Psychology for Educators: C913

How will learning about Educational Psychology help you be a better teacher?

teaching is a complex enterprise, research can inform teachers, and professional coursework contributes to competence.

Premack principle (BLT)

Required work first, then chosen reward.

"Teaching as a science" means...

Research provides a scientific basis for "artistic" teaching.

Discrimination (BLT)

Responding in different ways to similar stimuli

Generalization (BLT)

Responding in similar ways to similar stimuli

5 Characteristics of Scientific Observation

Sampling, control, objectivity, publication, and replication.

Self-image

Self-concept, self-esteem, and self-description combine to make up a person's self-image

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor (birth-2): senses and motor activity, object permanence Pre-operational (2-7): conserve and decanter, not capable of operations and unable to mentally reverse actions. Concrete Operational (7-11): capable of operations but solves problems by generalizing from concrete experiences. Not able to manipulate conditions mentally unless they have been experienced. Formal Operational (12 and older): Able to deal with abstractions, form hypotheses, solve problems systematically, engage in mental manipulations.

Identify at least 3 strategies to help students develop a sense of industry

Set them up to be successful: -Base grades on realistic and attainable standards that are worked out ahead of time and communicated to the student. -Providing clear expectations as to what students should be able to do after a unit of instruction. -Designing lessons that are logical and meaningful. -Using teaching methods that support effective learning processes.

Behavior modification

Shape behavior by ignoring undesirable responses, reinforcing desirable responses.

Micro-worlds (Piaget)

-Also known as micro-computer-based laboratories -Simulated learning environments that provide opportunities for student to think about problems for which there are not obvious solutions or situations that do not immediately "make sense."

Applying Piaget's theory Preschool, Elementary, and Middle grades

-Assesses each child's learning and current stage -Learn through activity and direct experience -Incorporate social interaction

Disabling conditions included in IDEA

-Autism -Deaf-blindness -Hearing impairment -Intellectual disability -Orthopedic impairment -Other health impairment (asthma, diabetes, etc.) -Emotional disturbances -Specific learning disabilities -Speech or language impairment -Traumatic brain injury -Visual impairment including blindness

Criticisms of Erikson's theory

-Based more on personal ideas and less on scientific research -Described but doesn't really explain why/how -May be more accurate for males then females (Gilligan)

Theoretical learning (extension of Vygotsky)

-Compare to empirical learning -Psychological tools to learn scientific concepts. As these general tools are used repeatedly with various problems, they are gradually internalized and generalized to a wide variety of settings and problem types. Good-quality instruction, in this view, is aimed at helping children move from the very practical empirical learning to the more general theoretical learning and from using psychological tools overtly, with the aid of an adult, to using these tools mentally, without outside assistance.

Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning

-Extension of Piaget's theories ----Fixed universal stages -Moral dilemmas Level 1: pre-conventional morality (up to 9) Stage 1: punishment: obedience orientation Stage 2: instrumental relativist orientation Level 2: Conventional morality (9-20) Stage 3: good boy-nice girl orientation Stage 4: Law and order orientation Level 3: post-conventional morality (20 and older) *Only reached by small number of adults Stage 5: social contract orientation Stage 6: Universe ethical principle orientation

Applying Piaget's theory general guidelines

-Focus on what children at each stage can do, and avoid what they cannot meaningfully understand. -Gear instructional materials activities to each student's developmental level. -Instructional lessons and materials that introduce new concepts should provoke interest and curiosity and be moderately challenging to maximize assimilation and accommodation. -Mental and physical manipulation is more effective then direct instruction. -Point out to them how new ideas relate to their old ideas and extend their understanding. Memorization of information for its own sake should be avoided. -Begin lessons with concrete objects or ideas, and gradually shift explanations to a more abstract and general level.

