Public Health Quiz 2

What are the major concerns with hospital infections, their causes, and solutions?

1. **Concerns**: - Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) can lead to prolonged hospital stays, increased morbidity and mortality, and additional healthcare costs. - Antibiotic resistance is a growing concern, making HAIs more difficult to treat. 2. **Causes**: - Poor hand hygiene among healthcare workers. - Contaminated medical equipment and surfaces. - Overuse of antibiotics leading to the development of resistant bacteria. - Compromised immune systems of patients. 3. **Solutions**: - Strict adherence to hand hygiene protocols by healthcare workers. - Effective cleaning and disinfection of medical equipment and hospital surfaces. - Implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programs to promote judicious antibiotic use. - Isolation precautions for patients with known or suspected infections. - Surveillance and monitoring of HAIs to identify and address outbreaks promptly.

What is AOE? What is CSE? What are the differences? What are the outcomes?

AOE (Abstinence-Only Education): Definition: AOE promotes abstinence from sexual activity until marriage as the sole method of preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Content: Focuses on teaching abstinence as the only acceptable behavior, often excluding information about contraception and safe sex practices. Outcomes: Limited evidence supports the effectiveness of AOE in delaying sexual initiation or reducing risky sexual behavior. Critics argue that it may lead to misinformation, increased risk of STIs, and unintended pregnancies among adolescents. CSE (Comprehensive Sexual Education): Definition: CSE provides comprehensive and age-appropriate information about human sexuality, reproductive health, contraception, and healthy relationships. Content: Covers a wide range of topics, including anatomy, puberty, contraception methods, consent, STI prevention, and communication skills. Outcomes: Research suggests that CSE is associated with delayed sexual initiation, increased contraceptive use, and reduced rates of STIs and unintended pregnancies. It empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their sexual health and relationships. Differences: AOE promotes abstinence until marriage, while CSE provides comprehensive information about sexual health and relationships. AOE often excludes information about contraception and safe sex practices, whereas CSE covers a wide range of topics related to sexual health. AOE may lead to misinformation and increased risk of STIs and unintended pregnancies, while CSE is associated with positive outcomes such as delayed sexual initiation and increased contraceptive use.

What influence does funding have on the number of babies born for AOE/CSE?

AOE Funding: Effect: Adequate funding for Abstinence-Only Education (AOE) may limit access to comprehensive information about contraception, potentially leading to reduced contraceptive use. Outcome: This emphasis on abstinence promotion could result in fewer unintended pregnancies among individuals who adhere strictly to abstinence guidelines. CSE Funding: Effect: Comprehensive Sexual Education (CSE) funding typically includes information about contraception and safe sex practices, empowering individuals to make informed decisions about their sexual health. Outcome: Access to contraception and reproductive healthcare services through CSE programs may contribute to a decrease in unintended pregnancies. Program Effectiveness: AOE Programs: Research suggests AOE programs may have mixed effectiveness in reducing unintended pregnancies compared to CSE programs. CSE Programs: Evidence indicates CSE programs are associated with more positive outcomes, including delayed sexual initiation and increased contraceptive use, potentially leading to fewer unintended pregnancies. Policy Environment: Impact: Funding levels and programmatic support for both AOE and CSE programs are influenced by broader policy decisions, political priorities, and cultural attitudes towards sexuality and reproductive health. Outcome: Changes in funding and program availability may impact the effectiveness of AOE and CSE initiatives in addressing unintended pregnancies.

How do we define abstinence?

Abstinence refers to the deliberate decision to refrain from engaging in sexual activity, including vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse, as well as other forms of intimate physical contact, as a means of preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

What are the strategies for effective relationship communication and feedback?

Active Listening and Empathetic Feedback Body language Clarifying questions Reciprocal disclosure eye contact Asking questions You vs I

Who is Andrew Wakefield? What did he do?

Andrew Wakefield is a former British physician who authored a fraudulent research paper published in 1998, suggesting a link between the MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) vaccine and autism. Wakefield's study has since been discredited and retracted due to ethical violations, data manipulation, and conflicts of interest. His actions sparked a widespread anti-vaccine movement, leading to a decline in vaccination rates and subsequent outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases. Wakefield's fraudulent research has had significant negative impacts on public health, contributing to vaccine hesitancy and misinformation.

What is antibiotic resistance, and why is it important?

Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria adapt and become resistant to the effects of antibiotics, rendering these medications ineffective in treating bacterial infections. It is important because it threatens the effectiveness of antibiotics, leading to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Without effective antibiotics, common infections become harder to treat, and medical procedures such as surgery and chemotherapy become riskier. Combatting antibiotic resistance requires coordinated efforts including appropriate antibiotic use, infection prevention and control measures, and the development of new antibiotics.

What percentage of disease is attributed to environmental exposure? (examples)

Approximately 24% of the global burden of disease and mortality is attributed to environmental exposures, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Examples of diseases linked to environmental factors include respiratory diseases (e.g., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) due to air pollution exposure, gastrointestinal infections from contaminated water sources, and lead poisoning from exposure to lead-based paint or contaminated soil. Additionally, environmental factors contribute to non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurological disorders. Addressing environmental exposures through policies and interventions can significantly reduce the burden of disease and improve public health outcomes.

Which BE features are bad for health? Which BE features are good for health?

BE Features Bad for Health: Car-Centric Design: Sprawling layouts prioritizing cars over pedestrians and cyclists can discourage physical activity and contribute to sedentary lifestyles. Lack of Green Spaces: Limited access to parks and recreational areas reduces opportunities for outdoor activities, relaxation, and mental well-being. Poor Air Quality: Proximity to pollution sources such as industrial facilities and highways leads to respiratory and cardiovascular health issues. Food Deserts: Communities with limited access to fresh and healthy food options increase the risk of diet-related health problems such as obesity and malnutrition. Limited Access to Healthcare: Lack of nearby healthcare facilities and services impedes access to medical care and preventive health services. BE Features Good for Health: Walkable Neighborhoods: Pedestrian-friendly areas with sidewalks and pathways encourage physical activity and active transportation. Access to Green Spaces: Parks, gardens, and natural areas provide opportunities for exercise, stress reduction, and social interaction. Bike-Friendly Infrastructure: Cycling lanes, bike-sharing programs, and bike storage facilities promote active transportation and cardiovascular health. Accessible Public Transportation: Efficient and accessible transit systems reduce reliance on cars, promote mobility, and improve air quality. Mixed-Use Development: Diverse neighborhoods with a mix of residential, commercial, and recreational amenities support active lifestyles and social interactions.

