in part on Piaget's ideas

Commitment

In Marcia's theory of identity statuses, individuals' choices concerning political and religious beliefs, for example, usually a consequence of exploring the options

Exploration

In Marcia's theory of identity statuses, the process by which adolescents consider and try out alternative beliefs, values, and behaviors in an effort to determine which will give them the most satisfaction.

design-based research

In this type of research, practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice.

action research

In this type of research, systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students

2 fundamental issues in the moral domain

Justice Welfare/Compassion

Postconventional/Principled Level of Moral Development

Kohlberg's highest level of moral development, in which moral actions are judged on the basis of personal codes of ethics that are general and abstract and that may not agree with societal norms. Judgements are based on abstract, more personal principles of justice that are not necessarily defined by society's laws, includes stages 5 and 6

Conventional Level

Kohlberg's second level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on conforming to social rules to ensure positive human relationships and maintain societal order. The expectations of society and laws are taken into account, includes stage 3 and 4

4 other moral values by Haidt (under principle number two)

Loyalty/betrayal underlies self-sacrifice for the good of the group, patriotism, "no marine left behind" Authority/subversion is the foundation of leadership and followership—respect for legitimate authority Sanctity/degradation id the foundation for striving to live a more noble and clean life and avoid contamination Liberty/oppression is the basis for resentment and resistance to domination

Action Research

Making careful observations of a particular event

beginning teachers

May experience reality shock • Only partially prepared for full responsibilities of teaching • Tend to focus on discipline, motivating students, accommodating differences • Ask, "How am I doing?" May adapt with experience, support, and hard work • Focus on students' needs • Ask, "How are the children doing?" • Judge teaching success by accomplishments of students

Quasi-Experimental Study

Meets most of the criteria for experimental but not random selection

3 important influences on moral behavior

Modeling Internalization Self-concept

Quantitative

Numbers, measurements, and statistics

Nonacademic self-concept

One of two major divisions of a child's general self-concept that includes his view of self in the social, emotional, and physical domains.

Academic self-concept

One of two major divisions of a child's general self-concept that includes how the individuals self-evaluate in a number of self-relevant academic domains

Albert Bandura

Pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play To explain some limitations of the behavioral model, he also distinguished between acquisition of knowledge (learning) and the observable performance based on that knowledge (behavior).

Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers:

Principles that apply to all people: 1. No one eagerly repeats behaviors that have been punished or ignored. Without some sense of progress, it is difficult to persist 2. When actions lead to consequences that are positive for the person involved, those actions are likely to be repeated 3. Teachers often fail to use reinforcement to recognize appropriate behavior; they respond to inappropriate behaviors, sometimes providing reinforcing attention in the process 4. To be effective, praise must be sincere recognition of a real accomplishment 5. Whatever their current level of functioning, students can learn to be more self-managing

Cautions about punishment

Punishment tells children what to stop doing (often, they knew that already), but it doesn't teach them what to do instead When considering the use of a punishment, it should be a two-pronged attack: -first goal: carry out the punishment and suppress the undesirable behavior -second goal: make clear what the student should be doing instead and to provide reinforcement for those desirable actions Harsh punishment communicates "might makes right" Punishment works best when the potential punisher is around

Mixed Methods

RESEARCH METHOD: to ask complex questions involving causes, meanings, and relations among variables; to pursue both depth and breadth in research questions ex: Based on a study of 20 classrooms using quantitative observational instruments, select the 5 classes................. Next interview the............. Did the effective and ineffective....?

Correlational

RESEARCH METHOD: to assess the strength and direction of the relation between 2 variables; to make predictions ex: Is the average amount of hw completed weekly related to student performance on unit tests? If so, is the relation positive or negative?

Experimental

RESEARCH METHOD: to identify cause-and-effect relations; to test possible explanations for effects. ex: Will giving more homework cause students to learn more in science class?