Morality of constraint (Piaget)

-Moral realism -Up to age 10 -Absolute moral perspective (right or wrong) -Level of guilt determined by damage done -Rules are unbreakable -Rules should be obeyed because they are handed out by older authorities

Morality of cooperation

-Moral relativism -Age 10+ -Believes rules are flexible, understands different viewpoints -Considers intentions when determining guilt -Punishment-restitution or facing the same fate as a victim -Peer aggression should be punished by retaliatory behavior -Rules should be followed because of mutual concerns for rights of others

Applying theories of development to the primary grade years

-Psychosocial development: Industry vs. Inferiority. Students need to experience a sense of industry through successful completion of tasks. Try to minimize and correct failures to prevent development of feeling of inferiority. -Cognitive development: transition from pre-operational to concrete operational stage. Students gradually acquire the ability to solve problems by generalizing from concrete experiences. -Moral development: morality of constraint, pre-conventional. Rules are viewed as edicts handed down by authority. Focus is on physical consequences, meaning that obeying rules should bring benefit in return. -General factors to keep in mind: students are having first experiences with school learning, are eager to learn how to read and write, and are likely to be upset by lack of progress. Initial attitudes toward schooling are being established. Initial roles in a group are being formed, roles that may establish a lasting pattern (ex. leader, follower, loner, athlete, or underachiever.)

Applying theories of development to the elementary grade years

-Psychosocial development: industry vs. inferiority. Keep students constructively busy; try to play down comparisons between best and worst learners. -Cognitive development: concrete operational. Except for the most intellectually advanced students, most will need to generalize from concrete experiences. -Moral development: morality of constraint; transition from pre-conventional to conventional. A shift to viewing rules as mutual agreements is occurring, but "official" rules are obeyed out of respect for authority or out of a desire to impress others. -General factors to keep in mind: initial enthusiasm for learning may fade as the novelty wears off and as the process of perfecting skills becomes more difficult. Differences in knowledge and skills of fastest and slowest learners become more noticeable. "Automatic" respect for teachers tends to diminish. Peer group influences become strong.

Applying theories of development to the pre-K and K-5 years

-Psychosocial development: initiative vs. guilt. Children need opportunities for free play and experimentation, as well as experiences that give them a sense of accomplishment. -Cognitive development: pre-operational thought children gradually acquire the ability to conserve and decenter but are not capable of operational thinking and are unable to mentally reverse operations. -Moral development: morality of constraint, pre-conventional. Rules are viewed as unchangeable edicts handed down by those in authority. Punishment-obedience orientation focuses on physical consequences rather than on intentions. -General factors to keep in mind: children are having their first experiences with school routines and interactions with more than a few peers and are preparing for initial academic experiences in group settings. They need to learn to follow directions and get along with others.

Applying theories of development to the middle school years

-Psychosocial development: transition from industry vs. inferiority to identity vs. role confusion. Growing independence leads to initial thoughts about identity. There is greater concern about appearance and gender roles than about occupational choice. -Cognitive development: beginning of formal operational thought for some. There is increasing ability to engage in mental manipulations and test hypothesis. -Moral development: transition to morality of cooperation, conventional level. There is increasing willingness to think of rules as flexible mutual agreements, yet "official" rules are still likely to be obeyed out of respect for authority or out of a desire to impress others. -General factors to keep in mind: a growth spurt and puberty influence many aspects of behavior. An abrupt switch occurs (for sixth graders) from being the oldest, biggest, most sophisticated students in elementary school to being the youngest, smallest, least knowledgeable students in middle school. Acceptance by peers is extremely important. Students who do poor schoolwork begin to feel bitter, resentful, and restless. Awareness grows of a need to make personal value decisions regarding dress, p.and code of ethics. `

Section 504

-Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 -The Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008 broadens the interpretation of disability as its applied in section 504 -Prevents discrimination against people with disabilities who participate in any federally funded program, which includes public schools -Students with health or medical challenges or those with ADHD who are not already covered by IDEA

Psychological tools (Vygotsky)

-The most important things a culture passes on to its members -The cognitive devices and procedures with which we communicate and explore the world around us. They both aid and change our mental functioning. -Speech, writing, gestures, diagrams, numbers, chemical formulas, musical notation, rules, and memory techniques idea.

