Psychology

conditioned response

a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

reflex

a simple unlearned response to a stimulus

unconditioned response

an unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus

A neuron has a(n) _____ that extends like a trunk from the cell body

axon

Some researchers consider the__________to be the "executive center" of the brain, where decisions are made to keep information in working memory and to solve problems.

prefrontal cortex

biological preparedness

readiness to acquire a certain kind of CR due to the biological makeup of the organism

Information that is better retrieved in the physiological or emotional state in which it was encoded and stored, or learned, is known as _____.

state-dependent memory

Visual stimuli can be flashed too briefly, below our absolute threshold for conscious perception, to enable us to process them. This is an example of__________.

subliminal stimulation

reinforce

to follow a response with a stimulus that increased the frequency of the response

In the context of operant conditioning, gamblers at slot machines win on a _____.

variable-ratio schedule

__________takes the form of a double helix and contains the genetic code of an organism.

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Asha has a fear of darkness. To extinguish this fear, she is placed in a dark room ensuring that she suffers no harm in the process. In this scenario, which of the following techniques is being used to reduce Asha's fear of the dark?

Flooding

Which of the following statements is true about explicit memory?

It is the memory of things that are clearly stated or explained.

Which of the following neurotransmitters is involved in emotional arousal and sleep?

Serotonin

_____ is the type or stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays.

Short-term memory

Which of the following theories proposed that there are three types of color receptors, but they are not sensitive only to red, green, and blue?

The opponent-process theory

Which of the following statements is true of rod cells in the retina of the eye?

They are sensitive only to the intensity of light.

law off effect

Thorndike's view that pleasant events stamp in responses, and unpleasant stamp them out

Which of the following is a new basic taste that was recently added to the primary taste qualities?

Umami

_____ was a founder of the school of functionalism.

William James

secondary reinforcer

a stimulus that gains reinforcement value through association with established reinforcers

successive approximations

behaviors which are progressively closer to a target behavior

Brandon is a psychologist who is studying the relationship between heredity and mood disorders. He strongly believes that behavior and mental processes have a connection with the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution. Brandon's beliefs are most consistent with the _____ perspective.

biological

Psychologists with a__________perspective are most likely to investigate the ways we perceive and mentally represent the world, how we learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems, form judgments, make decisions, and use language.

cognitive

The measured results, or outcomes, in an experiment are called__________.

dependent variables

Nicotine, alcohol, and many other drugs are pleasurable because they heighten levels of _____.

dopamine

The _____ is a thin membrane inside the ear that vibrates in response to sound waves.

eardrum

In the context of reinforcement schedules, a piece worker that gets paid on a per-shirt basis is on a__________.

fixed-ratio schedule

Bethany taught her dog to jump every time she raises her right hand. Later, the dog started jumping even if she raised her left hand. In this scenario, the dog's action of jumping as a response to a similar stimulus is due to a tendency called _____.

generalization

The _____ is vital in storing new information even if one can retrieve old information without it.

hippocampus

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates that reinforcement is available

A participant's agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments is referred to as__________.

informed consent

The__________adjusts or accommodates to an image by changing its thickness.

lens

The__________is a group of structures involved in memory, motivation, and emotion that forms a fringe along the inner edge of the cerebrum.

limbic system

_____ is the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

memory

Messages from the brain or spinal cord are transmitted to muscles or glands through _____.

motor neurons

The__________minimizes leakage of the electrical current being carried along the axon, thereby allowing messages to be conducted more efficiently.

myelin sheath

In the context of operant conditioning, the removal of a pleasant stimulus is known as__________.

negative punishment

The _____ is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that is most active during processes that restore the body's reserves of energy.

parasympathetic division

Implicit memories involve methods and skills, cognitive and physical, and are also referred to as _____.

procedural memories

According to the law of__________, there is a perceptual tendency to group together objects that are near one another.

proximity

On a bright, sunny day, Manny leaves a dimly-lit movie theater and goes out into the street. The _____ in his eyes adjust to the sudden increase in light.

pupils

In the context of operant conditioning,__________is the act of following a response to a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response.

reinforcement

A(n)__________is a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or an expectation, which can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations.

schema

Christopher knows a lot of facts about the earth. He knows that the circumference of Earth is 40,030 km even though he did not personally measure the circumference of the Earth. This knowledge is referred to as _____.

semantic memory

A neuron relays its message to another neuron across a junction called a__________.

synapse

observational learning

the acquisition of knowledge and skills through the observation of others (who are called models) rather than by means of direct experience

extinction

the process by which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur (the learned responses are said to be extinguished)

operant

the same as an operant behavior

The _____ is the feeling that information is stored in memory although it cannot be readily retrieved.