What are blue zones, and what can we learn from them?

Blue zones are regions of the world where people live significantly longer and healthier lives compared to the global average. These areas have been studied to identify lifestyle and environmental factors contributing to longevity and well-being. Lessons from blue zones include the importance of plant-based diets, regular physical activity, strong social connections, stress reduction practices, and a sense of purpose in life.

What are CDs, and why are they important for public health?

CDs, or Communicable Diseases, are illnesses caused by infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi that can be spread from person to person, animal to person, or through environmental exposures. They are important for public health because they can lead to outbreaks, epidemics, or pandemics, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. Effective prevention, control, and management of CDs are essential to protect the health of populations, prevent the spread of disease, and reduce the burden on healthcare systems.

What resources are available to help someone (campus, local, national) and how do you access them?

Campus Resources: Title IX Office: Contact your university's Title IX office for information about campus policies, reporting options, and support services for survivors of sexual violence. Counseling Center: Access counseling and mental health support services provided by your university's counseling center, which may offer individual therapy, support groups, and crisis intervention. Student Health Services: Seek medical care and support for physical injuries, STI testing, and emergency contraception at your university's student health services center. Student Organizations: Connect with student organizations and advocacy groups on campus that provide support, resources, and community for survivors of sexual violence. Local Resources: Rape Crisis Center: Contact your local rape crisis center for confidential support, counseling, advocacy, and resources for survivors of sexual assault. Domestic Violence Shelter: Access emergency shelter, safety planning, and support services for survivors of sexual violence at your local domestic violence shelter. Law Enforcement: Report sexual violence to local law enforcement authorities to initiate an investigation and explore legal options for seeking justice. Legal Aid: Seek assistance from local legal aid organizations or victim advocacy groups for legal advice, assistance with protective orders, and navigating the criminal justice system. National Resources: National Sexual Assault Hotline: Call the National Sexual Assault Hotline (1-800-656-HOPE) to speak with a trained advocate for confidential support, information, and referrals to local resources. RAINN (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network): Visit the RAINN website (rainn.org) for online chat support, resources, and information about sexual violence prevention and recovery. National Domestic Violence Hotline: Call the Nati

What are the major CDs and their: Mortality/Morbidity Causes (etiology) Prevention

Certainly, here's a concise response for a quizlet: Major CDs and their characteristics: 1. **Influenza**: - Mortality/Morbidity: Significant annual mortality and morbidity worldwide, particularly affecting the elderly and those with underlying health conditions. - Causes (Etiology): Influenza viruses, including types A, B, and C. - Prevention: Annual vaccination, practicing good respiratory hygiene, and antiviral medications for high-risk individuals. 2. **HIV/AIDS**: - Mortality/Morbidity: High mortality and morbidity rates, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and other regions with limited healthcare access. - Causes (Etiology): Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which attacks the immune system, leading to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). - Prevention: Condom use, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), antiretroviral therapy (ART), and education on safe sex practices. 3. **Malaria**: - Mortality/Morbidity: High mortality rates, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, affecting children under five and pregnant women the most. - Causes (Etiology): Plasmodium parasites transmitted through the bite of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. - Prevention: Vector control measures such as bed nets and indoor residual spraying, antimalarial medications, and environmental management to reduce mosquito breeding sites. 4. **Tuberculosis (TB)**: - Mortality/Morbidity: One of the top 10 causes of death worldwide, with high morbidity rates, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. - Causes (Etiology): Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria spread through the air via respiratory droplets. - Prevention: TB vaccination (BCG), early detection through screening and diagnosis, treatment with antibiotics, and infection control measures.

What are the 7 steps to ensure perfect condom use?

Check expiration and bubble Open with fingers, not teeth Figure out inside/outside Leave a half inch at the tip Unroll completely Remove carefully Dispose appropriately

How is climate change linked to human health?

Climate change is linked to human health in several ways: 1. **Extreme Weather Events**: Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, heatwaves, floods, and wildfires, leading to injuries, displacement, and mental health impacts. 2. **Air Pollution**: Climate change exacerbates air pollution by promoting the formation of ground-level ozone and increasing particulate matter concentrations, contributing to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. 3. **Vector-Borne Diseases**: Climate change alters the distribution and behavior of disease-carrying vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, expanding the geographical range of diseases like malaria, dengue fever, Lyme disease, and Zika virus. 4. **Waterborne Diseases**: Climate change affects water quality, availability, and distribution, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera, cryptosporidiosis, and diarrheal diseases due to contaminated water sources. 5. **Food Security**: Climate change impacts agricultural productivity, food availability, and nutritional quality, leading to food insecurity, malnutrition, and related health problems. 6. **Mental Health**: Climate change-related stressors such as natural disasters, food shortages, and displacement can contribute to mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 7. **Heat-related Illnesses**: Climate change leads to more frequent and prolonged heatwaves, increasing the risk of heat-related illnesses such as heatstroke, dehydration, and cardiovascular complications.

What are upstream efforts to address gun violence?

Community Investment: Investing in education, economic opportunities, affordable housing, and community resources to address underlying social determinants of violence and promote community well-being. Violence Intervention Programs: Implementing evidence-based violence intervention programs, such as hospital-based violence intervention programs (HVIPs), that provide comprehensive support and services to individuals at risk of involvement in gun violence. Mental Health Services: Expanding access to mental health services, including counseling, therapy, and substance abuse treatment, to address underlying mental health issues and reduce the risk of gun violence. Youth Engagement Programs: Supporting youth engagement and mentoring programs that provide positive alternatives to involvement in gangs, violence, and criminal activity. Firearm Safety Education: Promoting firearm safety education and training programs to educate individuals on safe handling, storage, and use of firearms, reducing the risk of accidental shootings and unauthorized access to firearms.