Criticisms of Piaget's theory

-Underestimate children's abilities -Overestimate adolescent abilities -Vague explanation for cognitive growth -Lack of attention to cultural differences

Applying Erikson's psychosocial theory as a teacher

-With younger preschool children, allow plenty of opportunities for free play and experimentation to encourage the development of autonomy, but provide guidance to reduce the possibility that children will experience doubt. Also avoid shaming children for unacceptable behavior. -With older preschool children, encourage activities that permit the use of initiative and provide a sense of accomplishment. Avoid make children feel guilty about well-motivated but inconvenient (to you) questions or actions. -During the elementary and middle school years, help children experience a sense of industry by presenting tasks that they can complete successfully. -At the high school level, recognize that there are benefits to helping students develop a sense of who they are and how they fit into adult society.

Characteristics of being a flexible teacher (Wasserman)

1. Ability to improvise and modify 2. Know when to take advantage of an unexpected event 3. Communication emotions and interests in a variety of ways (classroom management) 4. Willingness and resourcefulness to work around impediments not of your own doing (interruptions, poor-quality textbooks, inadequate facilities, etc.)

4 Steps of teaching as inquiry

1. Ask useful questions 2. Gathering data 3. Reflecting on (analyzing) what you have learned 4. Taking action

Explain Marcia's 4 identity statuses

1. Identity diffusion crisis: not yet commitment: weak Not self-directed; disorganized, impulsive, low self-esteem, alienated from parents; avoids getting involved in schoolwork and interpersonal relationships. 2. Foreclosure crisis: not yet commitment: strong Close-minded, authoritarian, low in anxiety; has difficulty solving problems under stress; feels superior to peers; more dependent on parents and other authority figures for guidance and approval than in other statuses. 3. Moratorium crisis: partially experienced commitment: weak Anxious, dissatisfied with school; changes major often, daydreams, engages in intense but short-lived relationships; may temporarily reject parental and societal values. 4. Identity achievement crisis: fully experienced commitment: strong Introspective; creates plans, rational, and logical in decision making than in other identity statuses; high self-esteem; works effectively under stress; likely to form close interpersonal relationships. Usually the last identity status to emerge. Occurs over many years (10 or more) and only a small percentage of individuals will make it here.

4 Components to help students with scaffolding (Vygotsky)

1. Model desired academic behaviors 2. Create a dialogue with the students 3. Practice 4. Confirmation

Shaping (behavior modification)

1. Select the target behavior 2. Obtain reliable baseline data (that is, determine how often the target behavior occurs in the normal course of event.) 3. Select potential reinforces 4. In small steps, reinforce successive approximations of the target behavior eat time they occur. 5. Reinforce the newly established target behavior each time it occurs. 6. Reinforce the target behavior on a variable reinforcement schedule.

Sternberg's styles of mental self-government

13 mental self-government styles fall into one of five categories: functions, forms, levels, scope, and learning. Within these categories, and judicial functions; monarchic, hierarchic, oligarchic, and anarchic forms; global and local levels; internal and external scopes; and liberal and conservative leanings.

Educational Psychology

A branch of psychology that is concerned with understanding and improving how students acquire a variety of capabilities through formal instruction in classroom settings. Uses theory and research to understand the factors that affect teaching and learning.

Identity (as defined by Erikson)

A feeling of being at home in one's body, a sense of 'knowing where one is going' and an inner assurance of anticipated recognition from those who count.

Mediation (Vygotsky)

A more knowledgeable individual interprets a child's behavior and helps transform it into an internal and symbolic representation that means the same thing to the child as to others.

