Public Speaking Midterm 1
Classical Origins: Additional contributions of sophists Protagoras
"man is the measure of all things" if truth is unknowable and meaning is a but a construction of our own symbols. Humanism- humanity at moral center of the universe and focus is on improving people's lives. Thus truth changes with the times Idea that one should anticipate "opponent's" best arguments and be prepared with better claims because based on what "we know" what is the most probably truth"
Classical Origins: Rhetorical theory
*importance of harnessing power (via communication) to persuade for purposes of constructive (rather than harmful) use to better society Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Development of modern society with idea of order and justice... people must speak and represent themselves in a court. Speech became an art and prompted the expansion of the spirit (leading to art and creativity of golden age)
evaluating sources for use
1. is supporting material clear? 2. verifiable? 3. Source competent? 4. source objective? 5.Material relavent?
Classical Origins: Additional contributions of sophists Thrasymachus
An ethical response to the idea of truth outside any human agency; if humans cannot enjoy divine truth, they should emphasize personal power Pursuit of power; impression of speaker>Content and importance of "moving an audience" Good speaker v/s great speaker Know the audience and cater style
Helping listeners learn through motivation, attention, retention
Build intimacy with audience, be conversational without losing presence and be checked-in 5 to learning 1. building on the known 2.Use humor (perceive and express comical) and wit (express relationship humorously between things that seem disparate); make info more attractive 3.Use sensory aids: communicate message in more than one way because of varied learning styles 4. Organize info to optimize learning; make easiest to understand (create setting, info placement; primacy versus recency, distinguish between main and supporting points) 5. Reward listeners; reward is a psychological or physical reinforcement to increase an audiences' response to to info.... "what's in it for me question" and effective communicator establishes in intro and throughout informative speech
Mechanical Model of Speaking: speaker, message, channel, listener, feedback, interference, setting
Components to public speaking 1. speaker - person who originates the message 2. message - the facial expressions seen, the words heard, the visual aids illustrated at the ideas or meanings conveyed simultaneously between source and receiver (verbal and nonverbal) 3. Channel - the means for distributing the message 4. Listener - receiver; the individual or group that the message is being imparted on 5. Feedback - verbal or nonverbal responses by the audience
Three techniques for using supporting materials (comparison, contrast, analogy)
Definition: determination of meanings Comparison: comparing found support to other info to strengthen point Contrast: how is supporting info for one side and against another two-sided argument; a source advocating on position will present an argument from the opposite view point and then go on to refute that argument
Types of informative speeches - description, demonstration, explanation - and reasons for doing one over another, as well as examples
Describing: evokes the meaning of a person, a place, an object or an experience by telling about its size, weight, color, texture, smell, or your feelings about it; relies on ability to use precise, accurate, specific and concrete language to make your audience aware... useful when accurately trying to "show" something you cannot Demonstrating: showing the audience an object, a person or place... how something works... or why something occurs; can accompany describing... helpful when ideas, concepts or processes are too complex to be understood through words alone (like a visual aid) Explanation: reveals how something works, why something occurred or how something should be evaluated (ex: explaining a historical event); takes lesser known worlds and concepts into understandable for audience; many things are explanations but notice that offering an opinion can come close to persuasion
Speaking patterns - articulation, enunciation, pronunciation
Enunciation: the pronunciation and articulation of words; distinction between words for clarity Pronunciation: the production of the sounds of a word Articulation: the physiological process of creating the sounds (use dictionary and can improve by prolonging syllables)
Classical Origins: Additional contributions of sophists Isocrates
Established idea that a person's words are a contribution to a more ideal society those who spoke well would be natural leaders.... creating a civic vision built school that is prototype for liberal arts four year education
Additional: Importance of nonverbal cues and verbal cues being consistent with one another
Everything used in a speech needs to all work with motive and purpose of communicating a message.... this means that appropriate non-verbal cues must be used to help reinforce the message appropriately.
Classical Origins: Three forms of public speaking and significance
Forensic speaking: informational speaking... in ancient Greece public speaking was in courts and as speakers attempted to convince juries the used from of reasoning "Enthymene" or applied deductive logic (Starts with major premise followed by minor premise relating to major that can be disputed. If minor stood than major accepted and conclusion reached) Deliberative Speaking: Speaking that seeks to mold the future. A creative form that encourages control of our lives with inductive reasoning (make plans based on what has worked). Use and introduce "the example" as technique. Ceremonial Speaking: "Epideictic Speaking" or all about speaker's oral skills according to Aristotle but Protagoras argued this speaking is the kind that spans time and seeks to describe the ongoing community. Technique introduces "the image" (paint a moral picture). It has a transcendent importance bringing people together... establishing the master premises by which people live, evaluate the past and map future.