Gun deaths: US vs other developed countries

Comparison of Gun Deaths: United States: The United States has significantly higher rates of gun deaths compared to other developed countries. Homicide Rates: The US experiences higher rates of firearm-related homicides, driven by factors such as gun violence, gang activity, and interpersonal conflicts. Suicide Rates: The US also has elevated rates of firearm-related suicides, as firearms are a commonly used and highly lethal method of suicide. Mass Shootings: The US has a disproportionate number of mass shootings compared to other developed countries, often attributed to factors such as easy access to firearms and gaps in gun regulation. Gun Ownership: The US has one of the highest rates of gun ownership per capita among developed countries, contributing to the prevalence of gun-related deaths.

What are the conditions that are needed to form friendship and what does the BE have to do with them?

Conditions for Forming Friendships: 1. **Proximity**: Physical closeness facilitates frequent interactions and the development of relationships. 2. **Shared Interests**: Common interests and activities provide opportunities for bonding and connection. 3. **Reciprocity**: Mutual respect, support, and reciprocity are essential for maintaining healthy friendships. 4. **Communication**: Effective communication and active listening foster understanding and intimacy in friendships. 5. **Trust and Safety**: Trustworthy and safe environments enable individuals to open up and form meaningful connections. The Role of the Built Environment (BE): 1. **Proximity**: BE influences the spatial arrangement of homes, workplaces, and public spaces, affecting opportunities for interaction and relationship formation. 2. **Shared Spaces**: Well-designed public spaces and amenities provide venues for shared activities and social gatherings, facilitating the development of friendships. 3. **Accessibility**: Accessible transportation infrastructure and pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods promote mobility and connectivity, enhancing opportunities for social interactions and friendships. 4. **Safety and Comfort**: Safe and comfortable environments encourage people to engage in social activities and interactions, contributing to the formation and maintenance of friendships. 5. **Community Design**: BE shapes the overall social and cultural fabric of neighborhoods, influencing social norms, values, and opportunities for connection and belonging. Understanding the relationship between friendship formation and the built environment helps planners and policymakers create communities that foster social connections, well-being, and a sense of belonging among residents.

What considerations should go into healthy communities? How do we assess risks?

Considerations for healthy communities include: Access to Healthcare: Availability of healthcare facilities, services, and providers within the community. Environmental Quality: Clean air, water, and sanitation infrastructure to minimize exposure to environmental hazards. Healthy Food Access: Access to affordable and nutritious food options, including grocery stores and farmers' markets. Safe Housing: Access to safe and affordable housing that meets health and safety standards. Transportation: Access to reliable and affordable transportation options for commuting and accessing healthcare, education, and other essential services. Education and Employment Opportunities: Access to quality education and job opportunities that support economic stability and well-being. Social Support Networks: Strong social connections and community resources that promote mental and emotional health. Epidemiological Studies: Analyzing disease trends, risk factors, and health outcomes within a population to identify health risks and priorities. Environmental Monitoring: Monitoring air and water quality, exposure to pollutants, and environmental hazards to assess potential health risks. Community Health Assessments: Collecting data through surveys, interviews, and focus groups to understand community health needs, priorities, and concerns. Health Impact Assessments (HIAs): Evaluating the potential health effects of proposed policies, projects, or developments to inform decision-making and mitigate risks. Risk Mapping: Using geographic information systems (GIS) to map and visualize health risks and vulnerabilities within a community. Stakeholder Engagement: Engaging community members, stakeholders, and experts in the risk assessment process to ensure diverse perspectives and input.

How do we determine cost-effectiveness in public health?

Cost-effectiveness in public health is determined by evaluating whether the benefits of an intervention outweigh its costs. This is typically assessed through methods such as cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) or cost-benefit analysis (CBA). These analyses compare the costs of implementing an intervention with the health outcomes it produces, such as life-years gained or quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Interventions are considered cost-effective if they produce significant health benefits relative to their costs, often measured as cost per unit of health outcome gained, and if these benefits are greater than those of alternative interventions or doing nothing.

What is consent? What are the different kinds of consent?

Definition: Consent refers to the voluntary, mutual agreement between individuals to engage in a specific activity, proceeding only when all parties involved freely and enthusiastically give their explicit permission. Types of Consent: Verbal Consent: Explicitly expressing agreement or willingness to participate through verbal communication, such as saying "yes" or "I want to." Non-Verbal Consent: Communicating consent through non-verbal cues, gestures, or actions that indicate willingness and enthusiasm, such as nodding, smiling, or initiating physical contact. Implied Consent: Consent inferred from the circumstances or context of the situation, typically in established relationships or recurring activities where consent has been previously established and understood.

What are the Dickey and Tihart amendments?

Dickey Amendment: Enacted in 1996: The Dickey Amendment is a provision included in the federal government's omnibus spending bill in 1996. Effect: It restricts the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from using federal funds to advocate or promote gun control. Impact: The Dickey Amendment has been interpreted as a barrier to funding research on gun violence as a public health issue. Tiahrt Amendments: Named After Todd Tiahrt: The Tiahrt Amendments are named after former Representative Todd Tiahrt of Kansas. Purpose: They restrict access to firearm trace data maintained by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). Effect: These amendments limit public access to information about gun trafficking and the sources of crime guns, hindering efforts to address illegal firearm trafficking and gun violence.

What are the 5Ds of the Bystander intervention?

Direct: Intervene directly in the situation by addressing the behavior or situation directly, such as by confronting the perpetrator or providing assistance to the victim. Distract: Distract the perpetrator or divert attention away from the potential harm by creating a distraction or engaging the individuals involved in conversation or activity. Delegate: Delegate responsibility for intervening to someone else who may be better equipped to handle the situation, such as contacting authorities or seeking assistance from others nearby. Delay: Intervene after the immediate danger has passed by checking in with the victim, offering support, and ensuring their safety and well-being. Document: Document the incident by gathering information, such as taking notes or recording details, to provide evidence and support for the victim in seeking justice or assistance.

What are potential strategies to end rape culture?