Disequilibrium (Piaget)

A perceived discrepancy between an existing scheme and something new

Empirical learning (extension of Vygotsky's scientific concepts)

A way in which young children acquire spontaneous concepts. The hallmark of empirical learning is that the most observable characteristics of objects and events are noticed and used as a basis for forming general concepts.

Decentration (Piaget)

Ability to think of more than one quality at a time.

Operation (Piaget)

Action carried out through logical thinking

Two-way bilingual programs

Also known as bilingual immersion, two-way immersion, and dual language Instruction in both languages to all students

Universal Design for Learning

An approach that seeks to eliminate the barriers to learning for all students no matter what challenges they bring with them to school.

Psychological Androgyny

Approach to gender-role development that combines traditional "masculine" and "feminine" behaviors

Evaluations of ability grouping

Average-achieving students benefit most from being placed in homogeneous-ability groups, whereas low-achieving students benefit most from being placed in mixed-ability groups. Students in high-ability classes had more positive attitudes about school and higher educational aspirations than did students in low-ability classrooms.

Behavioral Learning Theory (BLT)

B.F. Skinner Operant conditioning

Skinner's approach to instruction

Be clear about what is to be taught. Teach first things first. Present material in small and logical steps let students learn at their own rate.

"Teaching as an art" involves....

Beliefs, emotions, values, and flexibility.

"Teaching as an artistic scholar"

Combines science and art theories.

Joplin Plan (ability group)

Combines students across grade levels. Basis for successful reading program success for all. Supported by research.

Spontaneous concepts (Vygotsky)

Early childhood: they learn various facts and concepts and rules as a by-product of such other activities as engaging in play and communicating with parents and playmates. This kind of knowledge is unsystematic, unconscious, and directed at the child's everyday concrete experiences.

Spontaneous recovery (BLT)

Extinguished behaviors may reappear spontaneously

4 main components of IDEA

FAPE Pre-placement evaluation IEP LRE

Epigenetic Principle (Erikson)

In baby development, certain organs of the body appear at certain specified times and eventually "combine" to form a child. *What Erikson used to create personality theory.

Information Processing Theory (IPT)

How humans attend to, recognize, transform, store, and retrieve information. Learning results from an interaction between an environmental stimulus (the information that is to be learned) and a learner (the one who processes, or transforms, the information).

RTI (Response to Intervention)

IDEA 2004, introduced an additional method of identifying students with learning problems. Teacher documentation of in-class instructional interventions and how student responded. Goal to assess students early.

Ego-centrism (Piaget)

Inability to take another person's point of view. Pre-operational stage

Three assumptions of IPT

Information is processed in stages, or steps There are limits on how much info can be processed at each stage The human information processing process is interactive

Identify and explain the four parts of character development as an educational goal

Intellectual character- ways of thinking that direct and motivate what a person does when faced with a learning task and that often lead to a meaningful outcome. Curious, open-minded, reflective, strategic, and skeptical. Once these habits of mind are acquired with one or two subject areas, they are likely to generalize to other domains. Moral character- A disposition to do both what is good and what is right. Civic character- The desire and willingness to use one's knowledge and skills to become an engaged and responsible citizen. Performance character- Personal qualities that facilitate the achievement of one's goals. The willingness to persevere, especially in the face of obstacles, starting tasks in a timely manner, being able to recover from failure, being willing to take a stand or express a contrary point of view, having a positive outlook, and attending to detail.

Explain the difference between micro-moral and macro-moral issues

Macro-moral issues: broad social interest: civil rights, free speech, etc. A more person is one who attempts to influence laws and regulations because of a deeply held principle. Micro-moral issues: personal interactions in everyday situation: courtesy, helpfulness, punctuality, etc.

Explain and contrast Piaget's morality of constraint and morality of cooperation.

Morality of constraint: younger children, rules come from authorities above them. Morality of cooperation: rules created by mutual agreement/social contracts.