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

According to the American Psychological Association's Handbooks of Ethics in Psychology, psychologists may use deception in their experiments:

when the participants are debriefed afterward.

Which of the following is true of behaviorism?

Behaviorists define psychology as the scientific study of behavior, not of behavior and mental processes.

Which of the following is true of negative reinforcers?

They increase the probability that a behavior will occur when they are removed.

A(n)__________is the lingering visual impression made by a stimulus that has been removed.

afterimage

The colors across from one another on the color wheel are labeled__________.

complementary colors

An association among variables is known as__________.

correlation

partial reinforcement

one of several reinforcement schedules in which not every correct response is reinforced

The__________lies below the hypothalamus and is dubbed the "master gland."

pituitary gland

Each kind of neurotransmitter has a unique chemical structure, and each can fit into a specifically tailored harbor, or__________, on the cell receiving a message.

receptor site

As part of a study in auditory perception, students were made to listen to a low-volume music track. When they first put on their headphones, they almost couldn't hear anything. But as they became more attentive, the sound gradually became clearer. This is an example of _____.

sensitization

spontaneous recovery

the reocurrence ​of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time

__________is the sense of equilibrium that informs us about our bodies' positions relative to gravity

The vestibular sense

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has been paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already elicited that response

shaping

a procedure for teaching complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximations of the target behavior

positive reinforcement

a reinforcer that when presented increases the frequency of an operant

fixed-ratio schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses

variable-ratio schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses

classical conditioning

a simple form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by another stimlus by being paired repeatedly with the other stimulus

operant conditioning

a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior because it is reinforced

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response from an organism prior to conditioning

primary reinforcer

an unlearned reinforcer whose effectiveness is based on the biological makeup of the organism and not on learning

orienting reflex

an unlearned response in which an organism attends to a stimulus

conditioned reinforcer

another term for a secondary reinforcer

negative reinforcer

a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency of an operant

continuous reinforcement

a schedue of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced

fixed-interval schedule

a schedule In which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available

variable-interval schedule

a schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available

Which of the following statements is true of shaping?

It reinforces progressive steps toward the behavioral goal

What role does the somatic nervous system play?

It transmits messages about sights, sounds, smells, and so on, to the central nervous system.

Episodic memory is also referred to as _____.

autobiographical memory

model

an organism that engages in a response that is then imitated by another organism

__________are particularly concerned with issues such as anxiety, aggression, and gender roles.

Personality psychologists

Dana always hears stories about how extravagantly her first birthday was celebrated, but she is unable to recall the events of that day. Dana's inability to recall the events of her first birthday is known as _____.

infantile amnesia

Once light passes through the iris, it encounters the _____.

lens

In operant conditioning, organisms learn to do or not do things because:

of the consequences of their behavior.

The process of adjusting to conditions of lower lighting by increasing the sensitivity of rods and cones is known as _____.

dark adaptation

The loudness of a sound is expressed in _____.

decibels

__________are specialized cells of the nervous system that receive and transmit messages.

Neurons

Which of the following statements is true of the scientific method?

Psychologists are guided by principles of critical thinking as they try to draw conclusions from research evidence collected through the scientific method.

__________is best described as the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system.

Sensation

Naomi is afraid of dogs. While she is feeling relaxed, her therapist shows her a dog from a distance. The therapist gradually brings the dog closer until Naomi's fear is completely extinguished. In this scenario, which of the following techniques is being used to extinguish Naomi's fear of dogs?

Systematic desensitization

Which of the following is a defining feature of psychoanalysis?

The emphasis on unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood conflicts

Dana can only remember the first few and the last few items on her grocery list. Which of the following is this an example of?

The serial-position effect

_____ is the fraction of the intensity by which a source of physical energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived.