Education and Awareness: Implement comprehensive education programs to raise awareness about rape culture, consent, and healthy relationships from an early age. Media Literacy: Promote critical media literacy skills to analyze and challenge harmful depictions of sexual violence and gender stereotypes in media and popular culture. Bystander Intervention: Train individuals to recognize and intervene in situations that may lead to sexual violence, empowering bystanders to speak up and take action to prevent harm. Legal Reform: Advocate for legal reforms to strengthen laws and policies addressing sexual violence, including improving access to justice for survivors and holding perpetrators accountable. Support Services: Increase access to trauma-informed support services, such as counseling, advocacy, and healthcare, for survivors of sexual violence to facilitate healing and recovery. Community Engagement: Foster community engagement and mobilization to challenge attitudes and behaviors that perpetuate rape culture, promoting social norms that prioritize consent, respect, and accountability. Intersectional Approach: Recognize and address the intersecting factors of oppression, such as racism, sexism, ableism, and homophobia, that contribute to and reinforce rape culture. Institutional Change: Advocate for institutional policies and practices that promote a culture of consent and accountability, including implementing robust prevention and response protocols in workplaces, schools, and other settings.

Difference between endemic, epidemic, and pandemic.

Endemic: Refers to the consistent presence of a disease or infection within a certain geographic area or population group at a baseline level. Epidemic: Occurs when the number of cases of a disease or infection rises above what is normally expected within a specific population or geographic area during a defined period of time. Pandemic: An epidemic that has spread over several countries or continents, affecting a large number of people. It often involves the global spread of a new disease or a novel strain of a known pathogen.

What is environmental justice? Case Study: Redlining

Environmental justice refers to the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, ethnicity, income, or social class, in the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental policies and regulations. It aims to address environmental inequalities and disparities, ensuring that all individuals and communities have equal access to a healthy environment and protection from environmental hazards. Case Study: Redlining Redlining refers to the discriminatory practice of denying or limiting financial services, such as mortgages or insurance, to certain neighborhoods based on their racial or ethnic composition. In the United States, redlining was prevalent in the mid-20th century and systematically excluded predominantly Black and minority communities from accessing loans and investments, leading to disinvestment and neglect in these neighborhoods. The impact of redlining on environmental justice is significant. Many redlined neighborhoods were located in areas with higher levels of pollution, industrial facilities, and environmental hazards, exacerbating health disparities and environmental injustices. These communities often face higher rates of asthma, lead poisoning, and other health problems due to exposure to environmental pollutants and lack of access to healthcare resources. Addressing the legacy of redlining and promoting environmental justice requires policies and initiatives that prioritize equity, community engagement, and targeted investments in underserved communities to remediate environmental hazards and improve overall health outcomes.

Food Safety: What are food safety risks, and where are they in the food-producing process?

Food safety risks refer to the potential hazards or contaminants present in food that can cause illness or harm to consumers. These risks can arise at various stages of the food-producing process, including: Production: Risks may originate from agricultural practices, such as the use of pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers, which can leave residues on crops. Contamination from animal feces or pathogens in soil can also pose risks during production. Processing: Risks can occur during food processing, including cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods, inadequate cleaning and sanitation of equipment and surfaces, and improper storage conditions leading to microbial growth. Distribution and Transportation: Risks may arise during the distribution and transportation of food products, such as temperature abuse, which can promote the growth of bacteria, or mishandling that can lead to physical contamination. Retail and Food Service: Risks can occur at retail establishments and food service establishments, including improper storage, handling, and preparation of food, as well as poor personal hygiene practices among food handlers. Consumption: Risks may arise during food consumption, including undercooking of food, consumption of raw or unpasteurized products, and inadequate food handling practices at home.

Case Study: Mass Shootings (frequency, causes, weapons used)

Frequency: Mass shootings, defined as incidents involving multiple victims of gun violence, have unfortunately become increasingly common in various countries worldwide. Causes: Several factors contribute to mass shootings, including: Access to Firearms: Ease of access to firearms, including assault weapons and high-capacity magazines, increases the likelihood of mass shootings. Mental Health Issues: Individuals with untreated mental health conditions may perpetrate acts of violence. Social Alienation: Feelings of isolation, rejection, or marginalization can contribute to individuals resorting to violence as a means of expressing anger or seeking attention. Ideological Extremism: Extremist ideologies or beliefs may motivate individuals or groups to commit acts of violence against perceived enemies or targets. Weapons Used: Mass shootings often involve the use of firearms, including: Assault Weapons: Semi-automatic rifles designed for rapid and efficient firing, capable of inflicting mass casualties. High-Capacity Magazines: Magazines capable of holding large numbers of bullets, allowing shooters to fire numerous rounds without reloading. Handguns: Pistols and revolvers are commonly used in mass shootings due to their portability and accessibility.

What kinds of community designs are good/bad for health? Case Study: Netherlands

Good community designs for health include: Walkable Neighborhoods: Pedestrian-friendly areas with sidewalks and pathways encourage physical activity. Access to Green Spaces: Parks and recreational areas promote relaxation and mental well-being. Mixed-Use Development: Diverse neighborhoods with residential, commercial, and recreational amenities reduce dependence on cars. Bike-Friendly Infrastructure: Cycling lanes and bike-sharing programs encourage active transportation. Public Transportation: Accessible and efficient transit systems reduce traffic congestion and promote environmental sustainability. Access to Healthy Food: Equitable access to fresh food options supports healthy eating and food security. Bad community designs for health may include: Car-Centric Design: Sprawling layouts prioritize cars over pedestrian and cyclist safety. Lack of Green Spaces: Limited parks and recreational facilities reduce opportunities for outdoor activities. Food Deserts: Communities with limited access to fresh food options increase the risk of diet-related health problems. Poor Air Quality: Proximity to pollution sources leads to respiratory and cardiovascular health issues. Case Study: Netherlands The Netherlands emphasizes bike-friendly infrastructure, walkable neighborhoods, and green spaces. These designs promote physical activity, social cohesion, and overall well-being among residents.

What are the major NCDs?

Heart Disease Alzheimers Cancer Unintentional injuries Chronic respiratory diseases

What are the characteristics of men who are most likely to commit rape?