ABAB Experiment

RESEARCH METHOD: to identify the effects of a treatment or intervention for one or more individuals. ex: When students record the number of pages they read each night, will they read more pages? If they stop recording, will their amount of reading return to the previous levels?

Ethnography

RESEARCH METHOD: to understand experiences from the participants' point of view: What is their meaning? ex: How do new teachers make sense of the norms, expectations, and culture of their new school, and how do they respond?

Case Studies

RESEARCH METHOD: to understand one or a few individuals or situations in depth. ex: How does one boy make the transition from a small rural elementary school to a large middle school? What are his main problems, concerns, issues, accomplishments, fears, supports, etc.

Qualitative

Research using words, dialogue, events, themes

Private Speech (Vygotsky)

Self-talk learners use to monitor and guide themselves as they work through a problem or a task

John Dewey

Stanley Hall's student, father of progressive education

Main Criticisms of Behavioral Methods

The misuse or abuse of behavioral learning methods is unethical Critics of behavioral methods also point out the danger that reinforcement could decrease interest in learning by overemphasizing rewards and could have a negative impact on other students. Teachers must use behavioral learning principles appropriately and ethically

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

The moral choice is determined by socially agreed upon standards - "the greatest good for the greatest number"

Big-fish-little-pond-effect

The phenomenon in which a student's academic self-concept and performance are likely to be more positive in an academically unselective school than in a highly selective one with many high-achieving students. (Marsh and colleagues)

Self-esteem

The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Is influenced by whether the culture around you values your particular characteristics and capabilities (Bandura) Is determined by how successful we are in accomplishing tasks or reaching goals we value (William James) The evaluative dimension of self-concept

Plato and Aristotle

They discussed before(old times) the role of teacher, the relationship between teacher and student, methods of teaching, the nature and order of learning, the role of emotion in learning, etc.

false

True or False: For a while, some researchers concluded that teaching, not wealth and social status, were the major factors determining who learned in schools.

true

True or False: New teachers who have course work in development and learning are twice as likely to stay in teaching

true

True or False: Positive teacher relationships predicted positive student engagement at every grade, but the relationships were especially strong for students who were at risk academically and for older students.

false

True or False: Students with significant behavior problems in the early years are more likely to have problems later in school if their first teachers are sensitive to their needs and provide frequent, consistent feedback.

true

True or False: Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder and persist longer even when students are difficult to teach, in part because these teachers believe in themselves and in their students.

false

True or False: Teachers' sense of efficacy is lower in schools when the other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students and the teachers receive help from their principals in solving instructional and management problems.

false

True or False: The effects of teaching were cumulative and residual; that is, better teaching in a later grade could fully make up for less effective teaching in earlier grades and erase all deficits traced to poor teachers.

true

True or False: The researchers concluded that the quality of the teacher-student relationship in kindergarten (defined in terms of level of conflict with the child, the child's dependency on the teacher, and the teacher's affection for the child) predicted a number of academic and behavioral outcomes through the eighth grade, particularly for students with many behavior problems.

cueing

Use of simple signals to indicate that a certain behavior is desired or that a certain behavior should stop.- provides the antecedent and articulates the expectation

Cyber aggression

Using e-mail, Twitter, Facebook, or other social media to spread rumors, make threats, or otherwise terrorize peers.

ZPD (zone of proximal development)

Vygotsky's theory: a range of tasks that a child can carry out with the help of someone who is more skilled

components of good teaching

What are these 4? - Knowledge of the Subject and Teaching Resources - Knowledge of Students and their Learning - Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills - Teaching and Communication Skills

determinants of good teaching

What are these 4? - Self-Knowledge and Self- Regulation - Reflection - Decision Making - Application of Education Research

Characteristics of an intentional teachers

What are these 4? • Purposeful Lesson Plans • Experiments with Novel Techniques that Arouse Student Curiosity • Accounts for Multiple Ability Levels • Uses Class Time Wisely • Teacher Efficacy • Open to Criticism • Reflective

Can good teaching be taught?