Regrouping (ability group)

More flexible in assignments and narrower in scope than between-class groups. Students of the same age, ability, and grade but from different classrooms come together for instruction in a specific subject, usually reading or mathematics. Disadvantages: requires a lot of planning and cooperation among teachers, some teachers are uncomfortable working with students they don't see all day long. Research is inconclusive.

Within-class grouping (ability group)

Most popular The division of a single class of students into two or three groups for reading and math instruction. Supported by research.

Intelligence theory (Gardner)

Multiple Intelligence's Theory: Logical: mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily: kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist

Equilibration (Piaget)

Organize their schemes to achieve the best possible adaption to their environment.

Schemes (Piaget)

Organized, generalization patterns of behavior or thought

Identify the role of social interaction and instruction in cognitive development. Compare and contrast Piaget's and Vygotsky's beliefs concerning these roles

Piaget: children are more likely to discuss, analyze, and debate with other children than adults. Needing to understand another's point of view helps create new, more complex mental schemes. Vygotsky: social interaction and imaginative play are large contributors to the process of cognitive development in children, skilled tutor from an adult.

Ideas about the role of social interaction

Piaget: cognitive development makes social interaction possible. Vygotsky: social interaction is the primary cause of cognitive development.

Give two examples of technology applied to Piaget and two examples of technology applied to Vygotsky

Piaget: micro-worlds: virtual learning allows students to engage environments and collaborate with people not otherwise accessible. Vygotsky: within technological environments, children can support each other's learning, and the scaffolding that occurs in such environments supports learners cognitively, effectively, and technologically. Multi-user virtual environments (MUVE) Mentoring

Constructivism (Piaget)

Process of creating knowledge to solve a problem and eliminate a disequilibrium.

Scientific concepts (Vygotsky)

Psychological tools that allow us to manipulate our environment consciously and systematically. Vygotsky believed that the proper development of a child's mind depends on learning how to use these psychological tools, and this will occur only if classroom instruction is properly designed. this means providing students with explicit and clear verbal definitions as a first step. The basic purpose of instruction, is not simply to add one piece of knowledge to another like pennies in a piggy bank but to stimulate and guide cognitive development.

Regular classroom teacher's responsibilities under IDEA

Referral, assessment, preparation of the IEP, implementation, and evaluation of the IEP.

Maintenance rehearsal (IPT)

Rehearsal or repetition

Contingency contracting (BLT)

Reinforcement supplied after the student completes mutually agreed-on assignment.

Stages of interpersonal reasoning described by Selman

Stage 0: Egocentric level (about ages four to six). Children do not recognize that other persons may interpret the same social even or course of action differently from the way they do. They do not reflect on the thoughts of self and others. They can label the overtly expressed feelings of others but do not comprehend cause-and-effect relations of social actions. Stage 1: Social information role taking (about ages six to eight). Children are able in limited ways to differentiate between their own interpretations of social interactions and interpretations of others. But they cannot simultaneously think of their own view and those of others. Stage 2: Self-reflective role taking (about ages eight to ten). Interpersonal relations are interpreted in specific situations whereby each person understands the expectations of the other in that particular context. Children are not yet able to view the two perspectives at once, however. Stage 3: Multiple role taking (about ages ten to twelve). Children become capable of taking a third-person view, which permits them to understand the expectations of themselves and of others in a variety of situations as if they were spectators. Stage 4: Social and conventional system taking (about ages twelve to over fifteen). Each individual involved in a relationship with another understands many of the subtleties of the interactions involved. In addition, a societal perspective begins to develop. That is, actions are judged by how they might influence all individuals, not just those who are immediately concerned.

Traditional intelligence tests

Stanford-Binet Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV

Intelligence theory (Sternberg)

Sternberg's Triarchic View: The Theory of Successful Intelligence Practical, creative, and analytical

Positive reinforcement (BLT)

Strengthen a target behavior by presenting positive reinforcement after the behavior occurs.

Negative Reinforcement (BLT)

Strengthen a target behavior by removing stimulus after the behavior occurs.