Hostile Masculinity: Men who adhere to traditional gender norms emphasizing dominance, aggression, and control over women may be more likely to commit rape. History of Violence: Individuals with a history of violent behavior, including physical or sexual violence, may have an increased propensity to commit rape. Lack of Empathy: Perpetrators of rape may exhibit a lack of empathy or concern for the well-being and autonomy of others, viewing their victims as objects to be dominated or controlled. Entitlement: Some men who commit rape may possess a sense of entitlement to sex or believe they are entitled to control women's bodies and sexuality. Substance Abuse: Alcohol or drug use can impair judgment and decision-making, increasing the risk of committing sexual violence. Misogynistic Attitudes: Individuals who hold misogynistic beliefs, such as viewing women as inferior or deserving of mistreatment, may be more likely to perpetrate rape. Peer Group Influence: Socialization within peer groups that condone or minimize sexual violence and objectify women may contribute to the likelihood of committing rape. History of Childhood Trauma: Men who have experienced childhood trauma, such as physical or sexual abuse, may be at higher risk of perpetrating rape in adulthood.

What are the typical and perfect use rates for male and insertive/female condoms?

Insertive Condoms Typical Rate: 80% Success Perfect Rate: 95% Success Male Condoms Typical Rate: 85% Success Perfect Rate: 98% Success

What are the advantages and disadvantages of condoms? Male condoms and Insertive Condoms

Male condoms Advantages •Easy to find •No prescription needed •Cheap (free!) •Easy to use •No side effects •Prevents pregnancy and some STIs Disadvantages •Can break down: need to keep cool and dry •Require partner motivation •Failure rates •Allergies (there are other options) May interfere with sexual intercourse/pleasure Insertive Condoms Advantages STI & pregnancy prevention Non-reliance on male partners Non-latex Pre-Insertion - up to 8 hours before sex Enhanced pleasure - for both partners Does not require an erection Disadvantages Higher cost - more expensive and harder to find (not today) Learning curve for use - tricky the first few times Can make sex noisy Less widely available

Waste: How are we managing MSW? What are superfund sites?

Managing Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management involves various strategies, including: 1. Source Reduction: Encouraging waste reduction through practices such as recycling, composting, and minimizing packaging. 2. Recycling and Composting: Separating recyclable materials and organic waste for processing and reuse. 3. Waste-to-Energy: Using waste as a fuel source to generate energy through incineration or other thermal technologies. 4. Landfilling: Disposing of non-recyclable and non-compostable waste in sanitary landfills designed to minimize environmental impacts. 5. Hazardous Waste Management: Proper handling, treatment, and disposal of hazardous materials to prevent environmental contamination. Superfund Sites: Superfund sites are contaminated areas identified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as posing a risk to human health or the environment due to hazardous waste. These sites often require extensive cleanup efforts, which may include removal, treatment, or containment of contaminants to protect public health and the environment. Superfund sites can result from various activities, such as industrial operations, chemical spills, and improper waste disposal practices. The Superfund program was established under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) to address these contaminated sites and hold responsible parties accountable for cleanup costs.

What are modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for NCDs?

Modifiable risk factors for NCDs include behaviors and lifestyle choices such as smoking, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, and excessive alcohol consumption. Non-modifiable risk factors include age, genetics, and family history.

What is the relationship between NCDs and SDH.

NCDs (Non-Communicable Diseases) are closely intertwined with SDH (Social Determinants of Health). SDH, including factors like socioeconomic status and access to healthcare, significantly influence NCD prevalence by shaping individuals' health behaviors and risk factors. Addressing social determinants is crucial in crafting effective public health policies to reduce NCD burden and promote health equity among populations.

What are the trends of NCDs and CDs over time. Explanations for the changes.

NCDs have been on the rise globally due to factors like aging populations, urbanization, and unhealthy lifestyles. CDs have seen declines in some regions due to improved healthcare but remain a challenge, especially in low-resource areas where access to healthcare is limited.

What is the scope of rape in the US (stats, risk factors, reporting)?

NOT FINISIHED Risk Factors: Gender: Women are disproportionately affected by rape, with higher rates of victimization compared to men. Age: Younger individuals, particularly adolescents and young adults, are at increased risk of experiencing rape. Previous Trauma: Individuals with a history of childhood abuse or previous sexual assault may be at heightened risk of rape victimization. Socioeconomic Factors: Socioeconomic disparities, such as poverty, lack of access to resources, and unstable housing, can increase vulnerability to sexual violence. Reporting: Barriers to Reporting: Many survivors face significant barriers to reporting rape, including fear of retaliation, concerns about privacy and confidentiality, and distrust of law enforcement and the legal system. Support Services: Access to support services, such as crisis hotlines, counseling, and advocacy, can facilitate reporting and provide survivors with emotional support and practical assistance. Legal and Institutional Response: Improving the legal and institutional response to sexual violence, including ensuring survivor-centered approaches, enhancing training for law enforcement and healthcare providers, and implementing trauma-informed practices, can increase reporting rates and improve outcomes for survivors.

What are NCDs, and why are they important for public health?

Non-Communicable Diseases (aka Chronic physical disease) are diseases which their process is not transmissible, does not resolve spontaneously, and is rarely cured completely

What factors are important for the spread of disease?

Pathogen Characteristics: Infectiousness, virulence, and mode of transmission. Host Susceptibility: Immune status, genetics, age, and underlying health conditions. Environment: Conditions that affect pathogen survival and transmission, such as temperature, humidity, and population density. Human Behavior: Hygiene practices, social interactions, and compliance with preventive measures like vaccination and wearing masks.

What do we use (dimensions) to assess the impact of BE on health?