What makes a good teacher: "An outstanding teacher does nothing that any other teacher cannot also do—it is just a question of knowing the principles of effective teaching and how to apply them."

Mastering teaching skills

What makes a good teacher: - Managing the classroom - Assessing prior knowledge - Motivating students - Accounting for learner characteristics - Assessing Learning Outcomes - Reviewing Information - Communicating Ideas Effectively

Knowing the subject matters

What makes a good teacher: Good teachers know subject matter well and are prepared with a variety of examples that bring lessons to life.

G. Stanley Hall

William James's student, founder of American Psychological Association

Contingency contract

a contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege

Early maturation in girls

a definite advantage for girls, is associated with emotional difficulties such as depression, anxiety, lower achievement in school, drug and alcohol abuse, unplanned pregnancy, suicide, greater risk of breast cancer in later life, and eating disorders.

Overt aggression

a form of hostile aggression that involves physical attack

Relational aggression

a form of hostile aggression that involves verbal attacks and other actions meant to harm social relationships

Conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced, influence how persistently we will respond when reinforcement is withheld.

hypothesis or hypotheses

a prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research

Variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable or varying number of responses

Variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, time lengths vary

Fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Developmental crisis

a specific conflict whose resolution prepares the way for the next stage

Neural stimulus

a stimulus which does not trigger or is not connected to a response

White coat syndrome

a syndrome whereby a patient's feeling of anxiety in a medical environment results in an abnormally high reading when their blood pressure is measured.

teachers' sense of efficacy

a teacher's belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn

Precorrection

a tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a student's misbehavior, clearly specifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful reinforcers

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Rules for negative reinforcement

a. describe the desired change in a positive way b. don't bluff c. make sure you can enforce your unpleasant situation d. follow through despite complaints e. insist on action, not promises

Physical neglect

abandonment, unattended physical problems, constant fatigue, little or no supervision, often hungry and inappropriately dressed

Identity achievement

after exploring the realistic options, the individual made choices and is committed to pursuing them; strong sense of commitment to life choices after free consideration of alternatives

Age 18-19

age for final beard potential for boys

Age 19

age when boys may stop to grow, but both boys and girls can still continue to grow slightly until age 25

Social conventions

agreed-upon rules and ways of doing things in a particular situation

External comparisons

an example is comparing their performance with other students

Internal comparisons

an example is how their math performance compares to their performance in history

Theory of mind

an understanding that other people are people too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions

Aversive stimulus

an unpleasant or noxious stimulus

Reinforcer

any consequence or event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again

Punisher

any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

Crowds

are less intimate, more loosely organize groups based on shared interests, activities, attitudes, or reputations. The most common crowds are jocks, brains, nerds, druggies, goths, emos, populars, normals, nobodies, and loners. An identity way station or placeholder during the period between individualization from parents and establishment of a coherent personality identity

Good behavior game

arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior

Early maturation in boys

associated with popularity, tend to engage in more delinquent behavior, greater risk in depression, victimization by bullies, eating disorders, early sexual activity, and for abusing alcohol, illicit drugs, and cigarettes

Classical conditioning

association of automatic responses with new stimuli, focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional of physiological responses such as fear, increased muscle tension, salivation, or sweating (respondents)

Contiguity

association of two events because of repeated pairing

Age 14-16

at this age girls reach their final height

Functions of behaviors

attention sensory stimulation escape/avoidance access to tangible object

empirical

based on systematically collected data

Stage 3: Being Nice/Relationships Orientation

being good means being nice and pleasing others

Personal caring

being patient, respectful, humorous, willing to listen Interested in students' issues and personal problems

Distributive justice beliefs

beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group; follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence

Jonathan Haidt

believes that Kohlberg overemphasized cognitive reasoning about morality so he proposed the Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology

Hostile aggression

bold, direct action that is intended to hurt someone else; unprovoked attack

Urie Bronfenbrenner

born in Moscow, Russia, but moved to USA with his family when he was 6; the proponent of the bioecological model of development

Scaffold Learning

breaking down instruction with the support of an adult while building a firm foundation

Shaping

breaking learning up into small tasks

Age 3

by this age, children learn to run, throw, and jump but by age 4-5 these activities are well controlled

Age 2

by this age, children stop toddling, they have perfected walking

Stimulus control

capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors

Friendships

central to students' lives at every age

Learning

changes in an individual's behavior arising from experience

Insecure-avoidant, resistant, or disorganized attachment

children who form this kind of attachment can be fearful, sad, anxious, clinging,rejecting, confused, or angry in interactions with caregivers

Secure attachment

children who form this kind of attachment with caregivers receive comfort when needed and are more confident to explore their world, perhaps because they know that they can count on their caregiver

Identity foreclosure

commitment without exploration, acceptance of parental life choices without consideration of options

Reinforcement

commonly understood to mean "reward," use of consequences to strengthens behavior, always involves increasing or strengthening behavior

Reprimands

criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes. The soft, calm and private kind of this action is more effective than a loud and public one.

Type I punishment (Presentation punishment)

decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior

Type II punishment (Removal punishment)

decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus follow the behavior

Obesity

defined as being more than 20% heavier than average compared to others of the same age, sex, and body build

Psychosocial

describing the relation of the individual's emotional needs to the social environment

Functional Behavioral Analysis

determine purpose of undesirable behavioral and find replacement

Social learning theory

developed by Albert Bandura, theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others, where Bandura pointed pointed out two key distinction between enactive and observational learning and between learning and performance. Note that incentives can affect performance. His work continued and he soon developed the social cognitive theory

Task analysis

developed by R.B. Miller, system for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills; it presents the logical sequence of steps leading toward the final goal

William Cross

devised a framework that specifically addresses African American racial identity and consciousness, that is, the process of becoming Black

Consequences of obesity for children and adolescence

diabetes, strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, and a greater chance of heart problems and obesity as adults

Sexual abuse

difficulty in walking or sitting, pain or itching in genital area, torn and stained underclothing, bruises or bleeding in external genitalia, yeast infections, and/or pregnancy

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Ages 11-14

during this age, girls are on average taller and heavier than the boys of the same age

Elementary school years

during this time, physical development is fairly steady for most children. They become stronger, taller, and leaner, so they are better able to master sports and games. Many of the girls are likely to be as large or larger than boys

Preconventional Level of Moral Development

earliest level of moral development; at this level, self-interest and event outcomes determine what is moral. Judgement is based solely on a person's own needs and perceptions, includes stage 1 and 2

Growth of nipples and budding of breasts

earliest visible signs of puberty in girls

Bulimia

eating disorder characterized by overeating or episodes of binge eating followed by self-induced vomiting and misuse of laxatives

Anorexia nervosa

eating disorder characterized by very limited food intake

Self-evaluation

element of self-management, a procedure in which a person compares his performance of a target behavior with a predetermined goal or standard, it is somewhat more difficult than simple self-recording because it involves judgement about quality. It can go along with self-correction, as after evaluating, students can alter and improve their work then compare the improvements to the standards again.

Self-monitoring

element of self-management, awareness of one's behavior and how it affects others, keeping track of one's progress

Erikson's psychosocial theory

emphasizes the emergence of the the self, the search for identity, the individual's relationship with others, and the role of culture throughout life

Effects of punishment on behavior

encouarges kids to be better next time or causes negative viewpoints about their behavior

principle

established relationship between factors

Stimulus

event that activates behavior

Consequences

events that follow an action; according to behavioral views, they determine to a great extent whether a person will repeat the behavior that led to the consequences. The type and timing of these can strengthen and weaken behaviors

Antecedents

events that precede an action or behavior, provide information about which behaviors will lead to positive consequences and which will lead to unpleasant ones