Weber's constant

flooding

a behavioral fear-reduction technique based on principles of classical conditioning; fear-evoking stimuli (CSs) are presented continuously in the absence of actual harm so that fear responses (CRs) are extinguished

higher-order conditioning

a classical conditioning procedure in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response brought forth by a CS being paired repeatedly with that conditioned stimulus

counterconditioning

a fear-reduction technique in which pleasant stimuli are associated with fear-evoking stimuli so that the fear-evoking stimuli lose their aversive qualities

In E. C. Tolman's experiment, some rats were trained to run through mazes for standard food goals, while other rats were allowed to explore the mazes for 10 days without food goals or other rewards. Later, when food rewards were placed in a box at the far end of the maze, the previously unrewarded rats reached the food box as quickly as the rewarded rats after only one or two trials. This experiment demonstrated that the rats had the ability to form _____ of their surroundings.

cognitive maps

In the context of classical conditioning, a learned reaction to a learned stimulus is known as a(n)__________.

conditioned response

generalization

in conditioning, the tendency for a CR to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned

In the context of memory and forgetting, the view that one may forget stored material because other learning overlaps with it is known as__________.

interference theory

According to cognitive theorists, _____ is the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience.

learning

A(n)__________is an assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus.

memory trace

Jonah loves learning new languages. In high-school, he learned French and in college, he learned Italian. Sometimes, when he is trying to remember Italian words, French words come to mind instead. This is an example of _____.

proactive interference

Joy speaks Spanish as she had learnt the language when she was in school. She is now learning to speak French. She often notices that when speaking in Spanish, French words come to mind. This is an example of _____.

retroactive interference

General knowledge is referred to as__________.

semantic memory

contingency theory

the view that learning occurs when stimuli provide information about the likelihood of the occurrence of other stimuli

__________is the process by which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur.

Extinction

Which of the following is one of the features of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that interests psychologists?

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that may help calm anxiety reactions.

__________is the recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time.

Spontaneous recovery

Which of the following senses is dominant in human beings?

Vision

_____ is credited with establishing the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

Wilhelm Wundt

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

Every time a neuron fires, it transmits an impulse of the same strength. This occurrence is known as the__________.

all-or-none principle

stimukus

an environmental condition that elicits a response

Teachers can learn to use__________to reinforce children when they are behaving appropriately and, when possible, to extinguish misbehavior by ignoring it.

behavior modification

Which of the following illustrates continuous reinforcement?

conditioned stimulus

Using the phrase "Elvis's Guitar Broke Down on Friday" to remember the lines (EGBDF) in a musical treble clef is an example of _____.

elaborative rehearsal

The _____ is the body's system of ductless glands that secrete hormones and release them directly into the bloodstream.

endocrine system

According to the biological perspective of psychology,__________interact with inherited factors to determine specific behavior and mental processes.

environmental factors

Abe and Rose, who have been married for 13 years, are discussing the events that led to their very first date. Rose distinctly remembers giving Abe her telephone number at a party, but Abe is certain that he got her number from her best friend, Linda. Abe and Rose have different _____ of the event.

episodic memories

The cones are most densely packed in a small spot at the center of the retina called the__________.

fovea

Caroline is a psychologist who studies how stress induces ailments such as heart problems and headaches. Some of her clients are smokers, and she is helping them quit smoking. She also suggests lifestyle changes to her clients to help them reduce and cope with stress. Caroline can best be described as a(n) _____.

health psychologist

The _____ perspective is grounded in the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

humanistic-existential

In the scientific method, a research question may be studied as a question or reworded as a__________.

hypothesis

discriminization

in conditioning the tendency for an organism to distinguish between a CS and similar stimuli that do not forecast a UCS

A(n)__________is a stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered in a specific situation

instinct

On his first day as a school psychologist, Daniel took a trip to the school ground and quietly sat in the corner watching the children play. He noticed several patterns in the way children behaved with each other, especially when they were playing games. Daniel is most likely using the method of__________.

naturalistic observation

According to _____, when we see modeled behavior being reinforced, we are vicariously reinforced.

observational learning

B. F. Skinner taught pigeons and other animals to engage in behavior that manipulates the environment. This kind of behavior is called__________.

operant behavior

Stephen was recently involved in a car accident in which he was critically injured. He is unable to recall the events that led to the accident. Stephen is suffering from _____.

retrograde amnesia

Which of the following is a goal of psychology?

To explain behavior and mental processes

The brain and the spinal cord make up the _____, which controls and commands bodily functions.

central nervous system

latent learning

learning that is hidden or concealed

Which of the following describes the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron?

An action potential

__________are different from clinical psychologists in that their clients typically have adjustment problems, such as trouble making academic or vocational decisions or making friends in college, but not serious psychological disorders.

Counseling psychologists

Which of the following statements is true of the experimental method of research?

The experimental method allows psychologists to control the experiences of participants and draw conclusions about cause and effect.

Amy accidentally hit her elbow against the edge of a wall. Amy's mother rushed to her and rubbed the affected elbow. Amy's pain subsided. Which theory would best explain this incident?

The gate theory

Operant Behavior

behavior that operates on, or manipulates, the environment