Physical Activity: Assessing the availability of walkable neighborhoods, access to parks and recreational facilities, and transportation infrastructure (e.g., sidewalks, bike lanes) that promote physical activity. Safety: Evaluating the presence of crime rates, traffic accidents, lighting, and other factors that affect personal safety within neighborhoods and public spaces. Air and Water Quality: Monitoring air pollution levels, proximity to industrial facilities, traffic congestion, and access to clean water sources to assess environmental health risks. Access to Healthy Food: Examining the availability of grocery stores, farmers' markets, and food distribution programs to assess food access and food security within communities. Social Connections: Assessing social cohesion, social capital, and access to community resources and services that facilitate social interactions and support networks. Mental Health: Examining access to green spaces, natural light, and aesthetically pleasing environments that promote relaxation, stress reduction, and mental well-being. Health Disparities: Analyzing inequities in the distribution of resources and services within the built environment that contribute to health disparities among different population groups. Climate Change Mitigation: Evaluating the sustainability and resilience of urban planning and design practices, including energy-efficient buildings, green infrastructure, and climate adaptation measures.

What are the four goals of CSE?

Promote Healthy Relationships: CSE aims to foster healthy relationships based on mutual respect, communication, and consent, empowering individuals to make informed decisions about their sexual and emotional well-being. Provide Accurate Information: CSE strives to provide accurate and age-appropriate information about human sexuality, reproductive anatomy and physiology, contraception methods, STI prevention, and sexual orientation and identity. Promote Safer Sexual Practices: CSE educates individuals about safer sexual practices, including the correct use of condoms and other barrier methods, to reduce the risk of unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Empower Decision-Making: CSE empowers individuals to make responsible and informed decisions about their sexual health and relationships, equipping them with the knowledge, skills, and confidence to navigate sexual situations safely and respectfully.

What are rape kits/rape exams?

Rape kits, also known as sexual assault evidence collection kits or sexual assault forensic evidence (SAFE) kits, are standardized sets of materials and instructions used by medical professionals to gather physical evidence from individuals who have experienced sexual assault or rape. Components: Documentation Forms: Includes forms for documenting the survivor's medical history, details of the assault, and any physical injuries or symptoms. Evidence Collection Materials: Contains materials for collecting biological samples, such as swabs for collecting DNA evidence from the survivor's body, clothing, and other relevant surfaces. Photographic Equipment: Used to document visible injuries or trauma on the survivor's body through photographs, ensuring accurate documentation of evidence. Storage Containers: Provides secure containers for storing collected evidence to preserve its integrity and prevent contamination. Instructions and Guidelines: Includes detailed instructions and guidelines for medical professionals on how to conduct the examination and properly collect and handle evidence. Purpose: Evidence Collection: Rape kits are used to collect physical evidence, including DNA evidence, that can be used in criminal investigations and prosecutions of sexual assault cases. Documentation: Helps document the survivor's injuries and physical condition at the time of the examination, providing important information for medical treatment and legal proceedings. Support for Survivors: Offers survivors an opportunity to receive medical care, support, and information about their options, including reporting the assault to law enforcement and accessing support services.

Gun deaths: the relationship between ownership and death (state vs. state, suicide rates, etc..)

Relationship Between Ownership and Death: State-by-State Comparison: States with higher rates of gun ownership tend to have higher rates of gun-related deaths, including homicides, suicides, and accidental shootings. Suicide Rates: Access to firearms is strongly associated with higher rates of suicide. Firearms are a highly lethal means of suicide, resulting in more fatal outcomes compared to other methods. Homicide Rates: Increased gun ownership correlates with higher rates of firearm-related homicides. Availability of firearms can escalate conflicts and increase the likelihood of lethal violence. Accidental Shootings: States with higher rates of gun ownership experience more accidental shootings, particularly involving children accessing unsecured firearms.

What is the relationship between gun violence and mental illness, according to research?

Research Findings: Limited Direct Correlation: Studies suggest that the majority of individuals with mental illness are not violent, and only a small fraction of gun violence incidents involve individuals with diagnosed mental disorders. Complex Interaction: Gun violence is influenced by multiple factors, including access to firearms, social determinants of violence, substance abuse, and history of violence, rather than solely being attributable to mental illness. Risk Factors: While mental illness alone may not directly predict gun violence, certain risk factors such as untreated severe mental illness, substance abuse, and history of violence may increase the risk of violent behavior. Need for Comprehensive Approach: Addressing gun violence requires a comprehensive public health approach that considers factors such as firearm regulation, access to mental health services, social support systems, and violence prevention strategies.

What behavioral strategies can be used to prevent the transmission of CDs based on the route of transmission?

Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette: Covering mouth and nose with a tissue or elbow when coughing or sneezing to reduce the spread of respiratory droplets containing pathogens. Hand Hygiene: Washing hands frequently with soap and water for at least 20 seconds or using alcohol-based hand sanitizers to reduce the transmission of pathogens through contaminated hands. Physical Distancing: Maintaining a safe distance (e.g., 6 feet) from others, especially in crowded or indoor settings, to reduce close contact and prevent the spread of respiratory droplets. Wearing Masks: Using masks, particularly in situations where physical distancing is challenging, to prevent the inhalation or exhalation of respiratory droplets containing pathogens. Safe Food Handling Practices: Ensuring proper cooking and storage of food to prevent foodborne illnesses, such as washing hands before handling food, cooking food to the appropriate temperature, and avoiding cross-contamination. Safe Sex Practices: Using barrier methods (e.g., condoms) during sexual activity to prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Vector Control Measures: Taking steps to reduce exposure to disease-carrying vectors (e.g., mosquitoes, ticks) through methods such as insect repellents, bed nets, and environmental management.

What is R(o), and why does it matter?

R₀, or the basic reproduction number, is a mathematical term used to estimate the average number of secondary infections produced by a single infectious individual in a susceptible population. It matters because it helps quantify the contagiousness or transmissibility of an infectious disease. A higher R₀ indicates that the disease spreads more easily within a population, potentially leading to larger outbreaks or epidemics. Understanding R₀ is crucial for public health officials in implementing control measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

What is the BE? What are its direct and indirect effects?