Behavioral learning theories

explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors

Mother's womb

first context for child development

Attachment

forming an emotional bond with another person, initially a parent or a family member

Intimacy

forming close, enduring relationships with others

Global self-esteem

general self-esteem, self-perceptions of themselves as effective, capable individuals who have self-confidence and self-respect and are proud and satisfied with the way they are

Young Children

gross-motor skills and fine-motor skills greatly improve during these years. Chuldren will also begin to develop a lifelong preference for their right or left hand

Peer cultures

groups of children or adolescents with their own rules and norms, particularly about such things as dress, appearance, music, language, social values, and behavior

H. Richard Milner

has pointed to the importance of racial identity development and awareness, especially in teaching

Physical activity and participation

have benefits for all students' health, well-being, leadership skills, social relationships, brain development, and even learning

E.L. Thorndike

he authored the 1st educational psychology text (1903), founder of Journal of Educational Psychology (1910)

Premack principle

helpful guide for choosing the most effective reinforces, named for David Premack, the principle stating that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity

Authoritative parents

high warmth, high control, high expectations, support for autonomy

Permissive parents

high warmth, low control, low expectations, high autonomy (extreme: indulgent parents)

Subject-specific self-concept

how good they think they are in math or a subject, their attitude in that subject

Moratorium

identity crisis; suspension of choices because of struggle, what adolescents in the midst of struggling with choices are experiencing (Erikson)

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Exosystem

in the bioecological model, environmental settings that a person does not directly experience but that can affect the person indirectly. Includes all the social settings that affect the though the child is not a direct member of these systems

Chronosystem

in the bioecological model, historical changes that influence the other systems. All the development that occurs is influenced by the time period

Microsystem

in the bioecological model, the immediate environment that an individual personally experiences, the activities, roles, and relationships that the individual experiences in face-to-face settings. Relationships here are reciprocal and they flow in both directions

Mesosystem

in the bioecological model, the interconnections among immediate, or microsystem, settings. The set of interactions and relationships among all the elements of the microsystem where all relationships are still reciprocal

Macrosystem

in the bioecological model, the larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are embedded. It is the larger society—its values, laws, policies, conventions, and traditions

Identity

includes people's general sense of themselves along with all their beliefs, emotions, values, commitments, and attitudes

Autonomy

independence

Personal choice

individual preferences and private issues

Self-concept

individuals' knowledge and beliefs about themselves - their ideas, feelings, attitudes, and expectations evolves through cpnstant self-evaluation in different situations and using different frames of reference doesn't follow the same path in every culture the foundation of both social and emotional development

Physical abuse

injuries attributed to the child being clumsy, unexplained bruises, welts, fractures, burns, markings, lacerations, or abrasions in carious stages of healing

effective instruction delivery (EID)

instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and that communicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions

Types of aggression

instrumental, reactive, relational, bullying

theory

integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions

Context

internal and external circumstances and situations with the individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions to shape development and learning. The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Positive behavior supports (PBS)

interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student, these can help students with disabilities succeed in inclusion classrooms

Case Study

investigates on person or situation in depth

Self-reinforcement

last step in self-management, controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

laws and authorities must be obeyed; the social system must be maintained

sensorimotor preoperational stage

learn through reflexes, senses, and movement

Enactive learning

learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions; with this, consequences are seen as providing information. Reinforcement doesn't "stamp in" responses, but instead instills expectations about outcomes—our interpretations of the consequences create expectations, influence motivation, and shape beliefs

Observation learning or Vicarious learning

learning by observation and imitation of others, an example of this is cognitive apprenticeship

Operant conditioning

learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents

Interval schedule

length of time between reinforcers

Authoritarian parents

low warmth, high control, high expectations, low autonomy

Rejecting/Neglecting/Uninvolved parents

low warmth, low control, indifferent about expectations and autonomy

Self-management

management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions

quantitative research

measurements are taken and computations are made in this type of research ex: correlational and experimental