Classical Origins: Corax's four components of forensic speeches
Introduction: speakers conciliate listeners to establish identification with them narration: speakers recount stories of disputed events clearly and vividly to convey impression of truth argument: Speaker interprets meanings of events (good and bad with proof) conclusion: summarize case and paint consequences *notion hat speeches should have a strategic pattern of development when trying to bring audience to a conclusion because certainty is hard to achieve. Objective truth is always hard to find but what is taken as truth is a product of own symbolizing.
Methods of Delivery - manuscript, memory, impromptu, extemporaneous - and the reasons/benefits for doing one over another, as well as examples of each
Memorized mode: one in which a presenter has committed a presentation to memory and used when performance> communicated with audience... i.e. formal situations (ex; ceremonial presentation); Advantages: maximum use of delivery skill Disadvantages: no adaptation during speech, recovery is difficult, can sound memorized) Manuscript mode: when a presenter writes out a the complete presentation in advance and then uses that manuscript to deliver the speech but without memorizing it and most useful when presenter precise, avoid error and defend every word (ex: class lecture); Advantages: prevent slip of tongue, poor wording and distortion. Disadvantages: delivery often suffers... eye contact, audience adaptation, fewer gestures, vocal variety, pacing) Extemporaneous mode: a presenter delivers a presentation from a keyword outline or from brief notes. -- sounds controversial, looks spontaneous and appears effortless (Ex; classroom speeches); Advantages: most versatile mode-adaptation, allows high quality communication, invite body movement, audience adaptation, sounds conversational-not scripted, outlines are quicker reference. Disadvantages: presenter has to be careful with every word, choice) Impromptu mode: giving a presentation w/o advanced preparation (ex; when a teacher calls on you in class); Advantages: reveals skills as communicator Disadvantages: discourages audience analysis, research and detailed prep.)
Importance of practice delivery, as well as managing Q&A forum
Q&A sessions: specialized instance of the impromptu presentation approach where the topics of your comments are driven by questions from the audience PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT and engrains delivery methods into your presentation
Functions of Informative Speaking
Relate presenter to topic and topic to audience to aid in shaping perceptions, sharing information/ideas, setting an agenda, clarifying options, serving a pre-persuasive function Informative presentation:one that increases an audience's knowledge about a subject or that helps the audience learn more about an issue or idea Goals: Create information hunger (by arousing audience curiosity, posing a puzzling question, explaining confusing issue), Help audience understand information (generalizations>specific facts and simple>abstract ideas and early remarks of what presenation will do and their participation helps), Help audience remember information (what specifically should they remember- main v/s subordinate ideas), help audience apply information (info applied immediately is remembered longer, act under supervision probably try again, behavioral response)
Classical Origins: Additional contributions of sophists Gorgias
Skeptic of "truth" and an emphasis on verbal artistry. Truth is divine and infinite and outside place and time but if truth doesn't exist in this way then it is impossible for humans to know it for we exist within space and time, so if we cannot know truth than we cannon possibly communicate about it--- words can create a community of of values ideas and purposes. Words with style are powerful but can deceive us. Idea that certain words help a community see life in black and white thus listeners can see the world as heros and villains. We all want to be heros so we are attracted to the words that put us on the "good side"
Conducting Research - credible sources (online/offline) - ensuring legitimacy
Sources of information; personal experience or interview as source or evidence, library resources (databases and periodicals), web search (search engine or virtual library) Ensuring legitimacy: use verified sources
Classical Origins: Three proofs - and how/why they're used
Used to make claims credible by appealing to proofs of audience LOGOS: substantive proof (audience believes source of logical proof with credibility and trust information received) ETHOS: personal proof (how audience perceives speaker and thus interprets their credibility and message ("hears them" and personal connection) PATHOS: Emotional proof (grows out the feelings of the listeners... pulling at the heart strings to pull towards speakers message)
Classical Origins: Aristotle's multi-tiered definition of rhetoric
Wrote "Rhetoric" in mid 4th century... less concerned with existence or existence of truth or the public communications work in constructing meaning of life but more "what can we learn by observing life around us" Starts with the nature of the mind... "Let rhetoric be defined as the ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion" .... this implies To empathize, personalize and humanize points speakers must understand: nature of persuasion, own cultures, general needs and susceptibilities that persuasion can satisfy, audience and their motives To diffuse opposing evidence speakers must know: amount of listening, all info in case that can be used against them, strengths and weaknesses as communicated (vulnerable) Speakers must understand strengths and limitations of communication media of their time lead to study rhetoric: aim at developing an educated sensitivity to what is possible and not possible in specific communication situations Deliberative Speaking: When people use the "example" of things in the past they indulge moral judgments... thought this kind of speaking didn't get enough recognition Ceremonial: Thinks all about orator failed to see significance
importance of communication orientation: concentrate on your message and audience, not yourself
act confidently, know your subject, care about your subject, see your audience as friends, see yourself as successful and be confident
Audience Demographics
age, gender, education level, group affiliation
Elements to body language