The Built Environment (BE) refers to the human-made surroundings where people live, work, and interact. This includes buildings, infrastructure, transportation systems, parks, and public spaces. 1. **Direct Effects**: - Physical Activity: The design of the built environment can influence opportunities for physical activity, such as walking, biking, or using public transportation, which impacts overall health and fitness levels. - Safety: Well-designed neighborhoods with adequate lighting, sidewalks, and traffic calming measures can enhance safety and reduce the risk of accidents and injuries. - Air and Water Quality: The built environment influences air and water quality through factors such as proximity to industrial facilities, traffic congestion, and green space availability. - Access to Healthy Food: Access to grocery stores, farmers' markets, and community gardens within the built environment can affect dietary choices and food security. 2. **Indirect Effects**: - Social Connections: The design of neighborhoods and public spaces can facilitate social interactions and community cohesion, which contribute to mental health and well-being. - Mental Health: Access to green spaces, natural light, and aesthetically pleasing surroundings within the built environment can promote relaxation, stress reduction, and mental well-being. - Health Disparities: Inequities in the built environment, such as limited access to healthcare facilities or healthy food options in low-income neighborhoods, can exacerbate health disparities among different population groups. - Climate Change Mitigation: Sustainable urban planning and design practices within the built environment, such as energy-efficient buildings and green infrastructure, can help mitigate climate change impacts and reduce environmental health risks

What is the relationship between the BE and social activity/opportunities?

The Built Environment (BE) significantly influences social activity and opportunities within communities: Community Design: BE shapes neighborhoods, public spaces, and amenities, impacting opportunities for social interaction and engagement. Accessibility: Access to transportation infrastructure like sidewalks and public transit enhances mobility, enabling access to social and recreational opportunities. Mixed-Use Development: Mixed-use neighborhoods offer diverse amenities, fostering interactions among residents from different backgrounds within shared spaces. Public Spaces: Availability and quality of public spaces such as parks and community centers provide venues for gatherings and activities that promote social cohesion. Supportive Infrastructure: Access to essential services like schools and healthcare facilities enhances social opportunities and community well-being. Safety and Security: Well-designed neighborhoods with safe pedestrian infrastructure promote feelings of safety, encouraging social activities and interactions.

What is the chain of infection?

The chain of infection is a model used to understand and prevent the transmission of communicable diseases. It consists of six links: 1. **Infectious Agent**: The pathogen causing the disease, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. 2. **Reservoir**: The habitat where the infectious agent normally lives, grows, and multiplies. This can include humans, animals, or the environment. 3. **Portal of Exit**: The route through which the infectious agent leaves the reservoir. This can be through bodily fluids, respiratory droplets, or skin lesions. 4. **Mode of Transmission**: The means by which the infectious agent is transmitted from one host to another. This can occur through direct contact, indirect contact, airborne transmission, or vector-borne transmission. 5. **Portal of Entry**: The route through which the infectious agent enters the susceptible host. This can be through mucous membranes, broken skin, or the respiratory tract. 6. **Susceptible Host**: An individual who is at risk of developing the disease if exposed to the infectious agent. Factors influencing susceptibility include immunocompromised status, age, and underlying health conditions.

What are the different types of immunity, and how are they achieved? Which are targets for public health?

The different types of immunity include: 1. **Innate Immunity**: Present at birth, provides immediate defense against pathogens, and includes physical barriers like skin, mucous membranes, and chemical barriers like stomach acid. 2. **Adaptive Immunity**: Developed over time in response to specific pathogens. Divided into humoral immunity (involving antibodies produced by B cells) and cell-mediated immunity (involving T cells). 3. **Active Immunity**: Occurs when the body produces its own immune response to a pathogen through exposure to the disease or vaccination. 4. **Passive Immunity**: Temporary immunity transferred from one individual to another. It can be natural (from mother to fetus through the placenta or breast milk) or artificial (through the injection of antibodies).

What are the four criteria to determine whether screening is appropriate?

The four criteria to determine whether screening is appropriate include: 1. **Burden of Disease**: The condition should have a significant impact on public health in terms of morbidity, mortality, or both. 2. **Screening Test Validity**: The screening test should be accurate in identifying individuals with the condition (high sensitivity) and excluding those without it (high specificity). 3. **Availability of Treatment**: Effective treatment options should be available for individuals identified through screening. 4. **Cost-effectiveness**: The benefits of screening should outweigh the costs, including financial costs, potential harm from unnecessary procedures, and psychological impact.

What is the goal of AOE?

The goal of Abstinence-Only Education (AOE) is to promote and encourage abstinence from sexual activity until marriage as the sole method of preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

What are the incubation period, asymptomatic period, symptomatic period, and infectious period, and why do they matter for CDs?

The incubation period is the time between exposure to a pathogen and the onset of symptoms. The asymptomatic period is when an infected individual does not exhibit symptoms of the disease. The symptomatic period is when symptoms of the illness are present. The infectious period is the duration during which an infected individual can transmit the disease to others. These periods are crucial for understanding disease transmission dynamics, guiding public health interventions, and implementing control measures to prevent the spread of communicable diseases.

What is the recommended daily allowance of sugar and why does it matter?

The recommended daily allowance of sugar varies by organization but generally falls around 25 grams (6 teaspoons) for women and 36 grams (9 teaspoons) for men. Exceeding these limits regularly can contribute to obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and other health issues.

Air Pollution: What are the 6 criteria pollutants? What is the AQI?

The six criteria pollutants are: 1. Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) 2. Ground-level Ozone (O3) 3. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 4. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 5. Carbon Monoxide (CO) 6. Lead (Pb) The AQI, or Air Quality Index, is a standardized numerical scale used to communicate the quality of the air in a specific location. It considers concentrations of the criteria pollutants and provides a simple and consistent way to understand the potential health risks associated with air pollution. The AQI typically ranges from 0 to 500, with lower values indicating better air quality and higher values indicating worse air quality. The AQI is divided into different categories (e.g., Good, Moderate, Unhealthy) to convey the level of health concern associated with each range of air quality.

What do we mean by typical and perfect use rates?

Typical Use Rate: Definition: The effectiveness of a contraceptive method when used in real-world conditions, taking into account human error, inconsistent use, and other factors that may affect its reliability. Example: The typical use rate of condoms accounts for instances where condoms may not be used correctly or consistently, such as failure to use a condom every time or incorrect application. Perfect Use Rate: Definition: The effectiveness of a contraceptive method when used correctly and consistently according to instructions, without any errors or misuse. Example: The perfect use rate of condoms reflects the effectiveness of condoms when used correctly every time, with proper application and consistent use during sexual intercourse.