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response

Neglected children

most of these children are well adjusted and they are not less socially competent than other children. Viewed as shy, but they don't report being lonely or unhappy about their social lives, they don't experience the extreme social anxiety and wariness that withdrawn children do

Unconditioned response (UR)

naturally occurring emotional or physiological response

Relational aggression

nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people, also known as social aggression

Stage 1: Obedience Orientation

obey rules to avoid punishments and bad consequences

Response

observable reaction to a stimulus

Erik Erikson

offered a basic framework for understanding the needs of young people on relation to the society in which they grow, learn, and later make their contributions

Larry Nucci

offers an explanation of moral development that covers moral judgments, personal choices, and social conventions

Aristotle

one of the earliest explanations of learning came from him, he said that we remember things together when they are similar, when they contrast, and when they are contiguous

Social isolation

one of the most controversial behavioral methods for decreasing undesirable behavior, often called time out from reinforcement, Removal of a disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes

longtudinal study

over time

Global self-esteem

overall judgement of self-worth that includes feeling proud or ashamed of yourself as a person

Blended families

parents, children, and stepchildren merged into families through remarriages

Cerebellum

part of the brain involved in simple reflex learning

Unpredictability

persistence in performance depends on this

types of bullying

physical, verbal, relational, cyberbullying

Modeling

plays an important role in aggression, an example of a source of aggressive models is in televisions

Correlational Study

positive or negative- strength of the positive and negative relationship

Positive practice

practicing correct responses immediately after errors, students replace one behavior with another and it is especially appropriate for dealing with academic errors

"Grandma's rule"

premack principle, a desired activity is reinforced by allowing the client to engage in a fun behavior after the desired behavior

Continuous reinforcement schedule

presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response, a new behavior is learned faster when it is reinforced for every correct response

Intermittent reinforcement schedule

presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses, helps students to maintain skills without expecting constant reinforcement

Punishment

process that involves decreasing or suppressing behavior

Learning

process through which experience (including practice) causes permanent change in an individual's knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior. The change may be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect, and conscious and unconscious.

Internalize

process whereby children adopt external standards as their own

Exercise

promotes blood flow and increased neurotransmitters in the brain, in addition to improving mood, and helping students focus attention

Play

provides some sort of stimulation at every age, neuroscientists suggest that it might help in the important process of pruning brain synapses during childhood, particularly important for both children's happiness and their social and cognitive development. It is viewed differently across cultures

Differential reinforcement

providing a reinforcer when the correct or an appropriate response occurs and not doing so when it does not occur or another response occurs, "praise-and-ignore" approach

James Marcia

psychologist who developed the four stages of identity statuses

Response cost

punishment by loss of reinforcers

Ratio schedule

reinforcement based on the number of responses between reinforcers

Shaping

reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior, it involves reinforcing progress instead of waiting for perfection

Successive approximations

reinforcing small steps to reach a goal; the small component steps that make up a complex behavior

Cliques

relatively small, friendship-based groups (between 3-12); they are more evident in middle childhood and early adolescence, typically include peers of the same sex and age who share common interests and engage in similar activities. They serve young people's emotional and security needs by providing a stable social context in which group members know each other and form close friendships

Alfie Kohn

- deemphasis achievement, focus more on what students are interested in learning - try not to use positive reinforcement (good job over and over), instead meet with students individually to discuss their behavior -link students' positive behavior with positive outcomes for the whole class as a community

Five stages of nigrescence

1. Pre-encounter 2. Encounter 3. Immersion/Emmersion 4. Internalization 5. Internalization-Commitment

Four general reasons why students act out:

1. To receive attention from others—teachers, parents, peers 2. Escape from some unpleasant situation—an academic or social demand 3. Get a desired item or activity 4. Meet sensory needs such as stimulation from rocking or flapping arms for some children with autism