Perceptual centration (Piaget)

Strong tendency to focus attention on only one characteristic of an object or aspect of a problem or event at a time. Pre-operational stage

Transition programs (ELL)

Teach students fully or partly in their native language so as not to impede their academic progress, but only until they can function adequately in English. Focus is on rapid shift to English.

The Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)

The difference between what a child can do on his own and what can be accomplished with some assistance.

Sensory register (IPT)

The first memory store Holds information just long enough for us to decide whether we want to attend to it further

Intelligence (Wechsler)

The global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.

Between-class (ability group)

The goal is for each class to be made up of students who are homogeneous in standardized intelligence or achievement test scores. Three levels of classes are usually formed: high, average, and low. Not supported by research

Adaption (Piaget)

The tendency to adjust to the environment 2 sub-processes, assimilation and accommodation

Organization (Piaget)

The tendency to systematize and combine processes into coherent general systems.

Ability groupings

The use of standardized mental ability or achievement tests to create groups of students who were considered very similar to each other in learning ability. Called tracking at the high school level.

Adolescent ego-centrism (Piaget)

This occurs when high school students use their emerging formal operational capabilities to think about themselves and the thinking of others, why they can't discriminate between the way the world should be and the way it actually is.

Conservation problems (Piaget)

Those that test their ability to recognize that certain properties stay the same despite a change in appearance or position.

Applying Piaget's theory Middle and Secondary grades

To become aware of the type of thinking that individual students use, ask them to explain how they arrived at solutions to problems. Teach students how to solve problems more systematically, and provide opportunities for hands-on science experiments.

Identify and explain Erikson's psychosocial stages, with specific attention on those stages that occur from pre-K to the end of high school.

Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to one year) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (two to three years; pre-K) Initiative vs. Guilt (four to five years; pre-K to K) Industry vs.Inferiority (six to eleven years; elementary to middle school) Identity vs. Role Confusion (twelve to eighteen years; middle through high school) Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle ages) Integrity vs. Despair (old age)

Maintenance programs (ELL)

Try to maintain or improve students' native language skills. Instruction in the students' native language continues for a significant time before transition to English.

Suggestions for teaching (IPT)

Unpredictable changes in environment usually command attention. Attention span can be increased with practice. Distribute practice: short study periods at frequent intervals. Concrete analogies can make abstract information meaningful.

Operant conditioning (BLT)

Voluntary response strengthened or weakened by consequences that follow.

Social Development Theory

Vygotsky

Extinction (BLT)

Weaken a target behavior by ignoring it.

Punishment (BLT)

Weaken a target behavior by presenting stimulus after the behavior occurs. Type I-presentation punishment

Time-out (BLT)

Weaken a target behavior by temporarily removing positive reinforcement after the behavior occurs. Works best with disruptive, aggressive children. Type II-removing punishment

Intelligence theory (Wechsler)

Wechsler's Global Capacity View

Example of Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning

Why shouldn't you steal from a store? Stage 1: punishment-obedience orientation. "You might get caught." (The physical consequences of an action determine goodness of badness.) Stage 2: Instrumental relativist orientation. "You shouldn't steal something from a store, and the store owner shouldn't steal things that belong to you." (Obedience to laws should involve an even exchange.) Stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation. "Your parents will be proud of you if you are honest." (The right action is one that will impress others.) Stage 4: Law-and Order orientation. "It's against the law, and if we don't obey laws, our whole society might fall apart." (To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be obeyed.) Stage 5: Social contract orientation. "Under certain circumstances, laws may have to be disregarded -if a person's life depends on breaking a law, for instance." (Rules should involve mutual agreements; the rights of the individual should be protected.) Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation. "You need to weigh all the factors and then try to make the most appropriate decision in a given situation. Sometimes it would be morally wrong not to steal." (Moral decisions should be based on consistent applications of self-chosen ethical principles.)