appearance: the way a person looks (be appropriate for presentation) movement: what you do with your entire body during a presentation (has purpose) gestures: motions of hands or body for emphasis or expression (reinforce message) facial expressions: how face reveals emotion (communicate message visually) eye contact: the way a presenter observes the audience while speaking (hold attention)
Audience Dynamics
attitudes, beliefs, values, motivation
Criteria for Internet Evaluation
authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency (recency), coverage (breadth/depth)
exploring your topic area: topic analysis and selection
choosing a topic: start broad and narrow it down; find links between what the audience knows, what interests you and is uniquely your own
communication anxiety - external and internal factors
communication apprehension: an individuals level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with an individual or group internal factors: worry, thinking "off-task thoughts" (thinking about blushing for example) external factors: communication apprehension causes students to have less audience adaptation, less concern for tools available, audience perceives communication apprehension
audience analysis
discovering as much as possible about an audience for purpose of improving communication .... if you don't properly do so risk projection: acting on belief that others believe as you do when actually they may not First rely on (and analyze) Conventional wisdom; the popular opinion of the time about issues styles, topics, trends, and social mores; the customary set of understandings of what is true or right
Encoding and decoding messages
encoding means the creation of messages and decoding means the interpretation of those messages
Role, types and uses of facts/statistics, examples and narratives within a speech
examples: specific instances used to illustrate your point (factual or hypothetical); specific illustrations to convince audience narratives: an extended story showing how another person experienced something; "learn information" and connect with ideas emotionally (humanize topics) survey: a study in which a limited number of questions are answered by a sample of a population to discover opinions on issues; like example or narrative, but summary of hundreds of peoples experiences Numbers/Stats-- numeric literacy: ability to understand, interpret and explain quantitative information; describe objects concepts and ideas and show relationships and differences
role of purpose statement and thesis statement
general purpose: to inform, persuade, or highlight occasion specific: identify purpose more precisely as an outcome or behavioral objective 4 characteristics of a good purpose statement: declarative rather than imperative, complete not phrases, descriptive and specific not figurative, focus on one idea not combo gives presentation a strong and consistent foundation
Developing your voice through pitch (habitual vs optimum), rate, variety, etc
habitual pitch: informal pitch optimal pitch: pitch reached for maximum effectiveness Must transform from habitual to optimal rate, pause (and vocalized pause), duration, rhythm (and alliteration), actual pitch, volume (emphasis and projection), speaking patterns, fluency
Additional: Scanning an audience
how to pickup cues from audience while speaking... interpret them and respond appropriately
discovering your topic: brainstorming
individual, categorical, conducting personal inventory, current topic identification, internet search
Components of Ethos (Credibility)
integrity, competence, goodwill, dynamism source credibility: the audience perception of your effectiveness as a communicator common ground: pointing out things that you share with the audience when speaking on important topics trustworthiness: the degree to which the audience perceives the presenter as honest and honorable competence: thorough understanding of the topic dynamism: the energy you bring when delivering your message
Ways to hold the audience's attention
intensity, repetition, novelty, activity, contrast, relevance
Cicero's five great arts
invention, arrangement, style, memory, delivery 1. invention: the art of finding information - look from all sides, ask the right questions and new ways to talk about them 2. arrangement: how to order the message 3. style: coming up with the actual words that will be in the message 4. memory: process of committing a message to memory 5. delivery: process of presenting the message to an individual or audience
Audience Adaptation - before/during/after a speech - importance of doing so
making the message appropriate for the particular audience by using analysis and applying its result to message creation before: be a better listener for more info informative: translate ideas persuasive: adjusting message to audience knowledge of topic and positions on topic debate: ethos, pathos, logos during: if they are drifting away bring them back with cues the more you know, the better you can communicate
Reasons for avoiding stereotypes, ethnocentrism, sexism and racism
offending people turns audience away from message
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
physiological: oxygen, water... safety: physical/mental security love/belonging: approval and acceptance esteem: recognition and self-respect self-actualization: self fulfillment
importance of cognitive restructuring (and self-fulfilling prophecy)
sending positive and negative messages about yourself will often dictate your performance
Role, types and uses of testimony (expert, lay, prestige, reluctant) and uses of testimony
testimonial evidence: written or oral statements of others' experiences used by the speaker to substantiate or clarify a point expert testimony: a statement made someone who has special knowledge or expertise lay: statement made by an ordinary person prestige: statement made by a "celebrity" or someone known by the audience reluctant: when someone that wouldn't typically agree to a point reluctantly admits Must question: is a "quotation worthwile" from someone over another, what is quote based off off, will audience find "quote more believable because from outside source?"
Adjusting to Situation
time, size, physical setting, occasion, context, disposition toward the topic/speaker/occasion
refining your topic
topic must be appropriate for you (you care), the audience (worthwhile to listen to), and the occasion
transactional vs. transformational communication
transactional: speaker using insight and experience to share information and ideas transformational: trying to transform the audience so that they may achieve something (understanding etc.); important to establish common ground