What are common ground popular gun control policies that have majority support from both major parties?

Universal Background Checks: Requires background checks for all gun sales, including private sales and gun shows, to prevent firearms from falling into the hands of individuals prohibited from owning them due to criminal history or mental health issues. Closing the "Charleston Loophole": Extending the waiting period for background checks from three to ten days to ensure thorough vetting of potential purchasers, closing the loophole that allowed the Charleston church shooter to obtain a gun due to delays in background check processing. Extreme Risk Protection Orders (ERPOs): Allows family members or law enforcement to petition a court to temporarily remove firearms from individuals deemed to pose a risk of harming themselves or others, providing a mechanism for intervention in cases of potential gun violence. Safe Storage Laws: Mandates secure storage of firearms to prevent unauthorized access, particularly by children and individuals at risk of harming themselves, reducing the likelihood of accidental shootings and firearm thefts. Restrictions on High-Capacity Magazines: Bans or limits the sale and possession of high-capacity magazines capable of holding large numbers of rounds, reducing the potential for mass shootings by limiting the number of bullets available to shooters.

What types of gun control policies are supported by researchers with evidence that they decrease gun violence?

Universal Background Checks: Supported by research showing that comprehensive background check laws are associated with lower rates of firearm-related homicides and suicides. Extreme Risk Protection Orders (ERPOs): Backed by evidence indicating that ERPO laws are effective in reducing firearm suicides and may also prevent mass shootings and other forms of gun violence. Child Access Prevention (CAP) Laws: Supported by studies demonstrating that CAP laws, which mandate safe storage of firearms, reduce the incidence of accidental shootings and firearm-related injuries among children. Domestic Violence Restraining Order (DVRO) Laws: Supported by research indicating that laws restricting firearm access for individuals subject to domestic violence restraining orders are associated with lower rates of intimate partner firearm homicides. Restrictions on High-Capacity Magazines: Backed by evidence suggesting that limitations on high-capacity magazines are effective in reducing the lethality of mass shootings and limiting the number of casualties.

How does vaccination work? Why is vaccination important? What are exemptions?

Vaccination works by introducing a weakened or inactive form of a pathogen (antigen) into the body, stimulating the immune system to produce an immune response, including the production of antibodies. This immune response provides protection against future exposure to the pathogen, preventing infection or reducing the severity of the disease. Vaccination is important because it helps prevent the spread of infectious diseases, reduces morbidity and mortality rates, and contributes to public health by achieving herd immunity. Herd immunity occurs when a significant portion of the population is immune to a disease, making it difficult for the pathogen to spread and protecting those who cannot be vaccinated due to medical reasons. Exemptions from vaccination refer to instances where individuals are granted legal or medical exceptions from vaccination requirements. These exemptions may include medical exemptions (e.g., allergies to vaccine components, immunocompromised individuals) and non-medical exemptions (e.g., religious or philosophical beliefs). However, exemptions can potentially undermine herd immunity and increase the risk of disease outbreaks, highlighting the importance of vaccination coverage for community protection.

Water Quality: Sources/How do contaminates get into our water? What is the CWA, and what does it do? Case Study: Fracking

Water contaminants can enter our water sources through various sources, including: 1. **Industrial Discharges**: Effluents from factories, manufacturing plants, and industrial activities can contain pollutants such as heavy metals, chemicals, and toxins. 2. **Agricultural Runoff**: Pesticides, fertilizers, and animal waste from agricultural operations can leach into water bodies through runoff, contaminating surface and groundwater. 3. **Urban Runoff**: Stormwater runoff from urban areas can carry pollutants like oil, grease, heavy metals, and debris into waterways. 4. **Wastewater Treatment Plants**: Inadequate treatment of sewage and wastewater can release pathogens, nutrients, and other contaminants into water bodies. 5. **Mining Activities**: Mining operations can release pollutants such as heavy metals, sulfides, and other chemicals into water sources. 6. **Natural Sources**: Naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic, radon, and fluoride, can enter water sources from geological formations. The Clean Water Act (CWA) is a federal law enacted in 1972 in the United States to regulate water pollution and maintain the integrity of the nation's waters. It aims to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of surface waters by regulating the discharge of pollutants into navigable waters and establishing water quality standards. The CWA authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set wastewater standards for industry, establish water quality criteria for contaminants, and enforce regulations to prevent water pollution.

What is rape culture? How is it reinforced?

refers to a societal environment that normalizes, trivializes, or condones sexual violence and rape, perpetuating harmful attitudes and behaviors that contribute to victim-blaming, minimization of sexual assault, and the objectification of individuals. Characteristics: Victim Blaming: Blaming victims of sexual violence for their own assault based on their clothing, behavior, or past actions, instead of holding perpetrators accountable. Normalization of Sexual Violence: Depicting sexual violence as common, inevitable, or acceptable through media, entertainment, and cultural norms. Objectification: Treating individuals as objects of sexual desire rather than autonomous human beings with agency and rights. Lack of Consent Awareness: Minimizing the importance of consent and promoting myths about sexual consent, such as "no means yes" or "she/he was asking for it." Reinforcement: Media Portrayal: Media often perpetuates rape culture through the normalization of sexual violence, objectification of individuals, and sensationalized reporting of sexual assault cases. Language and Jokes: Use of language that trivializes sexual violence or makes light of rape in jokes or casual conversation reinforces rape culture. Social Norms: Cultural norms that prioritize masculinity, dominance, and power over empathy, respect, and consent contribute to the reinforcement of rape culture. Legal and Institutional Responses: Inadequate responses to sexual violence cases by law enforcement, judicial systems, and institutions can perpetuate rape culture by failing to hold perpetrators accountable and providing insufficient support for survivors.

sexual battery

refers to the non-consensual touching of another person's intimate body parts, such as the genitals, breasts, or buttocks, for the purpose of sexual arousal, gratification, or abuse. It is considered a form of sexual assault and is often accompanied by coercion, force, or intimidation.

sexual harassment

refers to unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other verbal, non-verbal, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates a hostile or intimidating work or educational environment.